语言学Ex 1

语⾔学/doc/c610147533.htmlnguage: it is, namely, a human speech; the ability to communicate by thismeans; a system of vocal sounds and combinations of such sounds to which meaning is attributed, used for the expression or communication of thoughts and feelings; the written representation of such a system.2.Linguistics: it is usually defined as the science of language or, alternatively, asthe scientific study of language./doc/c610147533.htmlpetence: unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in alanguage./doc/c610147533.htmlngue: the language system shared by a “speech community.”5.Phonetics:the study of how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, andperceived. It can be divided into three main areas of study ---- articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics andperceptual/auditory phonetics.6.Consonant: a major category of sound segments, produced by a closure in thevocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction.7.Vowel: a major category of sound segments, produced without obstruction ofthe vocal tract so that air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or the nose.8.Phoneme: a unit of explicit sound contrast. If two sounds in a language make acontrast between two different words, they are said to be different phonemes.9.broad transcription:10.Syllable:an important unit in the study of suprasegmentals. A syllable musthave a nucleus or peak, which is often the task of a vowel or possibly that of a syllabic consonant, and often involves an optional set of consonants before and/or after the nucleus.11.Root: refers to the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzedwithout loss of identity. That is to say, it is that part of the word that is left when all the affixes are removed. Apparently, all words contain a root morpheme. And roots can be further classified into free root morpheme and bound root morpheme. 12.Stress:the degree of force used in producing a syllable. When a syllable isproduced with more force and is therefore more “prominent”, it is a “stressed”syllable in contrast to a less prominent, “unstressed” syllable.13.Blending: is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words areblended by joining together the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by only joining the initial parts of the two words./doc/c610147533.htmlpound: refers to the words that consist of more than one lexicalmorpheme or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form, such as classroom, mailbox, fingerprint, sunburn. In terms of the word class of compounds, there are Noun compounds (e.g. daybreak), Verb compounds (e.g. brainwash), Adjective compounds(e.g. dutyfree) and Preposition compounds(e.g. throughout). Meanwhile compounds can be further divided into endocentriccompound and exocentric compound in terms of its structural organization. The head of a nominal or adjectival endocentric compound is derived from a Verb, and it is usually the case that the first member is a participant of the process verb. Consider the following two examples: self-control and virus-sensitive. The exocentric adjectives come from V+N and V+A.15.Semantics: the subject concerning the study of meaning is called semantics.16.Meaning: it is communicated through the use of language.17.Synonymy:it is the technical name for one of the sense relation betweenlinguistic units, namely the sameness relation.18.Constituent: it is a term used in structural sentence analysis for every linguisticunit, which is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Constituents can be joined together with other constituents to form larger units.19.IC analysis:to dismantle a grammatical construction in this way is called ICanalysis.20.Construal: it is the ability to conceive and portray the same situation inalternate ways through specificity, different mental scanning, directionality, vantage point, figure-ground segregation etc. 21.Morphology: it is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studiesthe minimal units if meaning-morphemes and word-formation processed.22.Morpheme: it is the smallest unit of language in regard to the relationshipbetween sounding and meaning, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning. And morphemes cannot be further analyzed.Answer the following questions as comprehensive as possible. Give examples if necessary.1.What are the design features of language and list the frequently discussed four features.A: 1). The features that define our human languages can be called design features.2).four features: arbitrariness; duality; creativity; and displacement.2. List 3 cavities of the vocal tract involved in speech production and give at least 9 terms of the speech organs according to the left diagram.A: 1) the pharynx, nose, and mouth.2) upper teeth ridge, lower teeth ridge, mandible, nasal cavity, hardpalate, alveolar ridge, tip blade front, tongue, soft palate, back,root, uvula, pharynx, epiglottis, larynx, vocal folds, trachea, lungs.3. What are the syntactic relations?A: syntactic relations can be analysed into three kinds, namely, positional relations, relations of substitutability, and relations of co-occurrence.4. What are the properties of subjects in English?A: In English, the subject of a sentence is often said to the doer of the action, while the object is the person or thing acted upon by the doer.1)Word order: Subject ordinarily precedes the verb in a statement such as“Sally collects stamps”.2)Pronoun forms: the first and third person pronouns in English appear ina special form when the pronoun is a subject. This form is not usedwhen the pronoun occurs in other positions: He loves me. / I love him.3)Agreement with verb: in the simple present tense, an –s is added to theverb when a third person subject in singular. However, the number and person of the object or any other element in the sentence have no effect at all on the form of the verb: She angers him. /they anger him./ Sheangers them.4)Content question: if the subject is replaced by a question word, the restof the sentence remains unchanged. But when any other element of the sentence is replaced by a question word, an auxiliary verb must appear before the subject. If the basic sentence does not contain an auxiliaryverb, we must insert did or do(es) immediately after the question word.5)Tag question: It is used to seek confirmation of a statement. It alwayscontains a pronoun which refers back to the subject, and never to anyother element in the sentence.5. Give a brief introduction of G. Leech’s 7 types of meaning in his Semantics in 1974.A:6. What are three subtypes of antonymy and exemplify(例证) them.A: there are three main subtypes: gradable antonymy (e.g. so-so or average), complementary antonymy (boy and girl), and converse antonymy (buy and sell).7. List the main branches of linguistics.A: it is generally agreed that linguistics should include at least five parameters, namely, phonological, morphological, syntactic, semantic and pragmatic.8. What is a root and analyze the morphemic structure of word “Internationalism”?A: Root refers to the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without loss of identity. That is to say, it is that part of the word that is left when all the affixes are removed. In the world internationalism, after the removal of inter-, -al and –ism, the part left is the root nation. Apparently, all words contain a root morpheme. And roots can be further classified into freeroot morpheme and bound root morpheme.9. What is IC analysis? What are immediate constituents and ultimate constituents?A:1) IC analysis: to dismantle a grammatical construction in this way is called IC analysis.2) Immediate constituent analysis or IC analysis is a method of sentence analysis.10. What is the difference between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes?A: First, inflectional affixes are generally less productive than derivational affixes. Second, inflectional affixes do not change the word class of the word they attach to, whereas derivational affixes might, as the relationship between small and smallness. Third, that whether one should add inflectional affixes or not depends very often on other factors within the pharse or sentence at stake.VI. Theories application1. Draw the tree diagram of the following sentences.(1) The boy was crying.(2) Shut the door.A: 1) ((The) (boy))((was)(crying)).2) (Shut)((the)(door)).2. Disambiguate the following ambiguous sentences.(1) The chicken is too hot to eat.(2) Flying planes can be dangerous.A: There are two meanings to ex.1):a) The chicken meat is too hot, so it cannot be eaten at the moment; b) The chicken feels so hot that it cannot start eating and needs to calm down first.The ambiguity of ex. 2) comes from “flying planes”. It can be deciphered as “the planes that is flying” or “to fly planes”.3. Analyze the following constructions and decide what kind of construction they belong to.(1) These two oldest stone bridges(2) Kick the ballA:4. Combine the following pairs of sentences. Make the second sentence of each pair into a relative clause, and then embed it into the first.(1) The comet appears every twenty years. Dr. Okada discovered the comet.(2) Everyone respected the quarterback. The quarterback refused to give up.A: 1) The comet that Dr. Okada discovered appears every twenty years.2) Everyone respected the quarterback who refused to give up.5. Analyze the following words and decide how they are formed.(1) Coke, colon(2) brunch, smogA:2) smoke + fog------- smog breakfast +lunch--------brunch6. Read the following paragraph and list all the function words you can find. Give the percentage of function words in the paragraph.She was a small woman, old and wrinkled. When she started washing for us, she was already past seventy. Most Jewish women of her age were sickly, weak, broken in body. But this washwoman, small and thin as she was, possessed a strength that came from generations of peasant ancestors. Mother would count out to her a bag of laundry that had accumulated over several weeks. She would lift the heavy bag, load it on her narrow shoulders, and carry it the long way home.A: The function words in this passage include: she, was, a , and, when, she, for, she, was, past, of, her, were, in, but, this, and, as, she, a, that, from, of, would, to, her, a, of, that, had, over, she, would, the, it, on, her, and, it, and the. Altogether there are 85 words in this passage, and 40 of them are function words. Then the percentage of function words in this passage is40/85=47%.7. Make a list of nouns from the following words that –s can be attached to.epiphany foot hat house kitchen ox phenomenon region sheep tomatoA: hat house kitchen region8. Analyze the syllabic structure of the word “cracked”A:。

nguistics)，旨在把语言和语言使用与其意识形态意义联系起来的一种分析，使读者认识到语言和社会实践的辩证关系。

批评语篇分析本质上是对语篇特别是大众语篇和官方话语进行的一种社会分析，以提高读者对语言的敏感程度，使他们认识到语言和现代社会生活之间微妙的关系以及语言运用和不平等的社会权力关系之间错综复杂的联系，促使读者实现批评阅读(critical reading)。

作为维也纳学派（Vienna School）的代表Wodak指出critical就是指不把任何语言理所当然化，就深入分析文本蕴含的复杂性，去除简化论，教条主义，二歧论乖影响，在研究中不断自省，使权力关系结构和透明化。

三、理论框架正如黄国文指出的，话语分析虽然没有公认的分析步骤，但语篇分析者都会运用一定的分析方法，遵循一定的步骤进行研究。

同样的，批评话语分析的研究者们也往往会采用不同的分析方法，在不同的理论框架下进行分析。

CDA最初都是对西方主流语言学和早期社会语言学的批判，将文本分析和社会理论相结合，但因为语言学基础不同，分析的理论框架也不尽相同，国外批评语篇分析的主要流派包括以Fairclough为代表的兰卡斯特学派(Lancaster School)的社会变革论,以Wodak为代表的维也纳学派(Vienna School)的语篇历史法，以Kress和Van Leeuwen为代表的社会符号学，以Van Dijk 为代表的社会认知法等等。

国内代表有辛斌，陈中竺，丁建新，廖益清，田海龙，张迈曾，徐立新等，多是引进理论，并积极结合中国社会现状进行分析。

虽然各学派的语言学甚而不同，但共同的目标都是实现话语分析的批评性，以其中最有影响的Fairclough为代表的社会变革论。

Fairclough(1995)提出三维分析框架（three-dimentional framework），将包括系统功能语法在内的多种语言学、符号学理论与社会学理论结合起来。

语言学题库----选择题II. Multiple Choice1.Which of the following statements about language is NOT True?A. Language is a system.B. Language is symbolic.C. Animals also have languages.D. Language is arbitrary.2. A word is a symbol that _____________.A.is used by the same speech communityB.represents something else in the worldC.is both simple and complex in natureD.shows different ideas in different sounds3.Of the following sound combinations, only_______ is permissible according to thesequential rules in English.A. kiblB.bkilC. ilkbD.ilbk4.American English began with _________.A. Old EnglishB.Victorian EnglishC. Middle EnglishD.Elizabethan English5.The sentence that has a NP and a VP can be shown in a ___________ formula “S→NP + VP”.A. hierarchicalB. linearC. tree diagramD.vertical6. “Big” and “small” are a pair of ____________ opposites.A. complementaryB. gradableC. completeD.converse7. Predication analysis is a way to analyze _____________ meaning.A.phonemeB.wordC.phraseD.sentence8.Which of the following is NOT a factor that may influence second language acquisition ?A. Age.B.wordC.Motivation.D.Personality.9.Which pair of words is NOT a minimal pair?A.cat / batB. put / butC. jig / pigD.sit / bit10. According toSearle, those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action are called ___________ .A. commisivesB. directivesC. expressivesD. declaratives11.If two sounds are in complementary distribution, they are ________ of the same phoneme.A.symbolsB.allophonesC.phonesD.signs12. Which branch of study can NOT be included in the scope of Linguistics?A.Syntax.B.Pragmatics.C.Phonetics.D. Anthropology.13. Euphemism is a term of ________ origin.A. LatinB. GreekC. ArabicD. Spainish14. The distinction of language and parole is made by ___________ .A.HallB.SapirC. ChomskyD.Saussure15._____________ are bound morphemes because they cannot be used as separate words.A.RootsB. StemsC.Affixespounds16._____________ is the study of the relationship between symbols and their interpreter.A.SyntaxB.SemanticsC.PragmaticsD.Sociolinguistics17._____________ is the defining properties of units like nouns (number, Gender, case, etc) and verbs (tense, aspect, voice, etc).A.Parts of speechB.Word classesC.Grammatical categoriesD.Functions of word18. The noun “tear” and the verb “tear” are ______________ .A.homophonesB.homographsplete homonymsD.allophones19. In English, the only glottal is ________ .A. [l]B. [h]C. [k]D. [f]20. The term ________ may be defined as a way of referring to the approach which studies language change over various periods of time and at various historical stages.A.synchronic linguisticsparative linguisticsC.diachronic linguisticsD. historical comparative linguistics21. The use of sexist language reflects a _________ attitude.A. socialB.linguisticC.traditionalD.all of the above22. ___________ was once used as lingua franca of diplomacy.A. LatinB.ArabicC.FrenchD.Spanish23. Some words in the basic word stock are said to be stable because they _________ .A.are complex wordsB.are technical wordsC.refer to the commonest things in lifeD.denote the most important concepts24. An affix can be added to certain type of _______ to form a new word.A. infixB.affixC.stemD. word25. In a sentence, which of the following is usually NOT stressed?A. Nouns.B.Verbs.C.Personal pronouns.D.Adjectives.26. The maxim of __________ requires that a participant‟s contribution be relevant to theconversation.A.quantityB.qualityC.mannerD. relation27. The relationship between “meat” and “meet” is _________ .A.synonymyB.antonymyC. polysemyD.homonymy28. Usually, suprasegmental features include _________ , length and pitch.A. phonemeB.speech soundC.syllablesD.stress29.What are the dual structures of language?A.Sounds and letters.B.Sounds and meaning.C.Letters and meaning.D.Sounds and symbols.30.Where are the vocal cords?A.In the mouth.B.In the nasal cavity.C.Above the tongue.D.Inside the larynx.31.Which of the following statements about language is NOT true?nguage is a special social phenomenon.nguage is some arbitrary symbols.C.The language system is unique to human beings.nguage is yet to be understood.32. ________ studies the sound systems in a certain language.A.PhoneticsB.PhonologyC.SemanticsD.Syntax33. ________ is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content.A.RootB.AllomorphC.MorphemeD.Word34. A speaker‟s actual utterance in Chomsky‟s terminology is called __________.A.deep structureB.linguistic universalsC.universal grammarD.surface structure35.A word with several meanings is called __________ word.A.a polysemousB.a synonymousC.an abnormalD.a multiple36. The study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication is ________.A. general linguisticsB.phonologyC.semanticsD.morphology37. Leech divided meanings into __________ types.A. 4B.5C.6D.738.Besides French words, English also absorbed as many as 2,500 words of _______ in the Middle English period.A. Dutch originB.Danish origintin originD.Greek origin39. Distinctive features are used to describe _________ .A. phonesB.phonologyC.allophonesD.phonemes40. The English word “untouchable” is composed of _________ morphemes.A. fourB.threeC.twoD.five41. The process by which words are formed by putting the initial letters of several words together is called _________ .A. compoundingB.clippingC.acronymyD.blending42. Chinese language belongs to the _________ family.A.Indo-EuroeanB.Sino-TibetanC.Afro-AsiaticD.Caucasian43. The founder of general linguistics is ____________ .A.ChomskyB.HallidayC.BloomfieldD.Saussure44. Modern linguistics focuses on the present-day language, and it will be possible to describe language from a _________ perspective.A.sociologicalB.synchronicC.diachronicD.psychological45. The four major modes of semantic change are _________ .A.extension, narrowing, elevation and degradationB.extension, generalization, elevation and degradationC.extension, narrowing, specialization and degradationD.extension, elevation, amelioration and degradation46.Diphthongs are characterized by ________ .A. glidingB.voicingC.aspirationD. stress47. The basic unit in the study of morphology is ________ .A.the internal strutureB.morphemeC.the rules by which words are formedD.word48. The relation between “food” and “bread” is called _________ .A.synonymyB.polysemyC.homonymyD.hyponymy49. The consonant sound [v] is described as _________ .A.voiceless labiodental fricativeB.voiced dental fricativeC.voiced labiodental fricativeD.voiced affricate50. Which of the following is NOT a compound word ?A.Pencilbox.B.Unreasonable.C.Deadline.D.Upstairs.51. The relation of the two clauses in a coordinate sentence is __________ .A.one is subordinate to the otherB.they hold unequal statusC.they are structurally equal parts of the sentenceD.they are incorporated52. ________ deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and non-linguistic world of experience.A.SenseB.ReferenceC.SymbolD.Thought53. The sentence “ I fire you!” belongs to the speech act category of ________ .A.expressivesB.directivesC.representativesD.declarations54.General linguistics is the scientific study of _________ .nguage of a certain individualB.the English languageC.human languages in generalD.the system of a particular language55. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in ______.A.the place of articulationB.the obstruction of airstreamsC.the position of the tongueD.the shape of the lips56. The prefix “ex-“ as in “ex-wife” or “ex-president” was borrowed into English from_________ .tinB.GreekC.FrenchD.Celtic57.Nasal sounds are produced when the soft palate ________ .A. is loweredB.is raisedC. vibratesD.moves58. _________ is concerned with the study of the actual use of language in communication.A.SociolinguisticsB.SemanticsC.PragmaticsD.Synchronic linguistics59. Where is the primary stress of the word phonology?A.pho.B.no.C.lo.D.gy.60. ________ refers to the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference.A. Locutionary actB.Illocutinary actC.Perlocutionary actD.Speech act61. Which of the following words is built by back-formation?A.Smog.B.Fridge.C.Motel.D.Edit.62. What is the full form of LAD?A. Language associative district.nguage acquisition district.C. Language associative device.nguage acquisition device.63. The semantic components of the word “man” can be expressed as ________ .A.+ animate, + human, + male, -adultB.+ animate, + human, + male, + adultC.+ animate, + human, - male, - adultD.+ animate, + human, - male, + adult64. Old English has a vocabulary of about ______ words.A. 30,000 to 40,000B.50,000 to 60,000C. 70,000 to 80,000D.80,000 to 90,00065. Productivity is one of the _________ of language.A. distinctive featuresB. design featuresC. Suprasegmental featuresD. pragmatic features66. What is the common feature of the three sounds: [d], [s], [n] ?A.Voiceless.B.Voiced.C.Nasal.D.Alveolar.67. Which of the following items is NOT one of the grammatical categories of English pronouns?A.Gender.B.Number.C.Case.D.Voice.68. In the word …internationalism”, which part is the root?A. interB. nationC.alD. ism69. That there is no direct link between language and the real world is the view of ________ concerning the study of menaing.A. naming theoryB. conceptualistC. contextualistD. behaviorist70. The word “pen” originally meant “feather used for writing with ink”. Now it refers to any devise used for writing with in. This is an example of ________ .A. degradation of meaningB. broadening of meanin gC. narrowing of meaningD. elevation of meaning71. The word …taxi” is formed through __________ .A. backformationB.blendingC. clippingD.derivation72. In general, language acquisition refers to children‟s development of their _______ language.A. firstB. secondC. dialectalD.individualized73. The left hemisphere of human brain is responsible for the function of _________ .nguage and speechB.calculationC.analytic reasoning and associative thoughtsD.all of the above74. Black English had a number of __________ distinctive features in its phonological, morphological and syntactic systems.A. rule-governedB. arbitraryC. unsystematicD.both A and B75. __________ is not a pair of homophones.A. bean, beenB. beat, beetC. flea, fleeD. bow, bow76. In general, language characteristics of ________ register is more often used in the written form than n the spoken form.A. informalB. formalC. neutralD. all of the above77. “Dim sum” is of __________ origin.A.ScottishB.KoreanC.JapaneseD. Chinese78. Which of the following is NOT an obvious cause of language change ?A.The rapid development of science and technology.B.The way of language teaching.C.The way of children‟s language acquisition.D.Economy of memory.79. In a narrower sense, an individual speaker‟s idiolect is made up of such factor as__________ .A. voice quality and pitchB. pitch and rhythmC. voice and rhythmD. voice, pitch and rhythm80. When the suffix __________ is added to a verb, it changes this verb into an adjective.A. – lessB. – nessC. – fullyD. –er81. The function of the sentence “Lovely weather, isn‟t it ?” is __________ .A. informativeB. phaticC. performativeD. recreational82. Once the notion of ________ was taken into consideration, semantics spilled into pragmatics.A. meaningB. contextC. formD. content83. Which of the following criteria can NOT be used to classify vowels ?A.The part of the tongue that is held highest.B.The openness of the mouth.C.The vibration of the vocal cords.D.The shape of the lips.84. There are __________ maxims under the cooperative principle.A. 2B.3C. 4D.585. Children‟s languag e acquisition is ________ of language.A.the memorization of words.B.chiefly the internalization of individual sentencesC.primarily the acquiring of the grammatical systemD.generally a bunch of utterance86. “Buy” and “sell” form a pair of __________ .A. conversivesB. gradable antonymsC. complementary antonymsD. marked antonyms87. If a phoneme is substituted for another in a word and the substiution results in a change of the word meaning, the two phonemes are said to be __________ .A. minimal pairB. minimal setC. distinctive phonemesD. distinctive features88. ___________ is a phrase which can only be understood as a unit, not as a summation of meaning of each constituent word.A. CollocationB. IdiomC. Semantic componentD.Synonym89. The Great Vowel Shift occurred at the end of _________ .A. Old English periodB. Middle English periodC. Modern English periodD. Middle ages90. ________ is a pair of contrary antonyms.A. wild, tameB. nimble, lameC. cold, warmD. alive, dead91. What kind of tone is used when a straightforward matter-of-fact statement is uttered ?A. The rising tone.B.The falling tone.C. The falling-rising tone.D. The flat tone.92. The language of females is featured by __________ .A. more prestigious formB. more polite and indirect languageC. more specific color termsD. all of the above93. The most important period for first language acquisition is __________ .A. adulthoodB. teenage periodC. primary school yearsD. pre-school years94. The number of pidgin speakers in the world is ________ .A. about 6 millionB. about 12 millionC. over 12 millionD. somewhere between 6-12 million95. In English-language speech communities, the most obvious taboo words are related toA. religion, sex, sex organsB. religion, sex, excrementC. sex, sex organs, excrementD. religion, sex organs, excrement96. Halliday focuses on the social aspect of language, regarding language as a form of________ .A. knowingB. doingC. thinkingD. thinking and doing97. Which of the following English sounds is NOT bilabial ?A. [b]B. [m]C. [p]D. [f ]98. ________ can be used independently without being combined with other morphemes.A. Free morphemesB. Bound morphemesC. AffixesD. Roots99. Which of the following words is a derivational one ?A. Backboard.B. Sings.C. Astonishment.D. Boys.100. John Austin proposed _________ in the late 1950‟s.A. Speech Act TheoryB. 7 types of meaningC. Cooperative PrincipleD. Predication analysis101. Japanese uses ________ writing system.A. wordB. syllabic alphabetC. alphabeticD. syllabic102. The ________ variety of diglossia is used for more formal or serious matter.A. formalB. informalC. highD. low103. Which of the following is a voiceless bilabial stop ?A. [ w ].B. [ m ].C. [ b ].D. [ p ].104. _______ is NOT a grammatical category of English verbs.A. TenseB. AspectC. VoiceD. Gender105. All words contain a ________ .A. rootB. bound morphemeC. prefixD. suffix106. Of the following word-formation processes, ______ is the most productive.A. clippingB. blendingC. initialismD. derivation107. The most widespread and familiar ethnic variety of the English language is ________ .A. British EnglishB. American EnglishC. Black EnglishD. Canadian English108. _______ is NOT included in Leech‟s associative meaning.A. Connotative meaningB. Social meaningC. Collocative meaningD. Thematic meaning109. _______ modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the speech of the original word.A. PrefixesB. SuffixesC. RootsD. Affixes110. The word _______ is usually NOT used by British people.A. “tube”B. “pub”C. “railroad”D. “taxi”111. The maxim of quality requires: do not say what you believe to be ________ .A. falseB. trueC. indirectD.insufficient112. Canada is a well-known bilingual country where both ______ are official languages.A. English and SpanishB. English and PortugueseC. English and FrenchD. English and Russian113. Linguistic taboo reflects ________ .A. social tabooB. social conventionC. habitD. law114. Which of the following words is a functional word ?A. Often.B. Nice.C. Desk.D. Although.115. By the age of _______ , children have completed the greater part of the languageacquisition process.A. 5B. 6C. 4D. 3116. Which of the following is NOT the function of language ?A. Metalingual function.B. Interpersonal function.C. Emotive function.D. Cultural transmission.117. “We can do things with words” is the main idea of _________ .A. the speech act theoryB. the co-operative principlesC. the polite principlesD. pragmatics118. Motel is a (n) __________ .A. abbreviationB. coinageC. blendingD. acronym119. ________ is NOT a pair of homophones.A.“Fair” (lovely) and “fair” (a regular g athering of people for barter and sale ofgoods )B.“ Flea” (any of various small, wingless, bloodsucking insects ) and “flee” (to escape)C.“Lead” (to guide) and “lead” (metal of a dull bluish-grey color that melts easily )D.“compliment” (an expression of prai se, admiration, or congratulation ) and“complement” (something that completes, makes up a whole, or brings toperfection )120. The Indo-European family has ________ subfamilies.A. 8B. 9C. 10D. 11121.Which of the following is NOT the design feature of language? ( )a.intelligibilityb.displacementc.arbitrarinessd.duality122. studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.( )a.phoneticsb.phonologyc.morphologyd.syntax123. The sense relation between “animal” and “horse” is . ( )a.synonymyb.antonymyc.hyponymyd.homonymy124. is regarded as the father of modern linguistics. ( )a.Bloomfieldb.Saussurec.Chomskyd.Halliday125. Transformational-generative Grammar is proposed by . ( )a.Firthb.Leechc.Malinowskid.Chomsky126. Which of the following ( the underlined ) is NOT a morpheme? ( )a.dogsb.it‟sc.goesd.this127. Which of the following distinctions in linguistics is proposed by Noam Chomsky? ( )a.descriptive vs. prescriptiveb.synchronic vs. diachronicngue & parolepetence & performance128. The word formation of “unacceptability” is . ( )a.derivationb.inflectionpoundd.polymorpheme129. Which of the following statement is right? ( )a.All words contain a prefix.b.All words contain a root morpheme.c.All words contain a bound morpheme.d.All words contain an affix.130. According to Austin, “I name this ship the Queen Elizabeth” is ______.( )A.constativeB.emotiveC.phaticD.performative。

Chapter 1 Introduction1.Explain the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study oflanguage. 请解释以下语言学的定义:语言学是对语言的科学研究。

Linguistics investigates not any particular languagebut languages in general.Linguistic study is scientific because it is baxxxxsed on the systematic investigation of authentic language data.No serious linguistic conclusion is reached until after the linguist has done the following three things: observing the way language is actually usedformulating some hypothesesand testing these hypotheses against linguistic facts to prove their validity.语言学研究的不是任何特定的语言，而是一般的语言。

语言研究是科学的，因为它是建立在对真实语言数据的系统研究的基础上的。

只有在语言学家做了以下三件事之后，才能得出严肃的语言学结论:观察语言的实际使用方式，提出一些假设，并用语言事实检验这些假设的正确性。

1.What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?语言学的主要分支是什么?他们每个人都研究什么?Phonetics-How speech sounds are produced and classified语音学——语音是如何产生和分类的Phonology-How sounds form systems and function to convey meaning音系学——声音如何形成系统和功能来传达意义Morphology-How morphemes are combined to form words形态学——词素如何组合成单词Sytax-How morphemes and words are combined to form sentences句法学-词素和单词如何组合成句子Semantics-The study of meaning ( in abstraction)语义学——意义的研究(抽象)Pragmatics-The study of meaning in context of use语用学——在使用语境中对意义的研究Sociolinguistics-The study of language with reference to society社会语言学——研究与社会有关的语言Psycholinguistics-The study of language with reference to the workings of the mind心理语言学:研究与大脑活动有关的语言Applied Linguistics-The application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning应用语言学——语言学原理和理论在语言教学中的应用1.What makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?现代语言学与传统语法有何不同?Modern linguistics is descxxxxriptive;its investigations are baxxxxsed on authenticand mainly spoken language data.现代语言学是描述性的，它的研究是基于真实的，主要是口语数据。

辅音字母的形状：缔造了第一种词根（―形根‖）Br辅音字母组合含义：1分裂、繁殖（从一个主干分出许多分支）bring 拿来、带来brow 眉毛bristle 鬃毛----br+istle复合名词缀bright 发光----br+light光umbrella 阴影、雨伞----um=un不+br发光+ellabreak 打破、破裂----br分裂+ea+kbreach 裂口、伤口----br分裂+eachbleach 漂白----bl表颜色+each表音teach 教、讲课----t说+eachbrittle 易碎的----brit破裂+ttle形容词缀brit表破裂是因为br有分裂、破裂的含义，单词的含义在词根上，词根的含义在开头的辅音字母上。

一个英语单词从后往前看到了辅音双写，双写之后必然是后缀。

sit 坐下brook 小溪----是大河的分支，br分支+ook表音book 书----b板子，一本书就是一个板子+ook表音bridge 桥梁----br树枝，桥梁是树枝做的+idgebrief 短暂----有桥才短，桥缩短了距离zebra 斑马---- zero没有+bristle鬃毛，斑马是没有鬃毛的bristle 鬃毛brass 黄铜----br燃烧+ass-把ass记成黄驴glass玻璃/class班级/grass草→ass是表音成分bronze 青铜----br燃烧brand v.烙印n.商标----br燃烧+andland 陆地----l长条的，连续的+andburst 爆炸----burn燃烧+ istdwell 居住、居留----dw矮、低dwarf 侏儒d→dw→dow ndw –downbr -burnb-板子、小木条bed 床boat 船back 后背（板子）bone 骨头----b棒子，骨头棒子bar 酒吧网吧----柜台就是板子bar-小木棍car 汽车/scar刀疤bar/r/el 木桶（谐音―白肉‖）----是用小木条做的一个单词从后往前看到辅音双写，双写之后必然是后缀bar/r/ier 栅栏----由小木条组成em/bar/r/ass 尴尬的，窘迫的，窘困的----in-en-em进入+bar栅栏+ass无义Kiss 接吻b-棒子Bat 棒子cat抓/pat拍/hat帽子bat/t/le 战役（占+戈=战）----bat棒子，兵器de/bat/e/ 辩论----de往下+bat棒子、武器+e combat 格斗----把两人com的棒子bat放在一起bound 边界----b板子，边界就是板子界碑+ound round圆的，r旋转/found建造，f手abound 丰富，充裕----a没有+bount边界的abundant a.丰富的-----abund+ant形容词缀abundance n.丰富-----abund+ance名词缀b-棒子boy 男孩/ bull 公牛/bear 熊/beast 猛兽beat 打----b棒子，用棒子打+eatheat 热----h高，热就是高温+eatseat 座位----s-sit坐+eatpeat 词根：说repeat 重复，复述----re重复+peat说poem 诗/poet 诗人----p说b-背包bag 抱boot 靴子----bag +foot，靴子是把脚包起来的bale 大包----male男性，m-mentale 寓言传说，t说tongue 舌头talk说/tell讲/teach教bag/g/age 行李burden 负担，包袱----burd包+en= er= el-名词后缀b-燃烧burn 燃烧bake 烤焙burst 爆炸---- bur烧+ist名词后缀brass黄铜/bronze青铜/brand烙印，商标练习ben/ign良性的----ben-bene好bene-词根：好，好就是棒best 最好，棒----b棒子，好就是棒+estline线，l线/wine 酒，w水benefit 恩惠，好处----bene好+fitprofit 利润----pro往前的+fitfit 恰当、适合c-抓，c像人的虎口的形象catch 抓----c抓+atch表音hatch 孵化----h-hen母鸡match 比赛----m-man男性+atchwatch 观看----w女性+atchpatch 补丁，布片----p片+atchcable 缆绳电缆电报----c抓+able能..的can 能----能，就是能抓到sthcept-词根：抓，拿accept 接受----ac往里+cept拿except 排除----ex往外+cept拿reception 接待、款待、招待----把一个人拿到家里来+ioncept-cip-词根：抓participate v.分担----part部分+i+cip拿+ate动词缀分担分享就是部分的拿i，词素cip= c+ip; 担=手+旦anticipate 预测----anti先，预+cip拿，得到提前拿到的一个概念单词难记往往是因为词根难记，词根难记往往是因为词根中的发音成分比较复杂ceive-词根；取得，带领perceive 觉察----per每一个+ceive拿到per贯穿，穿透deceive 欺骗----de往底下+ceive拿，带领conceive 构思---从整体con上得到ceive一个概念can能capable 能力----cap能+ablecap-能----c-can 能clap 鼓掌----cl合并+ap表音c-走，跑car 小汽车----c跑+ar名词缀bar 词根，小木棒；名词，柜台----b棒子板子jar 坛子----j象喷射的手枪→j喷射juice 果汁----果汁是挤出来的jam 果酱----果酱是挤出来的jar 坛子，罐子----装jam的东西。

1.字母 b一般读/b/;如：bike;bus; bag; boot;2.但位于m后或t前;这时b不发音..如：climb;comb;tomb; debt;doubt如果不在同一个音节里;不受影响..如：December; November..试读下列单词：big; bed; break; bomb; tomb; lamb2字母Cc的发音规律1.字母c 在胖元音a; o; u和辅音字母之前读/k/;例如：cap; cold; cut; picture2.在瘦元音e; i/y之前读/s/;例如： centre; city; cycle3.在ia之前读/∫/;如：special; social..试读下列单词：cat; clini c; clothes; cute; circle; cemetery; cent3字母Dd的发音规律1.字母d或-ed在清辅音之后读/t/;例如： work-worked2.在浊辅音和元音之后读/d/;例如：move-moved; ; offer-offered..3.在t和d之后读/id/..例如： want-wanted; guide-guided;试读下列单词：live-lived; reach-reached; smile-smiled; wish-w ished; improve-improved; destroy-destroyed1.字母g在胖元音a; o; u和辅音字母之前通常读/ g /;2.在瘦元音e; i/y之前读/d /..例如： gesture; giant; gym;..get; give; gift; forget; begin; forgive; gear; girl; anger; hun ger等词例外..试读下列单词：gather; general; gem; god; gymnast５、字母Nn的发音规律1.字母n通常读/n/;2. 词尾是mn时;n一般不发音;例如：autumn;column；3字母n在/k/、/ g / 音前或ng组合中读/ /;例如：thank;language;bank;anxious..试读下列单词： fine; cent; uncle; hungry; young; sing６、字母Ss的发音规律1.字母s 在音节开头或清辅音前读/s/;例如：sit; sleep; desk2.在元音字母间或浊辅音前读/z/;例如： music; husband；3.在名词变复数或动词变为单数第三人称形式时;位于清辅音之后读/s/;例如：book-books; work-works;位于浊辅音和元音之后读/z/;例如：radio-radios; apple-apples;如果这个名词或动词的结尾读音为/s/或/z/; 加-s后应读/iz/;例如：place-places; house-houses;在以s; x; ch; sh结尾的词加-es; 读/iz/;例如：class-classes; box-boxes; watch-watches; brush-brushe s..4.字母s在ia; u之前读/∫/; 或/ /;例如：social; special; sure; treasure试读下列单词：busy; news; grows; likes; fast; teaches; Russia;Asian辅音字母组合的发音规律1、字母组合ch的发音规律1.字母组合ch一般读/ t∫/;例如：China; chip; child; chair; teach bench; catch;2.但在源出希腊语的单词中;ch发/k/例如：ache;character;chemical;chemist;chemistry;school;stomach; technical;technique;technology..3.而在 moustache; machine; Chicago中的ch读/∫/..２、字母组合ck的发音规律字母组合ck在所有单词中读/k/;不论是在词首还是词尾..例如: snack; pack; knock; jacket; back; sick; luck; ３、字母组合sh的发音规律字母组合sh在所有单词中读/∫/..例如：sheep; ship; shape; shake; shave; shut; shoe４、字母组合wh的发音规律1.字母组合wh在大多数情况下发/w/音;字母h不发音..2.只有后接o时;字母w不发音;字母h发/h/音..例如：who whom whose whole试读下列单词：why; which; while; wholly５、字母组合th的发音规律th---有清与浊两种读音：1.th位于词首时;可以从词性上判别其应有的读音..在名词、动词、形容词和数词中th发清辅音..如：thing; theatre; thunder; thermos; Thursday; theory; theme;throat; thread; think; thank; thrive; thicken; thirteen; th irty; third; thousand; thick; thirsty; thoughtful; thorough 2.在代词和一些功能词中th发浊辅音.如： them; their; theirs; there; the; than; then; though; thu s; therefore; they..只有介词through是个例外..3.th位于词尾或音节之尾时;其读音多数是清辅音;如：bath; breath; tooth; 等..只有在少数单词中读浊音;如：with; smooth 中..4.th在词中并且后面接er时;或者最后一个字母是不发音的e时;通常也发浊辅音..例如：feather; weather; whether; leather; further; father; ba the; breathe; southern; northern; either在其他情况下发清辅音..例如：author; faithful; method; nothing; anything; healthy; w ealthy..试读下列单词: mother; father; another; brother; health; weal th６、字母组合wr的发音规律字母组合wr常常出现在词首;在单词中读/r/;字母w不发音..例如：wrea th; wrack; writer; wrong..试读下列单词: write; wrote; wrist; wrap </div>７、字母组合kn的发音规律字母组合kn常常出现在词首;在单词中读/n/;字母k不发音..例如：knee; knife; kneel; knight..试读下列单词: knock; knob; knot; knit８、字母组合gh的发音规律1.字母组合 gh在词首多读/ g /;如：ghost;2在元音后多不发音;如：light; naughty; taught; naught;3.在词尾有时读/f/;如：laugh;cough; enough; rough;..试读下列单词: ghat; ghee; fight; night tough９、字母组合gu和gue的发音规律1.字母组合gu和gue通常读作/g/;2.在个别情况下读作/ gw/;例如：language;extinguish ;anguish; penguin..试读下列单词: guess; guest; dialogue; colleague１０、字母组合qu和que的发音规律字母组合qu读作/kw/;字母组合-que在词尾读作/k/..例如：queen; question; quilt; square..试读下列单词：quick; quiz; cheque; unique;quotation;quiet１１、字母组合ph的发音规律字母组合ph读/f/;例如：elephant; photo; telephone..试读下列单词: phone; alphabet; pharmacy; paragraph; physics; ph rase元音字母的发音规律１、元音字母Aa的发音规律１在开音节中读/ei/;也就是字母名称音..如：name; plane; Jane; baby; cake..2 在闭音节中读/ /..如：bag; dad; hat; map; black; back..3 在/w/音后读/ /..如：want; what; watch; wash; quality..4 在f n sk ph sp ss st th前读 /a:/..如：after; plant; graph; ask; grasp; glass; fast; father..试读下列单词: brave; cave; crazy; adverb; ant; swallow; quarrel; advance; disaster２、元音字母Ii的发音规律1 i在开音节中读/аi/..例如：bike; drive; time; nice; kitegive是个例外2 在闭音节中读/i/..例如：fish; big; drink; sit; milk; swim3 在gh -gn -ld -nd前读/аi/..例如：high; light; sign; child; find试读下列单词: remind; slight; behind; delight; wild; design ３、元音字母Uu的发音规律(1)u在开音节中读/ju:/..例如：student; excuse; duty; Tuesday2 在闭音节中读/Λ/..例如：bus; cup; jump; much; lunch3 在开音节中;元音字母u在辅音字母j l r s后面时读u:..例如：June; blue; ruler; super4不符合规则的词有：put; push; pull试读下列单词: compute; confuse; culture; function; industrial４、字母Yy的发音规律字母y是一个非常特殊的字母..它既可以用作辅音字母;也可用作元音字母;因此有的语言学家把它称为“半元音”..字母Yy的发音有三种情况..(1)在元音字母之前;通常发辅音/j/..例如：yes; yet; yesterday; yellow2在大多数双音节和多音节单词里;如位于辅音字母之后;且为非重读音节里;通常发短元音/i/..例如：happy; funny; sunny; windy</div>3在单音节和少数双音节单词里;如位于辅音之后;且为重读音节;通常发长元音/ai/..个别单词除外例如：July; shy; spy; try试读下列单词: youth; yard; dry; cry; party; rainy元音字母组合的发音规律１、字母组合ai的发音规律字母组合ai通常读长音/ei/..有一个例外said读作/sed/..试读下列单词：trail; email; rain; train; chain; pain; paint; wa it２、元音字母组合ay的发音规律字母组合ay通常读长音/ei/;有一个例外says读作/sez/..在非重读音节里读/i/.如：Monday; Tuesday等..试读下列单词:way; May; pray; display; player;3、元音字母组合oa的发音规律字母组合oa通常读长音/ u /;试读下列单词: road; toad; load; goat; boat; coat; soak; soap 4、元音字母组合ea的发音规律1字母组合ea通常读长音/i:/;例如：pea; sea; tea; beach; read; lead; beat; meat2.字母组合ea还可读短音/e/;例如：head; bread; weather; sweater; heavy;3在个别情况下还可读双元音/ei/;例如：great; break; steak等..试读下列单词:seat; bead; teach; peach; leaf; bean; dream; team ５、字母组合ui和ue的发音规律1字母组合ui; ue通常读长音/u:/..例如juice; fruit; blue; glue：2但在个别单词里ui可读作长音/аi/ 或短音/i/.例如：guide; build..试读下列单词: suit; suitcase; flue; clue </div>６、字母组合oi和oy的发音规律字母组合oi; -oy通常读长音/ i /..oi不出现在词尾;oy常常出现在词尾..例如：oil; soil; boil; noise; toy; boy; joy; enjoy试读下列单词: noisy; voice; choice; coin; soy; ploy; cloy; coy ７、字母组合ou和ow的发音规律1字母组合ou; ow通常读长音/аu /..ou不出现在词尾;ow常常出现在词尾..例如：flower; house; count; down..(2)字母组合ou; ow 还可读/ u/..例如：know; low; though..(3)在部分单词中;他们还可读/u:/ 和/Λ/;例如：group; soup; you; young; enough; country试读下列单词: out; shout; mouth; loud; crown; clown; cow; now ８、字母组合au和aw的发音规律字母组合au; aw通常读长音/:/例如：autumn; daughter; draw试读下列单词：applaud;awful;exhaust;strawberry;lawyer９、字母组合al的发音规律1 读/ : /..例如：small; ball; talk; wall; all2 读/ :l/..例如：always; also; salt; almost3 在f; m之前读/а:/;例如：half; calm等..试读下列单词：already; altogether; half; chalk10、字母组合oo的发音规律(1)通常读长音/u:/..例如：broom; food; tooth; school(2)2在少数情况下读短音/u/..例如：book; look; cook; foot; good(3)3在个别单词里读/Λ/;例如：blood; flood等..(4)试读下列单词：spoon; troop; shook; wood; stoodR音节的发音规律含有“元音字母+R”的音节叫R音节..“元音字母+R”可以看作一种特殊的字母组合..在读写英语单词时;我们可以把他们当作一个整体来看待..1、字母组合ar的发音规律1 字母组合ar通常读长音/a:/..例如：car; farm; dark; mark(5)在非重读音节里读/ :/..例如：grammar; dollar; beggar; collar; popular(6)在字母w; qu之后读/ /;例如：warm; war; quarter; quarrel..试读下列单词：park; bark; dark; barber; ward; warn; award2、字母组合er; ir; ur; or;的发音规律1 er; ir; ur;通常读长音/ :/..例如：term; her; girl; bird; nurse; hurt2 or在/w/之后也读/ :/..在其他情况下读/:/例如：word; worker; world; worm;afford; corn; horse 3 er; ir; ur; or在非重读音节里读短元音/ /;如：river; farmer; teacher; doctor..试读下列单词：ordinary; torch; worth; merchant; curtain 3、字母组合our; oor; oar的发音规律字母组合our; oor; oar通常读长音/:/..例如：four; door; board..有时字母组合our还可读作/au /..例如：our; hour在个别情况下; our读/ :/..例如：journey试读下列单词：pour; fourteen; floor; blackboard; aboar 4、字母组合are; air; ear; eir; ere的发音规律1字母组合are; air; ear; eir; ere通常读长音/ /..2字母组合ear在非词尾读/ :/;例如：learn; heard; earn; search等;3字母组合ear在词尾时还可读/i /;例如：dear; near; hear; clear; ear;beard中的ear虽不在词尾;也读/ i /;另外还有一例外：heart;其中ear读/a:/..(7)字母组合ere还可读作/ i /;例如: here等..(8)试读下列单词：share; spare; chair; stair; pear; swear; theirs; where整体认读音节的发音(1)-ture通常在单词中读/t /..例如：picture; lecture ..(2)–tion通常在单词中读/ n/;在s之后读/t n/ ; 例如：question..(3)-sion通常在单词中读/ n/;在元音之后读/ n/; 例如：profession conclusion..(4)–sure通常在单词中读/ /; 在元音之后读/ /..例如：pressure; measure..(5)-sian;-cian在单词中读/ n/..例如：Russian;musician..试读下列单词：future; culture; station; nation; suggestion;television..字母组合ex的读音规则(1)以字母组合ex开头的词;若ex后接一个元音字母且重音不落在第一个音节上;则ex的发音为/igz/..例如：exact;exam;example;exist..2以字母组合ex开头的词;若ex后接一个辅音字母;且重音不落在第一个音节上;则ex读/iks/..例：excuse;expect;exchange;except;experience;experiment;explain; expose;express;expression;expensive;extend;extraordinary..3以字母组合ex开头的词;无论ex后跟着什么字母;只要重音包括次重音落在第一个音节上;则ex的发音即为/eks/..例：exercise;expert专家;能手;extra额外的;exhibition..。

英语构词法语言是随着人类社会的不断发展而发展的。

一些旧词的过时意味着需要人们创造出一些新的词，而新的词的产生，大抵服从语法的法则，有其规律可循。

语言的这种"弃旧创新"不断完善和发展的过程体现出一种规律--构词法（word-formation）。

为何在学构词法？我们认为，对于普通的医务专业人员来说，学点英语的构词方式，有以下几方面的益处：（1）了解词的结构，扩大巩固所学的词汇。

在阅读科技文章和专业资料时，碰到生字可以由已知的成分去分析未知词的含义，甚至可以"猜字"。

比如说，如果我们知道了词根anthropo-[man]（人）的意思，就有难理解下面几个词的含义：anthropolgy（人类学）、anthropid（类人的）、anthropologist（人类学家）、anthropolgical（人类学的）、philanthropist（慈善家）、misanthropist（厌世者）。

其次，学习构词的方法对词汇的记忆和联想也是大有帮助的。

（2）为深刻理解词义有一定的帮助，如：人称外词后缀-ster有时含有轻蔑意味：trickster（骗子手）、gamester（赌棍）、rhymster（打油诗人）、gangster（歹徒）、monster（恶人）等。

（3）培养灵活运用词语的能力和善于造词的本领。

比方，on-the-spot（现场的）、sixteen-in-one-group （十六进制的）、blue-black（蓝黑）、under-develop（发育不全）、middle-of-term（期中）、fecal-borne （粪便传播的）、hair-bulb（毛球）、fever-blister（发热性疱疹）、Mikulicz-Vladimiroff（米弗二氏）、mind-blindness（精神性盲）等等。

以上谈了构词的三种好处，但是也不能夸大其作用，因为词只是语言的基本素材，不能孤立看待。