The Cells and Logic for Mammalian Sour Taste detection

从细胞到奇点英文名字From Cells to SingularityThe journey from the microscopic world of cells to the enigmatic realm of singularity is a captivating exploration of the intricate tapestry of our universe. This odyssey encompasses the fundamental building blocks of life, the emergence of complex systems, and the potential for a future where the boundaries of our understanding are pushed beyond the limits of our imagination.At the heart of this journey lies the humble cell, the basic unit of all living organisms. These microscopic marvels possess an astounding complexity, housing a myriad of intricate structures and processes that sustain the delicate balance of life. From the intricate dance of molecules within the cell membrane to the intricate genetic code that dictates its very existence, the cell is a testament to the ingenious design of nature.As we delve deeper into the cellular realm, we uncover the remarkable mechanisms that govern the growth, division, and specialization of these fundamental units. The process of cellular differentiation, where a single cell gives rise to a diverse array ofspecialized cell types, is a testament to the adaptability and resilience of life. This phenomenon, observed across the vast spectrum of living organisms, from the simplest microbes to the most complex multicellular life forms, highlights the incredible versatility of the cellular blueprint.But the journey does not end there. As we venture beyond the confines of the cellular world, we encounter the emergence of complex systems – the building blocks of the larger structures that shape our world. From the intricate networks of neurons that give rise to the human mind to the vast ecosystems that sustain life on our planet, these complex systems demonstrate the remarkable ability of nature to self-organize and adapt to ever-changing environments.The exploration of these complex systems has led to the development of cutting-edge fields of study, such as systems biology and complexity theory. These disciplines delve into the intricate relationships and dynamics that govern the behavior of these intricate webs of interconnected components. By unraveling the underlying principles that govern these systems, we gain a deeper understanding of the fundamental forces that shape the world around us.As we continue to push the boundaries of our knowledge, theconcept of singularity emerges as a tantalizing possibility. Singularity, a hypothetical point in time when technological advancement and artificial intelligence surpass human capabilities, represents the potential for a transformative shift in the trajectory of our species and the very nature of our existence.The notion of singularity has captivated the imaginations of scientists, futurists, and philosophers alike, as it holds the promise of a future where the limitations of our current understanding are transcended. The prospect of a superintelligent entity, capable of self-improvement and exponential growth, raises profound questions about the nature of consciousness, the limits of human cognition, and the ethical implications of such a momentous transition.The journey from cells to singularity is not merely a linear progression but a complex and interconnected tapestry of discoveries, insights, and speculations. It is a testament to the boundless curiosity and ingenuity of the human mind, driven by an insatiable desire to unravel the mysteries of the universe and push the boundaries of what is possible.As we continue to explore this captivating journey, we are confronted with the realization that the path ahead is not without its challenges and uncertainties. The ethical and societal implications of technological advancements, the potential risks of uncontrolledartificial intelligence, and the delicate balance between human agency and technological autonomy are just a few of the pressing issues that demand our attention.Yet, in the face of these challenges, the journey from cells to singularity remains a beacon of hope and inspiration. It is a testament to the power of human imagination, the resilience of life, and the endless potential that lies within the fabric of our universe. As we continue to unravel the complexities of the natural world and push the boundaries of our understanding, we may just catch a glimpse of the extraordinary future that awaits us – a future where the boundaries between the infinitesimal and the infinite are blurred, and the very essence of our existence is transformed.。

“In my view,”--- their functions and actions. ”“在我看来，”托马斯杰斐逊在1814年写道，“没有比使人了解到自身的构造、部件、功能和行为更能让人愉悦了。

”Distinguished thinkers --- wholeheartedly shares.历史上有许多杰出的思想家都持有和杰斐逊一样的观点。

但有趣的是，不是每一个普通人都能接受这个理论。

Man’s attitude toward his own body—his single most precious possession —is decidedly ambivalent.人对于自身——这个他所拥有的最宝贵的财富，是持有一种矛盾的态度的。

At one and the --- complicated to understand.一方面，人们沉醉于研究自身，另一方面也因为上古的禁忌而对其充满恐惧。

也从某种程度上反映了人们觉得人体太过复杂以至于太难理解。

The possible approaches --- all-too-ailing hulk.研究人体的可行途径有许多。

对愤世嫉俗者来说，贱如黏土陋室，对于吟咏诗歌之人来说，人体贵为灵魂殿堂，对于妙手医师，人体弱如娇柔之躯。

The psychiatrist --- experience of the past.精神学家将其视为思维与人格的寄宿地，遗传学家将其视为使自身的特质永存之人，生物学家将其视为可以总结过往并改变未来的有机体。

All the specialized --- anatomy and physiology.所有与人体相关的专业的科学观点都是有用的，然而，这些观点都必须从同一个前提出发，那就是对研究人体的基本结构和功能在解剖学和生理学上的认识。

And the bedrock --- and function.我们对了解身体的基本原则就是：所有的生物都是由结构和功能基本相似的细胞构成的。

“生物药”--Wharton’s jelly源间充质干细胞高连如【摘要】干细胞治疗代表生物冶疗进入到了一个崭新的时代。

间充质干细胞是存在于胚胎或成体组织中来源于中胚层具有多向分化潜能的干细胞。

由于成体间充质干细胞的质量与数量自身缺陷,使之应用受到了很大限制。

Wharton’s jelly组织,是起始于胚胎发育第13天的胚外中胚层组织。

使用基因微阵列分析及功能分析,首次发现Wharton’s jelly源间充质干细胞( Wharton’s jelly derived mesenchymal stem cells,WJMSCs)高表达胚胎早期干性基因及心肌细胞分化早期特异转录因子,可分化心肌细胞等多种细胞。

进而,应用临床级WJMSCs经冠状动脉移植治疗ST抬高型急性心肌梗死患者的随机双盲临床试验,首次证明WJMSCs可明显改善心肌活力及心脏功能。

因此,WJMSCs具有极其重要益处；无伦理涉及,有强的分化潜能,无致瘤性；加之,WJMSCs可作为产品,在任何时候病情需要时立即应用。

为此,WJMSCs作为真正意义上的干细胞族,将最有希望成为具有应用前景的干细胞生物药。

%Cell-based treatment represents a new generation in the evolution of biological therapeutics. Mesenchymal stem cells ( MSCs) are mesoderm-derived multipotent stromal cells that reside in embryonic and adult tissues. The use of adult MSCs is limited by the quality and quantity of host stem cells. Wharton’s jelly of the umbilical cord originates from the extraembryonic and/or the embryonic mesoderm at day 13 of embryonic development. Using Affymetrix GeneChip microarray and functional network analyses, we found for the first time that Wharton’s jelly-derived MSCs ( WJMSCs) , except for their expression of stemness molecular markers in common with human ESCs ( hESCs) ,exhibited a high expression of early cardiac transcription factor genes and could be in-duced to differentiate into cardiomyocyte-like cells. Further, we demonstrated for the first time that intracoronary delivery of prepared clinical-grade WJMSCs was safe in treating patients with an ST-AMI attack by double-blind, randomized controlled trial and could significantly improve myocardial viability and heart function. It is therefore important to consider the benefits of WJMSCs, which are not ethically sensitive, have differentiation potential, and do not have the worrying issue of teratoma formation. Moreover, as the off the shelf product, WJMSCs can be applied immediately, and on de-mand. Thus, WJMSCs constitute a true stem cell population and are promising cells as a biological drug for stem cell-based therapies.【期刊名称】《转化医学杂志》【年(卷),期】2016(005)004【总页数】5页(P193-197)【关键词】间充质干细胞;Wharton’s jelly源间充质干细胞;生物药物【作者】高连如【作者单位】100048 北京，海军总医院心脏中心【正文语种】中文【中图分类】R329.2+4［Abstract］Cell-based treatment represents a new generation in the evolution of biological therapeutics.Mesenchymal stem cells（MSCs）are mesoderm-derived multipotent stromal cells that reside in embryonic and adult tissues.The use of adult MSCs is limited by the quality and quantity of host stem cells.Wharton’s jelly of the umbilical cord originates from the extraembryonic and/or the embryonic mesoderm at day 13 of embryonic ing Affymetrix GeneChip microarray and functional network analyses，we found for the first time that Wharton’s jelly-derived MSCs （WJMSCs），except for their expression of stemness molecular markers in common with human ESCs （hESCs），exhibited a high expression of early cardiac transcription factor genes and could be induced to differentiate into cardiomyocyte-like cells.Further，we demonstrated for the first time that intracoronary delivery of prepared clinical-grade WJMSCs was safe in treating patients with an STAMI attack by double-blind，randomized controlled trial and could significantly improve myocardial viability and heart function.It is therefore important to consider the benefits of WJMSCs，which are not ethically sensitive，have differentiation potential，and do not have the worrying issue of teratoma formation.Moreover，as the off the shelf product，WJMSCs can be applied immediately，and on demand.Thus，WJMSCs constitute a true stem cell population and are promising cells as a biological drug for stem cell-based therapies.［Key words］Mesenchymal stem cells（MSCs）；Wharton’s jelly-derived mesenchymal stem cells（WJMSCs）；Biological drug21世纪，人类疾病治疗模式在继现代医学——药物、手术、机械辅助等手段后，一个崭新的充满希望的新理念——细胞生物治疗理论诞生了，这将给人类带来什么样的变化与影响，如此快速之进展，正如Science、Nature中所表述的“即使站在世界最前沿的科学家也难以预料”［1-2］。

哺乳动物的医学实验作文框架英文回答：Introduction:Medical experiments on mammals have long been a controversial topic. While some argue that these experiments are necessary for scientific advancements and medical breakthroughs, others believe that they are cruel and unethical. In this essay, I will discuss the framework of medical experiments on mammals, considering both the benefits and the ethical concerns.Body Paragraph 1:To begin with, medical experiments on mammals have played a crucial role in advancing our understanding of various diseases and developing effective treatments. For example, experiments on mice have led to significant progress in cancer research. Scientists have been able tostudy the effectiveness of new drugs and therapies, as well as identify potential side effects, by conducting experiments on mammals. These experiments provide valuable insights that can save human lives and improve the quality of healthcare.中文回答：引言：哺乳动物的医学实验长期以来一直是一个备受争议的话题。

英文外刊，抗击疟疾的科学家们，陷入了生物伦理学的争论Scientists at this lab in Burkina Faso have deployed gene warfare against the parasite carrying mosquitoes that spread malaria.布基纳法索一个实验室的科学家已经对传播疟疾同时携带寄生虫的蚊子进行了基因改造。

The conventional tools at our disposal today have reached a ceiling and can't become more efficient than they are right now.我们现在使用的传统工具已经达到了极限，不能比现在的效率更高。

We have no choice but to look at complementary methods.我们别无选择，只能寻找辅助性疗法。

That is why we're using genetically modified mosquitoes.这就是我们对蚊子进行转基因的原因。

Professor Diabate runs the experiment for target malaria, a research consortium backed by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation.迪亚巴特教授为目标疟疾组织(比尔和梅琳达.盖茨基金会支持的研究联盟)开展了这项实验。

The group developed an enzyme that sterilizes male mosquitoes.研究小组研发出一种可以使雄蚊绝育的酶，可以使雄蚊绝育。

The action of the enzyme continues after fertilization which means if the male copulates with a female, the embryo is dead and the female can no longer have offspring.这种酶在雌蚊子受精后继续发挥作用，这意味着如果雄蚊子与雌蚊子交配，胚胎就会死亡，雌蚊子就不能再生育后代。

Test 1: Development of Microbiology■Multiple Choice (choose one answer)1. The fundamental unit （基本单位）of all living organisms is the: C■.membrane■.cell■.nucleus■.cell wall2. Organisms that do not contain a true nucleus are referred to as:C■.fungi 真菌■.eukaryotic 真核生物■.prokaryotic 原核生物■.nankaryotic3. T he three kingdom classification system （三界分类系统）of organisms was proposed by:D■.Pasteur■.Bacon■.Winogradsky■.Woese4. Fungi differ from bacteria in a number of characteristics. The cell walls in fungi are composedof , while the cell walls of bacteria are composed of peptidoglycan. A■.chitin 壳多糖■.phospholipid 磷脂■.protein 蛋白质■.glucosamine 葡糖胺5. The first microscopes were developed by: C■.Ehrlich■.Metchnikoff■.Leewenhoek■.Lister6. Control of microbial infections can be accomplished by chemical or immune mechanisms. The first report on the production of an antibiotic（抗生素）is credited to:C■.Lister■.Fleming■.Ehrlich■.Koch7. The term "antibiotic" means:C■.a substance produced by the laboratory that kills or inhibits other microorganisms■.a substance produced by microorganisms that kills or inhibits molds（霉菌）■.a substance produced by microorganism that kills or inhibits other microorganisms■.a substance produced by microorganisms that kills or inhibits cancer cells8. The first documented use of a vaccine（疫苗）for smallpox天花was reported by the English physician:D■.Lister■.Florey■.Fleming■.Jenner9. Active immunity （主动免疫）can be distinguished from passive immunity in that the former requires:B■.development of antibodies in one's own body by stimulation with external antibodies■.development of antibodies in one's own body by stimulation with external antigens（抗原）■.Flemingdevelopment of antibodies in a foreign host and transfer to one' s own body■.development of antigens in one's own body by stimulation with external antibodies10. The process of nitrification（硝化作用）by bacteria described by Winogradsky converts:A■.ammonia to nitrate ions 将氨转化成硝酸盐■.nitrate ions to ammonia 将硝酸盐转化成氨■.N2 to ammonia 将氮气转化成氨■.ammonia to urea 将氨转化成尿素11. The transfer of DNA from one organism to another through the use of a viral vector（病毒载体）is referred to as:B■.electroporation 电穿孔■.conjugation 接合生殖■.transformation 转化■.transduction 转导12. The genetic material of a bacteria is located in the molecule:B■.RNA■.DNA■.protein■.lipid■Fill in the Blank1. Organisms that contain a true nucleus are called__eukaryotic_____2. Bacteria do not have a true nucleus and are considered _____prokaryotic__3. Bacteria can be divided into two groups, the ___archeabacteria____and the ____eubacteria（真细菌）___.4.___anaerobes（厌氧菌）___ are organisms that can grow without using molecular oxygen.5. Microorganisms that can synthesize complex organic compounds from CO2:are called ___autotrophs_（自养菌）__.6. _photoautotrophs（光能自养生物）_____ are microorganisms that obtain their energy to synthesize organic compounds from light.7. _heterotroph_（异养菌）___ require organic compounds for growth.8. Organisms that survive only at very high temperatures are referred to as__thermophile_（适温性）___.9. _methanogen_（产甲烷菌）____ are organisms that produce methane（甲烷）from CO2.10. ___halophile_（好盐的）__organisms grow under conditions of high salinity.11. Eubacteria can exhibit a number of morphological shapes. Identify four: a._spherical or cocci_____ b._cylindrical or rod_____ c.__spirals____ d.___irregular__12. Fungi, algae and protozoa can be differentiated from bacteria by the following characteristic:___eukaryotic____ .13. Fungi have cell wall consisting of __chitin（壳多糖）_____.14. Viruses consist of _nucleic acid_____surrounded by a protein coat.15. The scientific method utilizes deductive reasoning（演绎推理）and observations or experiments to prove or disprove a _hypothesis_（假说）___.16. The theory _spontaneous generation______of held that living organisms could arise from nonliving matter.（非生命物质）17. The process used to reduce the number of viable organisms（活菌）by moderate heating is called:_pasteurization__（巴士消毒法）___ .18. The process of tyndallization（间歇灭菌法）uses repeated heating to eliminate or___sterilize （杀菌）____ microorganisms from solutions.19.An _antibiotic（抗生素）______is a substance produced by microorganisms that inhibits or kills other microorganisms.20. The process of stimulating the immune defenses of the body is referred to as__immunization_____.21. White blood cells that engulf（吞食）foreign particles（异物颗粒）are referred to as_phagocytes___（吞噬细胞）__.22. A substance in serum（免疫血清）that can neutralize（中和）foreign material is referred to as __antitoxin_（抗毒素）___or __antibody__（抗体）__.23. Cells infected with a virus produce a substance called __interfewn____ that inhibits viral replication.24. Avery, Colin and MacLeod first demonstrated that transformation of nonpathogenic（非病原的）to pathogenic strains （致病菌株）of bacteria could be carried out by the transfer of ___DNA___.25. Exchange of genetic information by direct contact is referred to as__conjugation____.26. _transformation_（转化）____ is the process in which DNA is transferred from one bacteria to another.■Matchingl. Francis Bacon a. phagocytosis 吞噬作用2. Anton Leeuwenhoek b. antibody 抗体3. Paul Ehrlich c. nitrification 硝化作用4. Hans Gram d. immunization 免疫法5. Louis Pasteur e. three kingdom classification based on rRNA6. Robert Koch f. structure of DNA7. Joseph Lister g. first microscope 第一台显微镜8. Alexander Fleming h. conjugation or transduction 接合和转导作用9. Edward Jenner i. differential stain for bacteria10. Eli Metchnikoff j. interferon 干扰素11. Emil von Behring k. rabies vaccine 狂犬病疫苗12. Alick Isaac 1. penicillin 青霉素13. Sergei Winogradsky m. antiseptic（防腐剂）technique14. Joshua Lederberg n. established that bacteria can cause disease15. Watson and Crick o. magic bullet16. Carl Woese p. scientific method1.p2.g3.o4.i5.k6.n7.m8.l9.d 10.a 11.b 12.j13.c 14.h 15.f 16.eTest 2: Methods for Studying Microorganisms■Multiple Choice (choose one answer)1. Light microscopy （光学显微镜术）is dependent on the interaction of light with on object. The ability of light to pass through an object is referred to as:B■.transported light■.transmitted light 透射光■.reflected light 反射光■.refracted light 折射光2. The resolving power (R)（分辨率）of a microscope is dependent on the wavelength（波长）of light (;~) and the numerical aperture (NA) of the lens. The formula （公式）for R is: B ■.R = 0.5~. xNA■.R = 0.5;~/NA■.R = NA/0.5Jr■.R = Square root of 0.5)./NA？3. The gram stain（革兰氏染色）uses ~ as a mordant（媒染剂）to fix the primary stain:A ■.iodine 碘■.alcohol 乙醇■.acetone 丙酮■.safranin 番红4. The acid-fast stain （抗酸性染色）is useful in the identification of which of the following organisms:C■.Staphylococcus aureus 金黄色葡萄球菌■.Mycoplasma mycoides 霉菌样支原体■.Mycobacteria tuberculosis 结核分枝杆菌■.Moraxella osloensis 奥斯陆摩拉克菌,5. Botulism（肉毒中毒）is a serious disease that can develop from the improper cooking of food containing bacterial spores（孢子）. Which of the following genera （属）are capable of producing spores?D■.Salmonella 沙门氏菌属■.Listeria 利斯塔氏菌属■.Escherichia 埃希氏菌属■.Clostridia 梭菌属6. Which of the following types of microscopes utilizes electron beams （电子束）to visualize （使可见）objects?B■.Nomarski■.TEM 投射型电子显微镜■.PCM 脉冲■.Confocal 共焦的7. A mixture of organisms was isolated from a patient suspected of having "Strep Throat." （脓毒性咽喉炎）Which type of media would you use to isolate the suspected pathogen（病原体）? D ■.defined■.enriched■.selective■.differential8. Sterilization（灭菌）of material with an autoclave（高压灭菌锅）utilizes steam to kill microorganisms. The correct procedure for sterilization with an autoclave is:A■.15 min at 121℃at 15 lb/in2■.15 min at 256℃at 15 lb/in2■.15 min at 121℃at 1 lb/in2■.15 rain at 121℃at 30 lb/in29. An antibiotic was added to a culture of bacteria to determine its effect. What method of enumeration would you use to determine the efficacy of the antibiotic? B■.direct count 直接计数■.viable count 活菌数■.turbidimetric count 浊度计数■.absorbance 吸光度10. Identification of microorganisms（微生物）can be accomplished（完成）by a number of techniques. Which of the following requires the growth of the organism?C■.enzyme linked assay（含量测定）■.gene probe 基因探针■.metabolic 代谢■.fluorescent 荧光■Fill in the Blank1. A media （培养基）where all the ingredients（成分）are known is called a _defined_____media.2. __aseptic（无菌的）____technique is used to maintain a pure culture（纯培养物）and avoid contamination.（污染）3. Sterilization instrument（灭菌器械）that utilizes steam under pressure: _autoclave_（高压灭菌锅）_____.4.A___streak___ plate utilizes a loop（接种环）or needle（接种针）to distribute and isolate colonies on a culture plate.（培养皿）5.__serological（血清学的）____ identification utilizes antibodies（抗体）for naming of bacterial species.6. Bacteria can be preserved（保藏）for long periods of time by freeze-drying（冷冻干燥）or__lyophilization____（冻干保藏法）.7. The mrbidimetric method of counting bacteria utilizes a _spectrophotometer（分光光度计）_____ to measure the amount of light passing through a solution.8. The viable plate（平板细菌计数）count counts live bacterial colonies（菌落）in the range or____30__ to__300____ .9. A counting chamber（计数板）and a microscope （显微镜）are used in the_direct_____ count of bacteria.10. The _gene probe_（基因探针）____technique utilizes a labeled（示踪的）complementary strand of nucleic acid to identify specific bacteria in a specimen.（样本）■MatchingMatching I:l. Primary stain for gram stain a. Negative stain 负染色2. Stains bacterial cell b. Carbohl fuchsin 品红3. Used to fix stain c. Crystal violet 结晶紫4. Decolorize脱色 d. Malachite green 孔雀绿5. Spore stain e. Safranin 番红6. Acid-fast stain f. Positive stain 正染7. Gram- bacteria take up this counterstain g. Alcohol 乙醇8. Stains background h. Mordant 媒染剂Matching II:1. Media used to inhibit growth of unwanted organisms a. Enrichment 富集2. Media where all components are not known b. Selective 选择性的3. Media used to contrast organisms on same plate c. Differential4. Media used to enhance growth d. ComplexMatching I:1.c2.f.3.h4.g5.d.6. b7.e8.aMatching II:1.b2.d3.c4.aTest 3: Organization and Structure of Microorganisms■Multiple Choice (choose one answer)1. Eukaryotic membranes can be differentiated from prokaryotic membranes because eukaryotic membranes contain____as part of the lipid（脂质）component of the membrane. D ■.phosphates 磷酸盐类■.fatty acids 脂肪酸类■.proteins 蛋白类■.sterols 甾醇类2. The arrangement of proteins and lipids in the membrane is referred to as the:B■.bilayer model 双层膜模型■.fluid mosaic model 流动镶嵌模型■.trilayer model■.permeable（有渗透性的）model3. The movement of water molecules across the membrane in response to a concentration gradient is referred to as: B■.diffusion 扩散■.osmosis 渗透■.translocation 易位■.transport 运输4. The membrane of a cell is able to differentiate molecules that enter or exit the cell and act as a ____ barrier（屏障）. C■.semipermanent 半永久性■.semitransparent 半透明的■.semipermeable 半渗透性的■.semidiffuse5. Movement of molecules at an enhanced rate across the membrane is called: A■.facilitated diffusion 易化扩散■.passive diffusion 被动扩散■.osmosis 渗透作用■.permeation6. Which of the following mechanisms transports molecules without chemical alteration? A■.active transport 主动运输■.group translocation基团转位■.facilitated diffusion易化扩散■.binding protein transport 蛋白质转运7. Which of the following transport mechanism occurs only in Gram-negative bacteria?D■.active transport 主动运输■.group translocation 基团转位■.facilitated diffusion 易化扩散■.binding protein transport蛋白质转运8. Which of the following transport mechanisms occurs only in prokaryotes? B■.active transport■.group translocation■.facilitated diffusion■.binding protein transport9. Lysozyme（溶菌酶）and penicillin （青霉素）have activity against the cell wall. Lysozyme breaks this component;penicillin prevents its formation. C■.lipopolysaccharide 脂多糖■.phospholipid 磷脂■.peptidoglycan 肽聚糖■.teichoic acid 磷壁酸10. Partial destruction of the cell wall with lysozyme leaves a cell called a: B■.protoplast 原生质体■.spheroplast 原生质球■.periplast 周质体■.capsule 荚膜11. A capsule（荚膜）can be differentiated from a slime layers（粘液层）since the capsule: D■.is made up of complex carbohydrates（复合糖）and the slime layer contains protein ■.is bound to the cell membrane■.is bound to the cell wall■.is bound to the outer membrane12. The chromatin of eukaryotic cells is composed of DNA and____ A■.histone proteins 组蛋白■.non histone proteins■.RNA■.ribosomes13. DNA transfers information to make proteins in molecules referred to as:B■.iRNA■.mRNA■.rRNA■.tRNA14. Mitochondrial ribosomes （线粒体核糖体）are____in size. C■.40S■.60S■.70S■.80S15. The process whereby ATP is generated by the flow of protons （质子）across a membrane is: B■.substrate level phosphorylation 底物水平磷酸化■.chemiosmosis 化学渗透作用■.protokinesis■.glycolysis 糖酵解16. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER)（内质网）is a membranous structure within eukaryotic cells. It is the site for protein synthesis and for storage and transportation of molecules out of the cell. Which part of the ER is used for protein synthesis? B■.golgi apparatus 高尔基体■.rough ER 粗面内质网■.smooth ER 光面内质网■.microbody 微体17. Flagella of bacteria are composed of protein subunits called flagellin（鞭毛蛋白）; eukaryotic flagella are composed of subunits called: D■.flagellin鞭毛蛋白■.cilin■.spectrin 血影蛋白■.tubulin 微管蛋白18. Flagella（鞭毛）are used to propel the cell in response to an environmental signal. Bacterial flagella and eukaryotic flagella can be differentiated since the former moves by:A ■.rotating around its base■.pulling itself once it is attached to a surface or mate■.waving or whipping to move the cell■.twisting and releasing similar to a rubber band19. Endospores（内生孢子）are multilayered structures that provide protection from environmental stress and are composed of: B■.peptidoglycan（肽聚糖）and lipopolysaccharide （脂多糖）■.peptidoglycan and calcium dipicolonate■.peptidoglycan and calcium bicarbonate碳酸脂■.lipopolysaccharide and succinic acid （琥珀酸）20. Gram-positive bacteria can be differentiated from Gram-negative bacteria since the peptidoglycan （肽聚糖）layer of later comprises____% of the cell wall. D■.90■.50■.30■.10■Fill in the Blank1. Most cells use energy in the form of__ATP____ to run the cell.2. Phospholipids（磷脂类）of eubacterial cells are composed of a __phosphate （磷酸盐）____group and a _fatty acid____on a glycerol（甘油）backbone.3. Membrane proteins found on the surface are called __peripheral（次要的）____ proteins.4.The energy source for active transport in eukaryotes is derived from ATP.The energy for active transport in prokaryotes is derived from __protomotive force____.5. The region between the outermembrane in Gram-negative（革兰阴性）bacteria and the cell wall is called the ___periplasmic space_（壁膜间隙）___.6. Extrachromosomal（染色体外的）DNA elements found in bacteria are called____plasmids____.7. Ribosomes are structures composed of ____proteins___ and ____rRNA__.8. The fluid inside a cell is referred to as the ___cytoplasm_____.9.The hereditary organelle （具遗传效应的细胞器）of eukaryotic cells is called the __nucleus____.10. The process by which a cell engulfs（吞食）and internalizes（陷入）particles such as bacteria or other cells is called ____phagocytosis_（吞噬作用）_.■Matchingl. Prokaryotes原核生物 a. hook and basal body2. Eukaryotes真核生物 b. end of cell3. hydrophobic 疏水的 c. microtubles4. Hydrophilic亲水的 d. pill5. Permease通透酶 e. eukaryotes6. eubacteria 真细菌 f. surrounding cell7. Archeobacteria古细菌g. 9 + 2 arrangement8. cellulose 纤维素h. prokaryotes9. chitin 几丁质i. fatty acid10. circular chromosome 环状染色体j. algae11.linear chromosome线状染色体k. transport protein12. 70 S ribosomes 1. lack organelles无细胞器13. 80 S ribosomes m. posses nucleus14. Polar（两极的）flagella n. water loving 亲水性15. Peritrichous（周围的）flagella o. fungi 真菌16.bacterial flagella p. L-amino acids17. eukaryotic flagella q. D-amino acids18. fimbria 菌毛19. cilia 纤毛20. cytoskeleton 细胞骨架1.l2.m,j,o3.n4.i5.k6.p7.q8.j9.o 10.h 11.e,j,o 12.h,j,o13.e 14.b 15.f 16.a17.g 18.d 19.e 20.cTest 4 : Prokaryotes■Genus Match: (Match the Genus with the Appropriate Group)Match the Genus with the Appropriate Group:l. Spirochete 螺旋体 a. Halococcus 噬盐球菌属2.Gm- aerobic（好氧的）, motile, vibroid b. Clostridium 梭菌属3.3. Gm- aerobic cocci （球菌） c. VeiUonella4.Gm- facultative （兼性的）rod （杆状） d. Caulobacter 柄杆菌属5.5. Gm- anerobic（厌氧的）rod e. Treponema 密螺旋体6. Gm- anaerobic cocci f. Myxococcus 粘球菌7. Budding（芽殖）/appendaged g. Streptococcus 链球菌8. Fruiting body子实体h. Pyrobaculum 热棒菌属9. Gm+ cocci i. Campylobacter 弯曲杆菌10. Gm+ rods (no spores) j. Methanococcus 产甲烷球菌11. Gm+ rods (endospores内孢子) k. Listeria 李斯特菌属12. Gm+ irregular rod 1. Bacteroides 拟杆菌属13. Halophile 喜盐生物m. Neisseria 奈瑟氏菌14. Thermophile 噬热生物n. Salmonella 沙门氏菌15. Methanogen 产烷生物o. Corynebacteria 棒状杆菌l.e 2.I 3.m4.n5.16.c7.d 8.d 9.g10.k 11.b 12.o13.a 14.h 15.j■Characteristic Match: (Match the Characteristic with the Appropriate Genus or Group)Match the Characteristic with the Appropriate Genus or Group:l. Borrelia 包柔氏螺旋体 a. sulfur reducing 硫降低2. Helicobacter 螺杆菌 b. acid fast 耐酸的3. Shigella 志贺氏杆菌 c. Gm+ rod（杆状）, aerobic（需氧）,endospores （内孢子）4.Desulfovibrio 硫磷弧菌属 d. gliding 滑动5. Chlamydia 衣原体 e. psedomurein6. Anabaena 鱼腥藻 f. cyanobacteria 蓝藻细菌7. Chemolithotrophic无机化能营g. Helical（螺旋形）rod, no central fibrils （中央纤维）8. Caulobacter 柄杆菌属h. helical rod, central fibrils9. Cytophaga 纤维菌属i. filamentous 丝状的10. Staphylococcus葡萄球菌j. obligate intracellular parasite必须寄生在细胞的寄生虫11. Bacillus 芽孢杆菌k. Gm+ cocci in clusters12. Actimomycetes 1. Enterobacteriacea13. Mycoplasma 支原体m. Nitrobacter 硝化杆菌属14. Mycobacteria 分枝杆菌n. prosthecae 菌柄15. Methanogen 产甲烷菌o. fried egg1.h2.g3.14.a5.j6.f7.m 8.n 9.d10.k 11.c 12.f13.o 14.b 15.eTest 5: Eukaryotes■Multiple Choice (choose one answer)l. Fungi are considered heterotrophic（非自养的）because they obtain nutrition through: C ■. phagocytosis 吞噬作用■. endocytosis 内吞作用■. adsorption 吸附作用■. photosynthesis 光合作用2. The separation between filamentous（丝状的）fungal cells are referred to as:B■. cell walls■. septa 隔膜■. chitin 几丁质■. side walls 侧壁3. Fungi that can appear as a yeast or filamentous are referred to as:D■. Fungi imperfecti 半知菌纲■. Fungi perfecti■. cheterotrophic fungi■. dimorphic fungi4. Thick walled spores（厚壁孢子）formed within fungal cells are called:D■. Arthrospores分节孢子■. sporangiospores 包囊孢子■. blastospores 芽生孢子■. chlamydospores 后垣孢子5. Asexual fungal spores that are formed from fragmented hyphae（支离破碎的菌丝）are called:A■. arthrospores■. sporangiospores■. ascospores■. chlamydospores6. Asexual fungal spores formed within a sac-like structure are called:B■. arthrospores■. sporangiospores■. blastospores■. ascospores7. Sexual fungal spores（孢子）formed within a sac-like structure are called:D■. Chlamydospores厚垣孢子■. sporangiospores 包囊孢子■. blastospores 芽孢子■. ascospores 子囊孢子8. Which of the following classes of fungi cause hypertrophy （肥大）of cells similar to the bacterium A. tumifaciens?C■. Oomycetes■. Ascomycetes■. Chytridiomycetes■. Deuteromycetes9. Which of the following fungi are motile by two flagella（鞭毛）? A■. Oomycetes 卵菌■. Ascomycetes 子囊菌■. Chytridiomycetes 壶菌纲■. Deuteromycetes 半知菌纲10. Common bread mold（发霉）is caused by Rhizopus stolonifer匍枝根霉which is a: D■. Deuteromycete■. Ascomycete■. Basidiomycete■. Zygomycete11. Ascomycetes子囊菌can be differentiated from zygomycetes 接合菌since the ascomycetes have hyphae菌丝.B■. septated 有隔膜■. aseptated 无隔膜12. Which of the following fungi have a sexual reproductive phase? B■. Coccidiodes 球孢子菌■. Histoplasma 组织浆胞菌■. Aspergillus 曲霉■. Alternaria 链格孢属13. Which class of fungi do not have a sexual reproductive phase（有性生殖阶段）? A■. Deuteromycete 半知菌■. Ascomycete 子囊菌■. Basidiomycete 担子菌■. Zygomycete 结合菌14. The cell structures of bracket（多孔菌）fungi are referred to as: A■. Septa隔膜■. basidiocarp 担子果■. anteridium■. Zygomycet15. The toxin （毒素）from which of the following mushrooms inhibits polymerase activity（聚合酶活性）?A■. Agaricus bisporous■. Ischnorderma resinosum■. anteridium■. Zygomycet16. The common mushroom（蘑菇）belongs to which group of fungi? B■. Ascomycetes 子囊菌纲■. Basidiomycetes 担子菌纲■. Chytridiomycetes 壶菌纲■. Deuteromycetes 半知菌纲17. Which of the following Deuteromycetes（半知菌）are often colored green and the conidiospores（分生孢子）are arranged in a brush shape?A■. Penicillium 青霉菌■. Alternaria 链格孢属■. Coccidiodes 球孢子菌■. Geotrichum 地霉菌属18. All of the following algae are green with the exception of D■. Euglena 裸藻■. Volvox 团藻■. Spirogyra 绿藻■. Nemalion19. Which algae contain a red pigmented area known as the eyespot?（眼点） B■. Euglenoids■. Chlorophycophyta■. Rhodophycophyta■. Phaeophycophyta20. The outer layer of Euglena（裸藻）is called: C■. cell wall■. fmstule■. pellicle 菌膜■. blade21. Xanthophyll pigments give algae a color. C■. red■. blue■. yellow■. green22. Which of the following algae are closer phylogenetically（系统发育）to higher plants（高等植物）? C■. brown algae■. yellow-green algae■. red algae■. green algae23. The storage material, paramylon, is made in which of the following groups of algae（藻类）?A■. euglenoid 眼虫藻■. red algae 红藻■. green algae 绿藻■. brown algae 褐藻24. The mouth of a ciliated protozoa（有纤毛的原生动物）is called a: B■. Phagosome吞噬体■. cytosome 胞质体■. lysosome 溶酶体■. porosome25. Sarcodina （肉足纲）are protozoa that are propelled （推进）by:B■. flagella■. cilia■. pseudopodia■. they are technically nonmotile26. Trypanosomes（椎体虫）belong to which group of protozoa: A■. pseudopodia formers■. ciliates■. spore formers27. Plasmodium 疟原虫is grouped as a:D■. flagellates■. pseudopodia formers■. ciliates■. spore formers28. The mature form of spore （孢子）forming protozoa （原生动物）are called: C■. protozoites■. sporozoites■. trophozoites■. cytozoite29. Paramecium （草履虫）are classified as: C■. Flagellates鞭毛虫类■. pseudopodia（伪足）formers■. ciliates 纤毛虫类■. spore formers 芽孢菌30. The resting stage of a protozoa （原生动物）are called:D■. Trophozoites营养体■. sporozoites 孢子体■. saprozoites 腐生动物■. cysts 囊肿■Fill in the Blank1. Unicellular fungi are called __yeasts____.2. Filamentous fungi form branching structures called _hyphae_____.3. The most common form of reproduction in yeasts occurs by __budding____.4.Silica is found in the cell wall of __diatoms____.5. The external structures of mushrooms are referred to as ___fruiting_bodies_.6. The growth of fungi can be expressed by (_measuring the increase in the mass of the fungus____).7. Red tide is caused by a toxin released by the organism, Gonyaulax, which belongs to the __fire algae____ group of fungi.8. Agar is made from this group of algae: __brown algae____.9.Trypanosoma gambiense causes the disease __African sleeping sickness____.10. A flagellate protozoa that can be found in mountain streams and causes diarrhea is __Giardia____.Test 6: Bacterial Growth and Reproduction■Multiple Choice (choose one answer)1.In bacterial cultures, growth can be demonstrated by an increase in: C■.mass■.cell size■.cell number2.DNA replication in bacteria is controlled by: B■.cell size■.cell division 细胞分裂■.cell separation■.cell initiation3.During which phase of bacterial growth is there an increase in cell size but not in cell number? A■.lag 滞后■.log 对数■.stationary 稳定期■.exponential 指数期4. The generation time（寿命）for bacteria is determined by: D■.measuring the time it takes to double the number of bacteria from the time the culture （培养）was initiated until the beginning of stationary phase 稳定期■.measuring the time it takes to double the number of bacteria from lag phase（迟滞期）to death phase衰亡期■.measuring the time it takes to double the number of bacteria from log phase to the end of stationary phase■.measuring the time it takes to double the number of bacteria from log phase to the beginning of stationary phase5. Most pathogenic bacteria（致病菌）are considered: B■.psychrophiles 嗜冷微生物■.mesophiles 嗜温微生物■.thermophiles 嗜熱菌■.merophiles6. Bacteria that grow at low nutrient concentrations（营养浓度）are referred to as:D■.autotrophs 自养生物■.phototrophs 光合自养微生物■.copiotrophs■.oligotrophs7. In times of nutrient deficiencies（营养不足）, the bacteria Clostridium（芽孢杆菌）produce____until conditions are permissive for vegetative growth.（营养生长）B ■.prosthecae 菌柄■.spores 芽孢■.stalks 茎杆■.fruiting bodies 子实体8. The temperature of the incubator（恒温箱）was raised from 15~(2 to 35~(2. The cultures（培养物）in the incubator demonstrated a____fold increase in enzymatic（酶活性）activity. B ■.two■.four■.eight■.twenty9. Organisms that grow at or near their optimal（最佳的）growth temperature are called:B■.stenothermal（狭温性的）bacteria■.euthermal bacteria■.cauldoactive bacteria■.mesophilic bacteria 嗜常温菌10. All of the following are toxic oxygen products（有毒氧化产物）except: D■.02■.OH-■.H20■.H20211.Catalase（过氧化氢酶）, which is produced by Staphylococci（葡萄球菌）, catalyzes（催化）which of the following reactions?C■.202+ 2H+ →2H202 + 02■.2H202→2H20 + 02■.H202 + NADH + H+→2H20 + NAD■.H202 + e- + H+→H2O + OH-12. A saturated solution（饱和溶液）of NaC1 has a water activity index of:C■.1.0■.0.90■.0.80■.0.7013. Organisms that can grow at a water index（指数，标准）at or below that of NaCI are called:A■.xero tolerant 耐旱的■.salt tolerant 耐盐的■.meso tolerant■.salo tolerant14. All of the following organisms will survive an environment of 0.9 Aw（水分活度）except: D■.Lactobacillus 乳酸菌■.Staphylococcus 葡萄球菌■.Saccharomyces 酵母菌■.SpiriUum15. Halophiles （嗜盐微生物）are classified as organisms that require ____for growth. B■.sugar■.salt■.water■.air16. Osmophiles （嗜高渗菌）require a ____Aw水分活度for growth. B■.low■.high17. The pressure exerted on a cell due to high solute concentrations is referred to as:A■.osmotic pressure 渗透压■.hydrostatic pressure 液体静压力■.barometric pressure 气压■.surface tension 表面张力18. A diver encountered a new bacterial isolate while she was diving at 1000 m. The organism will be classified （归类为）as: D■.marine■.barotolerant■.barophilic 适压的■.normal19. Fungi can be differentiated from most bacteria by culturing（培养）at:B■.marine 海洋■.low pH■.neutral pH20. All phototacfic bacteria respond to light by: D■.moving away from the source of light 远离光源■.moving toward the source of light 向光源移动■.increasing the movement of their flagella 增加鞭毛■.creating gas vesicles to rise to the surface 产生气泡浮出水面■Fill in the Blank1. Organisms that grow best above 40oC are called__thermophile____.2. Organisms that grow best below 20oC are called___psychrophile___.3. Organisms that grow best between 20 and 40oC are called _mesophile_____.4.Myxobacteria form unique structures called _fruiting body_____ to cope with nutrient deficiencies.5. Bacteria that grow only at reduced oxygen concentrations are called __obligate anaerobe_____.6. Bacteria that require oxygen for growth are called__obligate aerobe___.7. Bacteria that grow at high nutrient concentrations are called __copiotroph____.8. Caulobacter is an example of a _stalked_____ bacteria.9.At temperatures above the optimum, E. coli and other bacteria induce a change in gene expression called___heat shock response___.10. A change in hydrostatic pressure of 10 atm is experience with an increase in depth of ___100___ m.■MatchingCell Cycle Matching:l. C a. cell enlargement2. M b. condensation of chromosomes 染色质的浓缩3. G1 c. replication of the genome 基因组的复制4. G2 d. separation of chromosomes 染色体的分离5. S e. cell division 细胞分裂1.e2.d3.a4.b5.cTest 7: Control of Microbial Growth■Multiple Choice (choose one answer)1.Chemicals used on the body to control microorganisms are called:A(使用于尸体上用以抑制细菌生长的化学物质被称为）■.antiseptics 防腐剂■.disinfectants 消毒剂■.antibiotics 抗生素。