汽车制动系统-毕业设计外文资料翻译

3.1 ClutchThe engine produces the power to drive the vehicle. The drive line or drive train transfers the power of the engine to the wheels. The drive train consists of the parts from the back of the fl ywheel to the wheels. These parts include the clutch, the transmission, the drive shaft, and the final drive assembly.The clutch which includes the flywheel, clutch disc, pressure plate, springs, pressure plate cover and the linkage necessary to operate the clutch is a rotating mechanism between the engine and the transmission. It operates through friction which comes from contact between the parts. That is the reason why the clutch is called a friction mechanism. After engagement, the clutch must continue to transmit all engine torque to transmission depending on the friction without slippage. The clutch is also used to disengage the engine from the drive train whenever the gears in the transmission are being shifted from gear ratio to another.To start the engine or shift the gears, the driver has to depr ess the clutch pedal with the purpose of disengagement the transmission from the engine. At that time, the driven members connected to the transmission input shaft are either stationary or rotating at a speed that is slower of faster than the driving membe rs connected to engine crankshaft. There is no spring pressure on the clutch assembly parts. So there is no friction between the driving members and driven members. As the driver let’s loose the clutch pedal, spring pressure increase on the clutch parts. Friction between the parts also increases. The pressure exerted by the springs on the driven members is controlled by the driver through the clutch pedal and linkage. The positive engagement of the driving and driven members is made possible the friction be tween the surfaces of the members. When full spring pressure is applied, the speed of the driving and driven members should be the same. At themoment, the clutch must act as a coupling device and transmit all engine power to the transmission, without slipping.However, the transmission should be engaged to the engine graduall y in order to operate the car smoothly and minimize tensional shock on the drive train because an engine at idle just develop little power. Otherwise, the driving members are connecte d with the driven members too quickly and the engine would be stalled.The fl ywheel is a major part of the clutch. The flywheel mounts to the engine’s crankshaft and transmits engine torque to the clutch assembly. The flywheel, when coupled with the clutc h disc and pressure plate makes and breaks the flow of power the engine to the transmission.The flywheel provides a mounting location for the clutch assembly as well. When the clutch is applied, the fl ywheel transfers engine torque to the clutch disc. Because of its weight, the fl ywheel helps to smooth engine operation. The flywheel also has a large ring gear at its outer edge, which engages with a pinion gear on the starter motor during engine cranking.The clutch disc fits between the fl ywheel and the pressure plate. The clutch disc has a splinted hub that fits over splints on the transmission input shaft. A splinted hub has grooves that match splints on the shaft. These splints fit in the grooves. Thus, the two parts held together. However, back – and – forth movement of the disc on the shaft is possible. Attached to the input shaft, the disc turns at the speed of the shaft.The clutch pressure plate is generall y made of cast iron. It is round and about the same diameter as the clutch disc. One side of the pressure plate is machined smooth. This side will press the clutch disc facing are against the flywheel. The outer side has shapes to facilitate attachment of spring and release mechanism. The two primary t ypes of pressure plate assemblies are coil sp ring assembly and diaphragm spring.In a coil spring clutch the pressure plate is backed by a number of coil springs and housed with them in a pressed –steed cover bolted to the flywheel. The spring pushes against the cover. Neither the driven plate nor the pressure plate is connected rigidl y to the flywheel and both can move either towards it o away. When the clutch pedal is depressed a thrust pad riding on a carbon or ball thrust bearing is forced towards the flywheel. Levers pivoted so that they engage with the thrust pad at one end and the pressure plate tat the other end pull the pressure plate back against its springs. This releases pressure on the driven plate disconnecting the gearbox from the engine.Diaphragm spring pressure plate assemblies are widely used in most modern cars. The diaphragm spring is a single thin sheet of metal which yields when pressure is applied to it. When pressure is removed the metal spring back to its original shape. The center portion of the diaphragm spring is slit int o numerous fingers that act as release levers. When the clutch assembly rotates with the engine these weights are flung outwards by centrifugal plate and cause the levers to press against the pressure plate. During disengagement of the clutch the fingers are moved forward by the release bearing. The spring pivots over the fulcrum ring and its outer rim moves away from the flywheel. The retracting spring pulls the pressure plate away from the clutch plate thus disengaging the clutch.When engaged the release bearing and the fingers of the diaphragm spring move towards the transmission. As the diaphragm pivots over the pivot ring its outer rim forces the pressure plate against the clutch disc so that the clutch plate is engaged to flywheel.The advantages of a diaphragm t ype pressure plate assembl y are its compactness, lower weight, fewer moving parts, less effort to engage, reduces rotational imbalance by providing a balanced force around the pressure plate and less chances of clutch slippage.The clutch pedal is connected to the disengagement mechanismeither by a cable or, more commonly, by a hydraulic s ystem. Either way, pushing the pedal down operates the disengagement mechanism which puts pressure on the fingers of the clutch diaphragm via a release bearing and causes the diaphragm to release the clutch plate. With a hydraulic mechanism, the clutch pedal arm operates a piston in the clutch master cylinder. This forces hydraulic fluid through a pipe to the cutch release cylinder where another operates the c lutch disengagement mechanism by a cable.The other parts including the clutch fork, release bearing, bell –housing, bell housing cover, and pilot bushing are needed to couple and uncouple the transmission. The clutch fork, which connects to the linkage, actually operates the clutch. The release bearing fits between the clutch fork and the pressure plate assembly. The bell housing covers the clutch assembly. The bell housing cover fastens to the bottom of the bell housing. This removable cover allows a me chanic to inspect the clutch without removing the transmission and bell housing. A pilot bushing fits into the back of the crankshaft and holds the transmission input shaft.3.2 Brake SystemThe breaking system is the most important system in cars. If the brakes fail, the result can be disastrous. Brakes are actually energy conversion devices, which convert the kinetic energy (momentum) of the vehicle into thermal (heat). When stepping on the brakes, the driver commands a stopping force ten times as powerfu l as the force that puts the car in motion. The braking system can exert thousands of pounds of pressure on each of the four brakes.The brake s ystem is composed of the following basic components: the “master cylinder” which is located under the hood, and is directl yconnected to the brake pedal, converts driver foot’s mechanical pressure into hydraulic pressure. Steel “brake lines” and flexible “brake hoses” connect the master cylinder to the “slave cylinders” located at each wheel. Brake fluid, speciall y designed to work in extreme condition, fills the system. “Shoes” and “Pads” are pushed by the salve cylinders to contact the “drum” and “rotors” thus causing drag, which (hopefull y) slows the car.The typical brake system consists of disk brakes in front and either disk or drum brakes in the rear connected by a system of tubes and hoses that link the brake at each wheel to the master cylinder.Stepping on the brake pedal, a plunger is actually been pushing against in the master cylinder which forces hydr aulic oil (brake fluid) through a series of tubes and hoses to the braking unit at each wheel. Since hydraulic fluid (or any fluid for that matter) cannot be compressed, pushing fluid through a pipe is just like pushing a steel bar through pipe. Unlike a s teel bar, however, fluid can be directed through many twists and turns on its way to its destination, arriving with the exact same motion and pressure that it started with. It is very important that the fluid is pure liquid and that there is no air bubbles in it. Air can compress which causes sponginess to the pedal and severely reduced braking efficiency. If air is suspected, then the system must be bled to remove the air. There are “bleeder screws” at each wheel and caliper for this purpose.On disk brakes, the fluid from the master cylinder is forced into a caliper where it pressure against a piston. The piton, in-turn, squeezes two brake pads against the disk (rotor) which is attached to the wheel, forcing it to slow down or stop. This process is simila r to the wheel, causing the wheel to stop. In either case, the friction surface of the pads on a disk brake system, on the shoes on a drum brake convert the forward motion of the vehicle into heat. Heat is what causes the friction surfaces (lining) of the pads and shoes to eventually wear out andrequire replacement.Brake fluid is special oil that has specifics properties. It is designed to withstand cold temperatures without thickening as well as very high temperatures without boiling. (If the brake flui d should boil, it will cause you to have a spongy pedal and the car will be hard to stop).The brake fluid reservoir is on top of the master cylinder. Most cars today have a transparent reservoir so that you can see the level without opening the cover. Th e brake fluid lever will drop slightl y as the brake pads wear. This is a normal condition and no cause for concern. If the lever drops noticeabl y over a short period of time or goes down to about two thirds full, have your brakes checked as soon as possible. Keep the reservoir covered expect for the amount of time you need to fill it and never leave a can of brake fluid uncovered. Brake fluid must maintain a very high boiling point. Exposure to air will cause the fluid to absorb moisture which will lower th at boiling point.The brake fluid travels from the master cylinder to the wheels through a series of steel tubes and reinforced rubber hoses. Rubber hoses are onl y used in places that require flexibility, such as at the front wheels, which move up and dow n as well as steer. The rest of the system uses non-corrosive seamless steel tubing with special fittings at attachment points. If a steel line requires a repair, the best procedure is to replace the complete line. If this is nit practical, a line can be repaired using special splice fittings that are made for brake system repair. You must never use brass “compression” fittings or copper tubing repair a brake system. They are dangerous and illegal.3.2.1 Other Components in the Hydraulic System Proportioning Valve or Equalizer ValveThese valves are mounted between the master cylinder and the rear wheels. They are designed to adjust the pressure between the front and the rear brakes depending on how hard you are stopping. The shorter you stop, the mor e of the vehicle’s weight is transferred to the front wheels, in some cases, causing the rear to lift and the front to dive. These valves are designed to direct more pressure to the front and less pressure to the harder you stop. This minimizes the chance of premature lockup at the rear wheels.Pressure Differential ValveThis valve is usually mounted just below the master and is responsible for turning the brake warning light on when it detects a malfunction. It measures the pressure from the two sections of the master cylinder and compares them. Since it is mounted ahead of the proportioning or equalizer valve, the two pressures it detects should be equal. If it detects a difference, it means that there is probably a brake fluid leak somewhere in the syst em.3．1 离合器发动机产生动力来驱动汽车，它通过传动系把动力传递到车轮上，传动系包含从飞轮到车轮的所有零件。

Automobile Brake SystemThe braking system is the most important system in cars. If the brakes fail, the result can be disastrous. Brakes are actually energy conversion devices, which convert the kinetic energy (momentum) of the vehicle into thermal energy (heat).When stepping on the brakes, the driver commands a stopping force ten times as powerful as the force that puts the car in motion. The braking system can exert thousands of pounds of pressure on each of the four brakes.Two complete independent braking systems are used on the car. They are the service brake and the parking brake.The service brake acts to slow, stop, or hold the vehicle during normal driving. They are foot-operated by the driver depressing and releasing the brake pedal. The primary purpose of the brake is to hold the vehicle stationary while it is unattended. The parking brake is mechanically operated by when a separate parking brake foot pedalor hand lever is set.The brake system is composed of the following basic components: the “master cylinder” which is located under the hood, and is directly connected to the brake pedal, converts driver foot’s mechanical pressure into hydraulic pressure. Steel “brake lines” and flexible “brake hoses” connect the master cylinder to the “slave cylinders” located at each wheel. Brake fluid, specially designed to work in extreme conditions, fills the system. “Shoes” and “pads” are pushed by the slave cylinders to contact the “drums” and “rotors” thus causing drag, which (hopefully) slows the car.The typical brake system consists of disk brakes in front and either disk or drum brakes in the rear connected by a system of tubes and hoses that link the brake at each wheel to the master cylinder (Figure).Basically, all car brakes are friction brakes. When the driver applies the brake, the control device forces brake shoes, or pads, against the rotating brake drum or disks at wheel. Friction between the shoes or pads and the drums or disks then slows or stops the wheel so that the car is braked.In most modern brake systems (see Figure 15.1), there is a fluid-filled cylinder, called master cylinder, which contains two separate sections, there is a piston in each section and both pistons are connected to a brake pedal in the driver’s compartment. When the brake is pushed down, brake fluid is sent from the master cylinder to the wheels.At the wheels, the fluid pushes shoes, or pads, against revolving drums or disks. The friction between the stationary shoes, or pads, and the revolving drums or disks slows and stops them. This slows or stops the revolving wheels, which, in turn, slow or stop the car.The brake fluid reservoir is on top of the master cylinder. Most cars today have a transparent r reservoir so that you can see the level without opening the cover. The brake fluid level will drop slightly as the brake pads wear. This is a normal condition and no cause for concern. If the level drops noticeably over ashort period of time or goes down to about two thirds full, have your brakes checked as soon as possible. Keep the reservoir covered except for the amount of time you need to fill it and never leave a cam of brake fluid uncovered. Brake fluid must maintain a very high boiling point. Exposure to air will cause the fluid to absorb moisture which will lower that boiling point.The brake fluid travels from the master cylinder to the wheels through a series of steel tubes and reinforced rubber hoses. Rubber hoses are only used in places that require flexibility, such as at the front wheels, which move up and down as well as steer. The rest of the system uses non-corrosive seamless steel tubing with special fittings at all attachment points. If a steel line requires a repair, the best procedure is to replace the compete line. If this is not practical, a line can be repaired using special splice fittings that are made for brake system repair. You must never use copper tubing to repair a brake system. They are dangerous and illegal.Drum brakes, it consists of the brake drum, an expander, pull back springs, a stationary back plate, two shoes with friction linings, and anchor pins. The stationary back plate is secured to the flange of the axle housing or to the steering knuckle. The brake drum is mounted on the wheel hub. There is a clearance between the inner surface of the drum and the shoe lining. To apply brakes, the driver pushes pedal, the expander expands the shoes and presses them to the drum. Friction between the brake drum and the friction linings brakes the wheels and the vehicle stops. To releaseAnti-lock brake systems make braking safer and more convenient, Anti-lock brake systems modulate brake system hydraulic pressure to prevent the brakes from locking and the tires from skidding on slippery pavement or during a panic stop.Anti-lock brake systems have been used on aircraft for years, and some domestic car were offered with an early form of anti-lock braking in late 1990’s. Recently, several automakers have introduced more sophisticated anti-lock system. Investigations in Europe, where anti-lock brakin g systems have been available for a decade, have led one manufacture to state that the number of traffic accidents could be reduced by seven and a half percent if all cars had anti-lock brakes. So some sources predict that all cars will offer anti-lock brakes to improve the safety of the car.Anti-lock systems modulate brake application force several times per second to hold the tires at a controlled amount of slip; all systems accomplish this in basically the same way. One or more speed sensors generate alternating current signal whose frequency increases with the wheel rotational speed. An electronic control unit continuously monitors these signals and if the frequency of a signal drops too rapidly indicating that a wheel is about to lock, the control unit instructs a modulating device to reduce hydraulic pressure to the brake at the affected wheel. When sensor signals indicate the wheel is again rotating normally, the control unit allows increased hydraulic pressure to the brake. This release-apply cycle occurs several time per second to “pump” the brakes like a driver might but a t a much faster rate.In addition to their basic operation, anti-lock systems have two other things in common. First, they do not operate until the brakes are applied with enough force to lock or nearly lock a wheel. At all other times, the system stands ready to function but does not interfere with normal braking. Second, if the anti-lock system fail in any way, the brakes continue to operate without anti-lock capability. A warning light on the instrument panel alerts the driver when a problem exists in the anti-lock system.The current Bosch component Anti-lock Braking System (ABSⅡ), is a second generation design wildly used by European automakers such as BWM,Mercedes-Benz and Porsche. ABSⅡsystem consists of : four wheel speed sensor, electronic control unit and modulator assembly.A speed sensor is fitted at each wheel sends signals about wheel rotation to control unit. Each speed sensor consists of a sensor unit and a gear wheel. The front sensor mounts to the steering knuckle and its gear wheel is pressed onto the stub axle that rotates with the wheel. The rear sensor mounts the rear suspension member and its gear wheel is pressed onto the axle. The sensor itself is a winding with a magnetic core. The core creates a magnetic field around the winding, and as the teeth of the gear wheel move through this field, an alternating current is induced in the winding. The control unit monitors the rate o change in this frequency to determine impending brake lockup.The control unit’s function can be divided into three parts: signal processing, logic and safety circuitry. The signal processing section is the converter that receives the alternating current signals form the speed sensors and converts them into digital form for the logic section. The logic section then analyzes the digitized signals to calculate any brake pressure changes needed. If impending lockup is sensed, the logic section sends commands to the modulator assembly.Modulator assemblyThe hydraulic modulator assembly regulates pressure to the wheel brakes when it receives commands from the control utuit. The modulator assembly can maintain or reduce pressure over the level it receives from the master cylinder, it also can never apply the brakes by itself. The modulator assembly consists of three high-speed electric solenoid valves, two fluid reservoirs and a turn delivery pump equipped with inlet and outlet check valves. The modulator electrical connector and controlling relays are concealed under a plastic cover of the assembly.Each front wheel is served by electric solenoid valve modulated independently by the control unit. The rear brakes are served by a single solenoid valve and modulated together using the select-low principle. During anti-braking system operation, the control unit cycles the solenoid valves to either hold or release pressure the brake lines. When pressure is released from the brake lines during anti-braking operation, it is routed to a fluid reservoir. There is one reservoir for the front brake circuit. The reservoirs are low-pressure accumulators that store fluid under slight spring pressure until the return delivery pump can return the fluid through the brake lines to the master cylinder.汽车制动系统制动系统是汽车中最重要的系统。

中英文对照资料外文翻译文献Automobile Brake SystemThe braking system is the most important system in cars. If the brakes fail, the result can be disastrous. Brakes are actually energy conversion devices, which convert the kinetic energy (momentum) of the vehicle into thermal energy (heat).When stepping on the brakes, the driver commands a stopping force ten times as powerful as the force that puts the car in motion. The braking system can exert thousands of pounds of pressure on each of the four brakes.Two complete independent braking systems are used on the car. They are the service brake and the parking brake.The service brake acts to slow, stop, or hold the vehicle during normal driving. They are foot-operated by the driver depressing and releasing the brake pedal. The primary purpose of the brake is to hold the vehicle stationary while it is unattended. The parking brake is mechanically operated by when a separate parking brake foot pedal or hand lever is set.The brake system is composed of the following basic components: the “master cylinder” which is located under the hood, and is directly connected tothe brake pedal, converts driver foot’s mechanical pressure into hydraulic pressure. Steel “brake lines” and flexible “brake hoses” connect the master cylin der to the “slave cylinders” located at each wheel. Brake fluid, specially designed to work in extreme conditions, fills the system. “Shoes” and “pads” are pushed by the slave cylinders to contact the “drums” and “rotors” thus causing drag, which (hopefully) slows the car.The typical brake system consists of disk brakes in front and either disk or drum brakes in the rear connected by a system of tubes and hoses that link the brake at each wheel to the master cylinder (Figure).Basically, all car brakes are friction brakes. When the driver applies the brake, the control device forces brake shoes, or pads, against the rotating brake drum or disks at wheel. Friction between the shoes or pads and the drums or disks then slows or stops the wheel so that the car is braked.In most modern brake systems (see Figure 15.1), there is a fluid-filled cylinder, called master cylinder, which contains two separate sections, there is a piston in each section and both pistons are connected to a brake pedal in the driver’s com partment. When the brake is pushed down, brake fluid is sent from the master cylinder to the wheels.At the wheels, the fluid pushes shoes, or pads, against revolving drums or disks. The friction between the stationary shoes, or pads, and the revolving drums or disks slows and stops them. This slows or stops the revolving wheels, which, in turn, slow or stop the car.The brake fluid reservoir is on top of the master cylinder. Most cars today have a transparent r reservoir so that you can see the level without opening the cover. The brake fluid level will drop slightly as the brake pads wear. This is a normal condition and no cause for concern. If the level drops noticeably over ashort period of time or goes down to about two thirds full, have your brakes checked as soon as possible. Keep the reservoir covered except for the amount of time you need to fill it and never leave a cam of brake fluid uncovered. Brake fluid must maintain a very high boiling point. Exposure to air will cause the fluid to absorb moisture which will lower that boiling point.The brake fluid travels from the master cylinder to the wheels through a series of steel tubes and reinforced rubber hoses. Rubber hoses are only used in places that require flexibility, such as at the front wheels, which move up and down as well as steer. The rest of the system uses non-corrosive seamless steel tubing with special fittings at all attachment points. If a steel line requires a repair, the best procedure is to replace the compete line. If this is not practical, a line can be repaired using special splice fittings that are made for brake system repair. Y ou must never use copper tubing to repair a brake system. They are dangerous and illegal.Drum brakes, it consists of the brake drum, an expander, pull back springs, a stationary back plate, two shoes with friction linings, and anchor pins. The stationary back plate is secured to the flange of the axle housing or to the steering knuckle. The brake drum is mounted on the wheel hub. There is aclearance between the inner surface of the drum and the shoe lining. To apply brakes, the driver pushes pedal, the expander expands the shoes and presses them to the drum. Friction between the brake drum and the friction linings brakes the wheels and the vehicle stops. To release brakes, the driver release the pedal, the pull back spring retracts the shoes thus permitting free rotation of the wheels.Disk brakes, it has a metal disk instead of a drum. A flat shoe, or disk-brake pad, is located on each side of the disk. The shoes squeeze the rotatin g disk to stop the car. Fluid from the master cylinder forces the pistons to move in, toward the disk. This action pushes the friction pads tightly against the disk. The friction between the shoes and disk slows and stops it. This provides the braking action. Pistons are made of either plastic or metal. There are three general types of disk brakes. They are the floating-caliper type, the fixed-caliper type, and the sliding-caliper type. Floating-caliper and sliding-caliper disk brakes use a single piston. Fixed-caliper disk brakes have either two or four pistons.The brake system assemblies are actuated by mechanical, hydraulic or pneumatic devices. The mechanical leverage is used in the parking brakes fitted in all automobile. When the brake pedal is depressed, the rod pushes the piston of brake master cylinder which presses the fluid. The fluid flows through the pipelines to the power brake unit and then to the wheel cylinder. The fluid pressure expands the cylinder pistons thus pressing the shoes to the drum or disk. If the pedal is released, the piston returns to the initialposition, the pull backsprings retract the shoes, the fluid is forced back to the master cylinder and braking ceases.The primary purpose of the parking brake is to hold the vehicle stationary while it is unattended. The parking brake is mechanically operated by the driver when a separate parking braking hand lever is set. The hand brake is normally used when the car has already stopped. A lever is pulled and the rear brakes are approached and locked in the “on” position. The car may now be left without fear of its rolling away. When the driver wants to move the car again, he must press a button before the lever can be released. The hand brake must also be able to stop the car in the event of the foot brake failing. For this reason, it is separate from the foot brake uses cable or rods instead of the hydraulic system.Anti-lock Brake SystemAnti-lock brake systems make braking safer and more convenient, Anti-lock brake systems modulate brake system hydraulic pressure to prevent the brakes from locking and the tires from skidding on slippery pavement or during a panic stop.Anti-lock brake systems have been used on aircraft for years, and some domestic car were offered with an early form of anti-lock braking in late 1990’s. Recently, several automakers have introduced more sophisticated anti-lock system. Investigations in Europe, where anti-lock brakin g systems have been available for a decade, have led one manufacture to state that the number of traffic accidents could be reduced by seven and a half percent if all cars hadanti-lock brakes. So some sources predict that all cars will offer anti-lock brakes to improve the safety of the car.Anti-lock systems modulate brake application force several times per second to hold the tires at a controlled amount of slip; all systems accomplish this in basically the same way. One or more speed sensors generate alternating current signal whose frequency increases with the wheel rotational speed. An electronic control unit continuously monitors these signals and if the frequency of a signal drops too rapidly indicating that a wheel is about to lock, the control unit instructs a modulating device to reduce hydraulic pressure to the brake at the affected wheel. When sensor signals indicate the wheel is again rotating normally, the control unit allows increased hydraulic pressure to the brake. This release-apply cycle occurs several time per second to “pump” the brakes like a driver might but at a much faster rate.In addition to their basic operation, anti-lock systems have two other things in common. First, they do not operate until the brakes are applied with enough force to lock or nearly lock a wheel. At all other times, the system stands ready to function but does not interfere with normal braking. Second, if the anti-lock system fail in any way, the brakes continue to operate without anti-lock capability. A warning light on the instrument panel alerts the driver when a problem exists in the anti-lock system.The current Bosch component Anti-lock Braking System (ABSⅡ), is a second generation design wildly used by European automakers such as BWM,Mercedes-Benz and Porsche. ABSⅡsystem consists of : four wheel speed sensor, electronic control unit and modulator assembly.A speed sensor is fitted at each wheel sends signals about wheel rotation to control unit. Each speed sensor consists of a sensor unit and a gear wheel. The front sensor mounts to the steering knuckle and its gear wheel is pressed onto the stub axle that rotates with the wheel. The rear sensor mounts the rear suspension member and its gear wheel is pressed onto the axle. The sensor itself is a winding with a magnetic core. The core creates a magnetic field around the winding, and as the teeth of the gear wheel move through this field, an alternating current is induced in the winding. The control unit monitors the rate o change in this frequency to determine impending brake lockup.The cont rol unit’s function can be divided into three parts: signal processing, logic and safety circuitry. The signal processing section is the converter that receives the alternating current signals form the speed sensors and converts them into digital form for the logic section. The logic section then analyzes the digitized signals to calculate any brake pressure changes needed. If impending lockup is sensed, the logic section sends commands to the modulator assembly. Modulator assemblyThe hydraulic modulator assembly regulates pressure to the wheel brakes when it receives commands from the control utuit. The modulator assembly can maintain or reduce pressure over the level it receives from the master cylinder, it also can never apply the brakes by itself. The modulator assembly consists ofthree high-speed electric solenoid valves, two fluid reservoirs and a turn delivery pump equipped with inlet and outlet check valves. The modulator electrical connector and controlling relays are concealed under a plastic cover of the assembly.Each front wheel is served by electric solenoid valve modulated independently by the control unit. The rear brakes are served by a single solenoid valve and modulated together using the select-low principle. During anti-braking system operation, the control unit cycles the solenoid valves to either hold or release pressure the brake lines. When pressure is released from the brake lines during anti-braking operation, it is routed to a fluid reservoir. There is one reservoir for the front brake circuit. The reservoirs are low-pressure accumulators that store fluid under slight spring pressure until the return delivery pump can return the fluid through the brake lines to the master cylinder.汽车制动系统制动系统是汽车中最重要的系统。

Automobile Brake SystemThe braking system is the most important system in cars. If the brakes fail, the result can be disastrous. Brakes are actually energy conversion devices, which convert the kinetic energy (momentum) of the vehicle into thermal energy (heat).When stepping on the brakes, the driver commands a stopping force ten times as powerful as the force that puts the car in motion. The braking system can exert thousands of pounds of pressure on each of the four brakes.Two complete independent braking systems are used on the car. They are the service brake and the parking brake.The service brake acts to slow, stop, or hold the vehicle during normal driving. They are foot-operated by the driver depressing and releasing the brake pedal. The primary purpose of the brake is to hold the vehicle stationary while it is unattended. The parking brake is mechanically operated by when a separate parking brake foot pedal or hand lever is set.The brake system is composed of the following basic components: t he “master cylinder” which is located under the hood, and is directly connected to the brake pedal, converts driver foot’s mechanical pressure into hydraulic pressure. Steel “brake lines” and flexible “brake hoses” connect the master cylinder to the “slave cylinders” located at each wheel. Brake fluid, specially designed to work in extreme conditions, fills the system. “Shoes” and “pads” are pushed by the slave cylinders to contact the “drums” and “rotors” thus causing drag, which (hopefully) slows the car.The typical brake system consists of disk brakes in front and either disk or drum brakes in the rear connected by a system of tubes and hoses that link the brake at each wheel to the master cylinder (Figure).Basically, all car brakes are friction brakes. When the driver applies the brake, the control device forces brake shoes, or pads, against the rotating brake drum or disks at wheel. Friction between the shoes or pads and the drums or disks then slows or stops the wheel so that the car is braked.In most modern brake systems (see Figure 15.1), there is a fluid-filled cylinder, called master cylinder, which contains two separate sections, there is a piston in each section and both pistons are connected to a brake pedal in the driver’s compartment. When th e brake is pushed down, brake fluid is sent from the master cylinder to the wheels.At the wheels, the fluid pushes shoes, or pads, against revolving drums or disks. The friction between the stationary shoes, or pads, and the revolving drums or disks slows and stops them. This slows or stops the revolving wheels, which, in turn, slow or stop the car.The brake fluid reservoir is on top of the master cylinder. Most cars today have a transparent r reservoir so that you can see the level without opening the cover. The brake fluid level will drop slightly as the brake pads wear. This is a normal condition and no cause for concern. If the level drops noticeably over ashort period of time or goes down to about two thirds full, have your brakes checked as soon as possible. Keep the reservoir covered except for the amount of time you need to fill it and never leave a cam of brake fluid uncovered. Brake fluid must maintain a very high boiling point. Exposure to air will cause the fluid to absorb moisture which will lower that boiling point.The brake fluid travels from the master cylinder to the wheels through a series of steel tubes and reinforced rubber hoses. Rubber hoses are only used in places that require flexibility, such asat the front wheels, which move up and down as well as steer. The rest of the system uses non-corrosive seamless steel tubing with special fittings at all attachment points. If a steel line requires a repair, the best procedure is to replace the compete line. If this is not practical, a line can be repaired using special splice fittings that are made for brake system repair. You must never use copper tubing to repair a brake system. They are dangerous and illegal.Drum brakes, it consists of the brake drum, an expander, pull back springs, a stationary back plate, two shoes with friction linings, and anchor pins. The stationary back plate is secured to the flange of the axle housing or to the steering knuckle. The brake drum is mounted on the wheel hub. There is a clearance between the inner surface of the drum and the shoe lining. To apply brakes, the driver pushes pedal, the expander expands the shoes and presses them to the drum. Friction between the brake drum and the friction linings brakes the wheels and the vehicle stops. To release brakes, the driver release the pedal, the pull back spring retracts the shoes thus permitting free rotation of the wheels.Disk brakes, it has a metal disk instead of a drum. A flat shoe, or disk-brake pad, is located on each side of the disk. The shoes squeeze the rotatin g disk to stop the car. Fluid from the master cylinder forces the pistons to move in, toward the disk. This action pushes the friction pads tightly against the disk. The friction between the shoes and disk slows and stops it. This provides the braking action. Pistons are made of either plastic or metal. There are three general types of disk brakes. They are the floating-caliper type, the fixed-caliper type, and the sliding-caliper type. Floating-caliper and sliding-caliper disk brakes use a single piston. Fixed-caliper disk brakes have either two or four pistons.The brake system assemblies are actuated by mechanical, hydraulic or pneumatic devices. The mechanical leverage is used in the parking brakes fitted in all automobile. When the brake pedal is depressed, the rod pushes the piston of brake master cylinder which presses the fluid. The fluid flows through the pipelines to the power brake unit and then to the wheel cylinder. The fluid pressure expands the cylinder pistons thus pressing the shoes to the drum or disk. If the pedal is released, the piston returns to the initialposition, the pull back springs retract the shoes, the fluid is forced back to the master cylinder and braking ceases.The primary purpose of the parking brake is to hold the vehicle stationary while it is unattended. The parking brake is mechanically operated by the driver when a separate parking braking hand lever is set. The hand brake is normally used when the car has already stopped. A lever is pulled and t he rear brakes are approached and locked in the “on” position. The car may now be left without fear of its rolling away. When the driver wants to move the car again, he must press a button before the lever can be released. The hand brake must also be able to stop the car in the event of the foot brake failing. For this reason, it is separate from the foot brake uses cable or rods instead of the hydraulic system.Anti-lock Brake SystemAnti-lock brake systems make braking safer and more convenient, Anti-lock brake systems modulate brake system hydraulic pressure to prevent the brakes from locking and the tires from skidding on slippery pavement or during a panic stop.Anti-lock brake systems have been used on aircraft for years, and some domestic car were offered with an early form of anti-lock braking in late 1990’s. Recently, several automakers have introduced more sophisticated anti-lock system. Investigations in Europe, where anti-lock brakin g systems have been available for a decade, have led one manufacture to state that the number oftraffic accidents could be reduced by seven and a half percent if all cars had anti-lock brakes. So some sources predict that all cars will offer anti-lock brakes to improve the safety of the car.Anti-lock systems modulate brake application force several times per second to hold the tires at a controlled amount of slip; all systems accomplish this in basically the same way. One or more speed sensors generate alternating current signal whose frequency increases with the wheel rotational speed. An electronic control unit continuously monitors these signals and if the frequency of a signal drops too rapidly indicating that a wheel is about to lock, the control unit instructs a modulating device to reduce hydraulic pressure to the brake at the affected wheel. When sensor signals indicate the wheel is again rotating normally, the control unit allows increased hydraulic pressure to the brake. This release-apply cycle occurs several time per second to “pump” the brakes like a dr iver might but at a much faster rate.In addition to their basic operation, anti-lock systems have two other things in common. First, they do not operate until the brakes are applied with enough force to lock or nearly lock a wheel. At all other times, the system stands ready to function but does not interfere with normal braking. Second, if the anti-lock system fail in any way, the brakes continue to operate without anti-lock capability. A warning light on the instrument panel alerts the driver when a problem exists in the anti-lock system.The current Bosch component Anti-lock Braking System (ABSⅡ), is a second generation design wildly used by European automakers such as BWM, Mercedes-Benz and Porsche. ABSⅡsystem consists of : four wheel speed sensor, electronic control unit and modulator assembly.A speed sensor is fitted at each wheel sends signals about wheel rotation to control unit. Each speed sensor consists of a sensor unit and a gear wheel. The front sensor mounts to the steering knuckle and its gear wheel is pressed onto the stub axle that rotates with the wheel. The rear sensor mounts the rear suspension member and its gear wheel is pressed onto the axle. The sensor itself is a winding with a magnetic core. The core creates a magnetic field around the winding, and as the teeth of the gear wheel move through this field, an alternating current is induced in the winding. The control unit monitors the rate o change in this frequency to determine impending brake lockup.The control unit’s functi on can be divided into three parts: signal processing, logic and safety circuitry. The signal processing section is the converter that receives the alternating current signals form the speed sensors and converts them into digital form for the logic section. The logic section then analyzes the digitized signals to calculate any brake pressure changes needed. If impending lockup is sensed, the logic section sends commands to the modulator assembly.Modulator assemblyThe hydraulic modulator assembly regulates pressure to the wheel brakes when it receives commands from the control utuit. The modulator assembly can maintain or reduce pressure over the level it receives from the master cylinder, it also can never apply the brakes by itself. The modulator assembly consists of three high-speed electric solenoid valves, two fluid reservoirs and a turn delivery pump equipped with inlet and outlet check valves. The modulator electrical connector and controlling relays are concealed under a plastic cover of the assembly.Each front wheel is served by electric solenoid valve modulated independently by the control unit. The rear brakes are served by a single solenoid valve and modulated together using the select-low principle. During anti-braking system operation, the control unit cycles the solenoid valves to either hold or release pressure the brake lines. When pressure is released from the brakelines during anti-braking operation, it is routed to a fluid reservoir. There is one reservoir for the front brake circuit. The reservoirs are low-pressure accumulators that store fluid under slight spring pressure until the return delivery pump can return the fluid through the brake lines to the master cylinder.汽车制动系统制动系统是汽车中最重要的系统。

附录1外文翻译Automobile Brake SystemThe braking system is the most important system in cars. If the brakes fail, the result can be disastrous. Brakes are actually energy conversion devices, which convert the kinetic energy (momentum) of the vehicle into thermal energy (heat).When stepping on the brakes, the driver commands a stopping force ten times as powerful as the force that puts the car in motion. The braking system can exert thousands of pounds of pressure on each of the four brakes.Two complete independent braking systems are used on the car. They are the service brake and the parking brake.The service brake acts to slow, stop, or hold the vehicle during normal driving. They are foot-operated by the driver depressing and releasing the brake pedal. The primary purpose of the brake is to hold the vehicle stationary while it is unattended. The parking brake is mechanically operated by when a separate parking brake footpedal or hand lever is set.The brake system is composed of the following basic components: the “master cylinder” which is located under the hood, and is directly connected to the brake pedal, converts driver foot’s mechanical pressure into hydraulic pressure. Steel “brake lines” and flexible “brake hoses” connect the master cylinder to the “slave cylinders” located at each wheel. Brake fluid, specially designed to work in extreme conditions, fills thesystem. “Shoes” and “pads” are pushed by the slave cylinders to contact the “drums” and “rotors” thus causing drag, which (hopefully) s lows the car.The typical brake system consists of disk brakes in front and either disk or drum brakes in the rear connected by a system of tubes and hoses that link the brake at each wheel to the master cylinder (Figure).Basically, all car brakes are friction brakes. When the driver applies the brake, the control device forces brake shoes, or pads, against the rotating brake drum or disks at wheel. Friction between the shoes or pads and the drums or disks then slows or stops the wheel so that the car is braked.In most modern brake systems (see Figure 15.1), there is a fluid-filled cylinder, called master cylinder, which contains two separate sections, there is a piston in each section and both pistons are connected to a brake pedal in the driver’s compartment. When the brake is pushed down, brake fluid is sent from the master cylinder to the wheels. At the wheels, the fluid pushes shoes, or pads, against revolving drums or disks. The friction between the stationary shoes, or pads, and the revolving drums or disks slows and stops them. This slows or stops the revolving wheels, which, in turn, slow or stop the car.The brake fluid reservoir is on top of the master cylinder. Most cars today have a transparent r reservoir so that you can see the level without opening the cover. The brake fluid level will drop slightly as the brake pads wear. This is a normal condition and no cause for concern. If the level drops noticeably over a short period of time or goes down to about two thirds full, have your brakes checked as soon as possible. Keep the reservoir covered except for the amount of time you need to fill it and never leave a cam of brake fluid uncovered. Brake fluid must maintain a very high boiling point. Exposure to air will cause the fluid to absorb moisture which will lower that boiling point.The brake fluid travels from the master cylinder to the wheels through a series of steel tubes and reinforced rubber hoses. Rubber hoses are only used in places that require flexibility, such as at the front wheels, which move up and down as well as steer. The rest of the system uses non-corrosive seamless steel tubing with special fittings at all attachment points. If a steel line requires a repair, the best procedure is to replace the compete line. If this is not practical, a line can be repaired using special splice fittings that are made for brake system repair. You must never use copper tubing to repair a brake system. They are dangerous and illegal.Drum brakes, it consists of the brake drum, an expander, pull back springs, a stationary back plate, two shoes with friction linings, and anchor pins. The stationary back plate is secured to the flange of the axle housing or to the steering knuckle. The brake drum is mounted on the wheel hub. There is a clearance between the inner surface of the drum and the shoe lining. To apply brakes, the driver pushes pedal, theexpander expands the shoes and presses them to the drum. Friction between the brake drum and the friction linings brakes the wheels and the vehicle stops. To release brakes, the driver release the pedal, the pull back spring retracts the shoes thus permitting free rotation of the wheels.Disk brakes, it has a metal disk instead of a drum. A flat shoe, or disk-brake pad, is located on each side of the disk. The shoes squeeze the rotating disk to stop the car. Fluid from the master cylinder forces the pistons to move in, toward the disk. This action pushes the friction pads tightly against the disk. The friction between the shoes and disk slows and stops it. This provides the braking action. Pistons are made of either plastic or metal. There are three general types of disk brakes. They are the floating-caliper type, the fixed-caliper type, and the sliding-caliper type. Floating-caliper and sliding-caliper disk brakes use a single piston. Fixed-caliper disk brakes have either two or four pistons.The brake system assemblies are actuated by mechanical, hydraulic or pneumatic devices. The mechanical leverage is used in the parking brakes fitted in all automobile. When the brake pedal is depressed, the rod pushes the piston of brake master cylinder which presses the fluid. The fluid flows through the pipelines to the power brake unit and then to the wheel cylinder. The fluid pressure expands the cylinder pistons thus pressing the shoes to the drum or disk. If the pedal is released, the piston returns to the initial position, the pull back springs retract the shoes, the fluid is forced back to the master cylinder and braking ceases.The primary purpose of the parking brake is to hold the vehicle stationary while it is unattended. The parking brake is mechanically operated by the driver when a separate parking braking hand lever is set. The hand brake is normally used when the car has already stopped. A lever is pulled and the rear brakes are approached and locked in the “on” position. The car may now be left without fear of its rolling away. When the driver wants to move the car again, he must press a button before the lever can be released. The hand brake must also be able to stop the car in the event of the foot brake failing. For this reason, it is separate from the foot brake uses cable or rods instead of the hydraulic system.Anti-lock Brake SystemAnti-lock brake systems make braking safer and more convenient, Anti-lock brake systems modulate brake system hydraulic pressure to prevent the brakes from locking and the tires from skidding on slippery pavement or during a panic stop.Anti-lock brake systems have been used on aircraft for years, and some domestic car were offered with an early form of anti-lock braking in late 1990’s. Recently, several automakers have introduced more sophisticated anti-lock system. Investigations in Europe, where anti-lock braking systems have been available for a decade, have led one manufacture to state that the number of traffic accidents could bereduced by seven and a half percent if all cars had anti-lock brakes. So some sources predict that all cars will offer anti-lock brakes to improve the safety of the car.Anti-lock systems modulate brake application force several times per second to hold the tires at a controlled amount of slip; all systems accomplish this in basically the same way. One or more speed sensors generate alternating current signal whose frequency increases with the wheel rotational speed. An electronic control unit continuously monitors these signals and if the frequency of a signal drops too rapidly indicating that a wheel is about to lock, the control unit instructs a modulating deviceto reduce hydraulic pressure to the brake at the affected wheel. When sensor signals indicate the wheel is again rotating normally, the control unit allows increased hydraulic pressure to the brake. This release-apply cycle occurs several time per second to “pump” the br akes like a driver might but at a much faster rate.In addition to their basic operation, anti-lock systems have two other things in common. First, they do not operate until the brakes are applied with enough force to lock or nearly lock a wheel. At all other times, the system stands ready to function but does not interfere with normal braking. Second, if the anti-lock system fail in any way, the brakes continue to operate without anti-lock capability. A warning light on the instrument panel alerts the driver when a problem exists in the anti-lock system.The current Bosch component Anti-lock Braking System (ABSⅡ), is a second generation design wildly used by European automakers such as BWM, Mercedes-Benz and Porsche. ABSⅡsystem consists of : four wheel speed sensor, electronic control unit and modulator assembly.A speed sensor is fitted at each wheel sends signals about wheel rotation to control unit. Each speed sensor consists of a sensor unit and a gear wheel. The front sensor mounts to the steering knuckle and its gear wheel is pressed onto the stub axle that rotates with the wheel. The rear sensor mounts the rear suspension member and its gear wheel is pressed onto the axle. The sensor itself is a winding with a magnetic core. The core creates a magnetic field around the winding, and as the teeth of the gear wheel move through this field, an alternating current is induced in the winding. The control unit monitors the rate o change in this frequency to determine impending brake lockup.The contr ol unit’s function can be divided into three parts: signal processing, logic and safety circuitry. The signal processing section is the converter that receives the alternating current signals form the speed sensors and converts them into digital form for the logic section. The logic section then analyzes the digitized signals to calculate any brake pressure changes needed. If impending lockup is sensed, the logic section sends commands to the modulator assembly.Modulator assemblyThe hydraulic modulator assembly regulates pressure to the wheel brakes when it receives commands from the control utuit. The modulator assembly can maintain or reduce pressure over the level it receives from the master cylinder, it also can never apply the brakes by itself. The modulator assembly consists of three high-speed electric solenoid valves, two fluid reservoirs and a turn delivery pump equipped with inlet and outlet check valves. The modulator electrical connector and controlling relays are concealed under a plastic cover of the assembly.Each front wheel is served by electric solenoid valve modulated independently by the control unit. The rear brakes are served by a single solenoid valve and modulated together using the select-low principle. During anti-braking system operation, the control unit cycles the solenoid valves to either hold or release pressure the brake lines. When pressure is released from the brake lines during anti-braking operation, it is routed to a fluid reservoir. There is one reservoir for the front brake circuit. The reservoirs are low-pressure accumulators that store fluid under slight spring pressure until the return delivery pump can return the fluid through the brake lines to the master cylinder.译文汽车制动系统制动系统是汽车中最重要的系统。

汽车制动系统-英文文献及翻译————————————————————————————————作者：————————————————————————————————日期：Brake systemsWe all know that pushing down on the brake pedal slows a car to a stop. But how does this happen? How does your car transmit the force from your leg to its wheels? How does it multiply the force so that it is enough to stop something as big as a car?Brake Image GalleryLayout of typical brake system. See more brake images.When you depress your brake pedal, your car transmits the force from your foot to its brakes through a fluid. Since the actual brakes require a much greater force than you could apply with your leg, your car must also multiply the force of your foot. It does this in two ways:•Mechanical advantage (leverage)•Hydraulic force multiplicationThe brakes transmit the force to the tires using friction, and the tires transmit that force to the road using friction also. Before we begin our discussion on the components of the brake system, we'll cover these three principles:•Leverage•Hydraulics•FrictionLeverage and HydraulicsIn the figure below, a force F is being applied to the left end of the lever. The left end of the lever is twice as long (2X) as the right end (X). Therefore, on the right end of the lever a force of 2F is available, but it acts through half of the distance (Y) that the left end moves (2Y). Changing the relative lengths of the left and right ends of the lever changes the multipliers.The pedal is designed in such a way that it can multiply the force from yourleg several times before any force is even transmitted to the brake fluid.The basic idea behind any hydraulic system is very simple: Force applied at one point is transmitted to another point using an incompressible fluid, almost always an oil of some sort. Most brake systems also multiply the force in the process. Here you can see the simplest possible hydraulic system:Your browser does not support JavaScript or it is disabled.Simple hydraulic systemIn the figure above, two pistons (shown in red) are fit into two glass cylinders filled with oil (shown in light blue) and connected to one another with an oil-filled pipe. If youapply a downward force to one piston (the left one, in this drawing), then the force is transmitted to the second piston through the oil in the pipe. Since oil is incompressible, the efficiency is very good -- almost all of the applied force appears at the second piston. The great thing about hydraulic systems is that the pipe connecting the two cylinders can be any length and shape, allowing it to snake through all sorts of things separating the twopistons. The pipe can also fork, so that one master cylinder can drive more than one slave cylinder if desired, as shown in here:Your browser does not support JavaScript or it is disabled.Master cylinder with two slavesThe other neat thing about a hydraulic system is that it makes force multiplication (or division) fairly easy. If you have read How a Block and Tackle Works or How Gear Ratios Work, then you know that trading force for distance is very common in mechanical systems. In a hydraulic system, all you have to do is change the size of one piston and cylinder relative to the other, as shown here:Your browser does not support JavaScript or it is disabled.Hydraulic multiplicationTo determine the multiplication factor in the figure above, start by looking at the size of the pistons. Assume that the piston on the left is 2 inches (5.08 cm) in diameter (1-inch / 2.54 cm radius), while the piston on the right is 6 inches (15.24 cm) in diameter (3-inch / 7.62 cm radius). The area of the two pistons is Pi * r2. The area of the left piston is therefore 3.14, while the area of the piston on the right is 28.26. The piston on the right is nine times larger than the piston on the left. This means that any force applied to theleft-hand piston will come out nine times greater on the right-hand piston. So, if you apply a 100-pound downward force to the left piston, a 900-pound upward force will appear on the right. The only catch is that you will have to depress the left piston 9 inches (22.86 cm) to raise the right piston 1 inch (2.54 cm).A Simple Brake SystemBefore we get into all the parts of an actual car brake system, let's look at a simplified system:Your browser does not support JavaScript or it is disabled.A simple brake systemYou can see that the distance from the pedal to the pivot is four times the distance from the cylinder to the pivot, so the force at the pedal will be increased by a factor of four before it is transmitted to the cylinder.You can also see that the diameter of the brake cylinder is three times the diameter of the pedal cylinder. This further multiplies the force by nine. All together, this system increases the force of your foot by a factor of 36. If you put 10 pounds of force on the pedal, 360 pounds (162 kg) will be generated at the wheel squeezing the brake pads.There are a couple of problems with this simple system. What if we have a leak? If it is a slow leak, eventually there will not be enough fluid left to fill the brake cylinder, and the brakes will not function. If it is a major leak, then the first time you apply the brakes all of the fluid will squirt out the leak and you will have complete brake failure.Drum brakes work on the same principle as disc brakes: Shoes press against a spinning surface. In this system, that surface is called a drum.Figure 1. Location of drum brakes. See more drum brakepictures.Many cars have drum brakes on the rear wheels and disc brakes on the front. Drum brakes have more parts than disc brakes and are harder to service, but they are less expensive to manufacture, and they easily incorporate an emergency brake mechanism.In this edition of HowStuffWorks, we will learn exactly how a drum brake system works, examine the emergency brake setup and find out what kind of servicing drum brakes need.Figure 2. Drum brake with drum in placeFigure 3. Drum brake without drum in placeLet's start with the basics.The Drum BrakeThe drum brake may look complicated, and it can be pretty intimidating when you open one up. Let's break it down and explain what each piece does.Figure 4. Parts of a drum brakeLike the disc brake, the drum brake has two brake shoes and a piston. But the drum brake also has an adjuster mechanism, an emergency brake mechanism and lots of springs.First, the basics: Figure 5 shows only the parts that provide stopping power.Your browser does not support JavaScript or it isdisabled.Figure 5. Drum brake in operationWhen you hit the brake pedal, the piston pushes the brake shoes against the drum. That's pretty straightforward, but why do we need all of those springs?This is where it gets a little more complicated. Many drum brakes are self-actuating. Figure 5 shows that as the brake shoes contact the drum, there is a kind of wedging action, which has the effect of pressing the shoes into the drum with more force.The extra braking force provided by the wedging action allows drum brakes to use a smaller piston than disc brakes. But, because of the wedging action, the shoes must be pulled away from the drum when the brakes are released. This is the reason for some of the springs. Other springs help hold the brake shoes in place and return the adjuster arm after it actuates.Brake AdjusterFor the drum brakes to function correctly, the brake shoes must remain close to the drum without touching it. If they get too far away from the drum (as the shoes wear down, for instance), the piston will require more fluid to travel that distance, and your brake pedal will sink closer to the floor when you apply the brakes. This is why most drum brakes have an automatic adjuster.Figure 6. Adjuster mechanismNow let's add in the parts of the adjuster mechanism. The adjuster uses theself-actuation principle we discussed above.Your browser does not support JavaScript or it is disabled.Figure 7. Drum brake adjuster in operationIn Figure 7, you can see that as the pad wears down, more space will form between the shoe and the drum. Each time the car stops while in reverse, the shoe is pulled tight against the drum. When the gap gets big enough, the adjusting lever rocks enough to advance the adjuster gear by one tooth. The adjuster has threads on it, like a bolt, so that it unscrews a little bit when it turns, lengthening to fill in the gap. When the brake shoes wear a little more, the adjuster can advance again, so it always keeps the shoes close to the drum.Some cars have an adjuster that is actuated when the emergency brake is applied. This type of adjuster can come out of adjustment if the emergency brake is not used forlong periods of time. So if you have this type of adjuster, you should apply your emergency brake at least once a week.ServicingThe most common service required for drum brakes is changing the brake shoes. Some drum brakes provide an inspection hole on the back side, where you can see how much material is left on the shoe. Brake shoes should be replaced when the friction material has worn down to within 1/32 inch (0.8 mm) of the rivets. If the friction material is bonded to the backing plate (no rivets), then the shoes should be replaced when they have only 1/16 inch (1.6 mm) of material left.Photo courtesy of a local AutoZone storeFigure 9. Brake shoeJust as in disc brakes, deep scores sometimes get worn into brake drums. If aworn-out brake shoe is used for too long, the rivets that hold the friction material to the backing can wear grooves into the drum. A badly scored drum can sometimes be repaired by refinishing. Where disc brakes have a minimum allowable thickness, drum brakes have a maximum allowable diameter. Since the contact surface is the inside of the drum, as you remove material from the drum brake the diameter gets bigger.Figure 10. Brake drum制动系统众所周知，踩下制动踏板可以使汽车减速至停止。

汽车制动系统中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)Brake systemsWe all know that pushing down on the brake pedal slows a car to a stop. But how does this happen? How does your car transmit the force from your leg to its wheels? How does it multiply the force so that it is enough to stop something as big as a car?Brake Image GalleryLayout of typical brake system. See more brake images.When you depress your brake pedal, your car transmits the force from your foot to its brakes through a fluid. Since the actual brakes require a much greater force than you could apply with your leg, your car must also multiply the force of your foot. It does this in two ways:∙Mechanical advantage (leverage)∙Hydraulic force multiplicationThe brakes transmit the force to the tires using friction, and the tires transmit that force to the road using friction also. Before we begin our discussion on the components of the brake system, we'll cover these three principles:∙Leverage∙Hydraulics∙FrictionLeverage and HydraulicsIn the figure below, a force F is being applied to the left end of the lever. The left end of the lever is twice as long (2X) as the right end (X). Therefore, on the right end of the lever a force of 2F is available, but it acts through half of the distance (Y) that the left end moves (2Y). Changing the relative lengths of the left and right ends of the lever changes the multipliers.The pedal is designed in such a way that it can multiply the force from yourleg several times before any force is even transmitted to the brake fluid.The basic idea behind any hydraulic system is very simple: Force applied at one point is transmitted to another point using an incompressible fluid, almost always an oil of some sort. Most brake systems also multiply the force in the process. Here you can see the simplest possible hydraulic system:Your browser does not support JavaScript or it is disabled.Simple hydraulic systemIn the figure above, two pistons (shown in red) are fit into two glass cylinders filled with oil (shown in light blue) and connected to one another with an oil-filled pipe. If youapply a downward force to one piston (the left one, in this drawing), then the force is transmitted to the second piston through the oil in the pipe. Since oil is incompressible, the efficiency is very good -- almost all of the applied force appears at the second piston. The great thing about hydraulic systems is that the pipe connecting the two cylinders can be any length and shape, allowing it to snake through all sorts of things separating the twopistons. The pipe can also fork, so that one master cylinder can drive more than one slave cylinder if desired, as shown in here:Your browser does not support JavaScript or it is disabled.Master cylinder with two slavesThe other neat thing about a hydraulic system is that it makes force multiplication (or division) fairly easy. If you have read How a Block and Tackle Works or How Gear Ratios Work, then you know that trading force for distance is very common in mechanical systems. In a hydraulic system, all you have to do is change the size of one piston and cylinder relative to the other, as shown here:Your browser does not support JavaScript or it is disabled.Hydraulic multiplicationTo determine the multiplication factor in the figure above, start by looking at the size of the pistons. Assume that the piston on the left is 2 inches (5.08 cm) in diameter (1-inch / 2.54 cm radius), while the piston on the right is 6 inches (15.24 cm) in diameter (3-inch / 7.62 cm radius). The area of the two pistons is Pi * r2. The area of the left piston is therefore 3.14, while the area of the piston on the right is 28.26. The piston on the right is nine times larger than the piston on the left. This means that any force applied to theleft-hand piston will come out nine times greater on the right-hand piston. So, if you apply a 100-pound downward force to the left piston, a 900-pound upward force will appear on the right. The only catch is that you will have to depress the left piston 9 inches (22.86 cm) to raise the right piston 1 inch (2.54 cm).A Simple Brake SystemBefore we get into all the parts of an actual car brake system, let's look at a simplified system:Your browser does not support JavaScript or it is disabled.A simple brake systemYou can see that the distance from the pedal to the pivot is four times the distance from the cylinder to the pivot, so the force at the pedal will be increased by a factor of four before it is transmitted to the cylinder.You can also see that the diameter of the brake cylinder is three times the diameter of the pedal cylinder. This further multiplies the force by nine. All together, this system increases the force of your foot by a factor of 36. If you put 10 pounds of force on the pedal, 360 pounds (162 kg) will be generated at the wheel squeezing the brake pads.There are a couple of problems with this simple system. What if we have a leak? If it is a slow leak, eventually there will not be enough fluid left to fill the brake cylinder, and the brakes will not function. If it is a major leak, then the first time you apply the brakes all of the fluid will squirt out the leak and you will have complete brake failure.Drum brakes work on the same principle as disc brakes: Shoes press against a spinning surface. In this system, that surface is called a drum.Figure 1. Location of drum brakes. See more drum brakepictures.Many cars have drum brakes on the rear wheels and disc brakes on the front. Drum brakes have more parts than disc brakes and are harder to service, but they are less expensive to manufacture, and they easily incorporate an emergency brake mechanism.In this edition of HowStuffWorks, we will learn exactly how a drum brake system works, examine the emergency brake setup and find out what kind of servicing drum brakes need.Figure 2. Drum brake with drum in placeFigure 3. Drum brake without drum in placeLet's start with the basics.The Drum BrakeThe drum brake may look complicated, and it can be pretty intimidating when you open one up. Let's break it down and explain what each piece does.Figure 4. Parts of a drum brakeLike the disc brake, the drum brake has two brake shoes and a piston. But the drum brake also has an adjuster mechanism, an emergency brake mechanism and lots of springs.First, the basics: Figure 5 shows only the parts that provide stopping power.Your browser does not support JavaScript or it is disabled.Figure 5. Drum brake in operationWhen you hit the brake pedal, the piston pushes the brake shoes against the drum. That's pretty straightforward, but why do we need all of those springs?This is where it gets a little more complicated. Many drum brakes are self-actuating. Figure 5 shows that as the brake shoes contact the drum, there is a kind of wedging action, which has the effect of pressing the shoes into the drum with more force.The extra braking force provided by the wedging action allows drum brakes to use a smaller piston than disc brakes. But, because of the wedging action, the shoes must be pulled away from the drum when the brakes are released. This is the reason for some of the springs. Other springs help hold the brake shoes in place and return the adjuster arm after it actuates.Brake AdjusterFor the drum brakes to function correctly, the brake shoes must remain close to the drum without touching it. If they get too far away from the drum (as the shoes wear down, for instance), the piston will require more fluid to travel that distance, and your brake pedal will sink closer to the floor when you apply the brakes. This is why most drum brakes have an automatic adjuster.Figure 6. Adjuster mechanismNow let's add in the parts of the adjuster mechanism. The adjuster uses theself-actuation principle we discussed above.Your browser does not support JavaScript or it is disabled.Figure 7. Drum brake adjuster in operationIn Figure 7, you can see that as the pad wears down, more space will form between the shoe and the drum. Each time the car stops while in reverse, the shoe is pulled tight against the drum. When the gap gets big enough, the adjusting lever rocks enough to advance the adjuster gear by one tooth. The adjuster has threads on it, like a bolt, so that it unscrews a little bit when it turns, lengthening to fill in the gap. When the brake shoes wear a little more, the adjuster can advance again, so it always keeps the shoes close to the drum.Some cars have an adjuster that is actuated when the emergency brake is applied. This type of adjuster can come out of adjustment if the emergency brake is not used forlong periods of time. So if you have this type of adjuster, you should apply your emergency brake at least once a week.ServicingThe most common service required for drum brakes is changing the brake shoes. Some drum brakes provide an inspection hole on the back side, where you can see how much material is left on the shoe. Brake shoes should be replaced when the friction material has worn down to within 1/32 inch (0.8 mm) of the rivets. If the friction material is bonded to the backing plate (no rivets), then the shoes should be replaced when they have only 1/16 inch (1.6 mm) of material left.Photo courtesy of a local AutoZone storeFigure 9. Brake shoeJust as in disc brakes, deep scores sometimes get worn into brake drums. If aworn-out brake shoe is used for too long, the rivets that hold the friction material to the backing can wear grooves into the drum. A badly scored drum can sometimes be repaired by refinishing. Where disc brakes have a minimum allowable thickness, drum brakes have a maximum allowable diameter. Since the contact surface is the inside of the drum, as you remove material from the drum brake the diameter gets bigger.Figure 10. Brake drum制动系统众所周知，踩下制动踏板可以使汽车减速至停止。

湖北文理学院毕业设计(论文)英文翻译题目The transmission system of automobile汽车的传动系统专业班级姓名学号指导教师职称2015年3月26 日The transmission system of automobileIn the basic transmission system contains is responsible forpower connection device, change the power transmission mechanism, overcome the wheel sizeThe differential between the different speed, transmission shaft andthe coupling of the various agencies, after the four main device can make power transmission engine to the wheels.The 1 clutch: this group mechanism is arranged between the engine and manual transmission, will be responsible for the power transmission of the engine tothe manual gearbox.The gasoline engine vehicles in operation, the engine needs a continuous operation. But in order to meet the needs of automobile driving, the traffic must stop, shift and other functions, and therefore must be in the external linking points of the engine, to join a group of institutions, in order to transfer the demand interruption of power to the engine continued to operate, under thecircumstances, to get the vehicle static or to shift demand. This group of institutions, is the power connection device. Dynamic general in the vehicle can be seen on the connected device with a clutch and torque converter two.braking system is the most important system in cars. If the brakes fail, the result can be disastrous. Brakes are actually energy conversion devices, which convert the kinetic energy (momentum) of the vehicle into thermal energy (heat).When stepping on the brakes, the driver commands a stopping force ten times as powerful as the force that puts the car in motion. The braking system can exert thousands of pounds of pressure on each of the four brakes.Clutch this group mechanism is arranged between the engine and manual transmission, will be responsible for the power transmission of the engine tothe manual gearbox. As shown in the figure, the flywheel mechanism and the output shaft of the engine is fixed together. Inthe flywheelshell, with a disc spring connecting plate, there is a friction disc and the gear box input shaft connection.When the clutch pedal is released, the pressure plate flywheel within the power ofusing spring,tightly press the friction plate, the pro cyclical phenomenon in noslippage between the two, the purpose of a connection, and the power of theengine can be through this mechanism, transfer to the gearbox, and complete the work of power transfer.friction plate and the flywheel has been unable to link, even if the engine runs continuously, pWhen the pedal is stepped, the agencies will provide spring pressure, make ower and will not transfer to the gearbox and the wheel, at this time, the driver can shiftspring peripheral tilt,pressure and friction plate from skin. At this time between the and parking such action, and not make the engine flameout.The 2 torque converter: this group of institutions is device between the engine and automatic transmission, can transfer the power of engine smoothly tothe automatic gearbox. Contains a set of clutch in the torque converter, in order to increase the transmission efficiency.When the continued development of the automobile industry, thegeneral consumers begin tocontrol the throttle, brake and clutch and othercomplex operation modes of the three pedal feel bored. Mechanicalengineers began thinking about how to use the mechanism to simplify the operation process. Torque converter is being imported automotive products in such a case, the achievements of the brand new feelings.Torque converter import, changed people driving habits! Torque converter to replace thetraditional mechanical clutch, is mounted between the engineand automatic transmission, can transfer the power of engine smoothly tothe automatic gearbox.From the map can clearly see, the difference between torque converter fromthe ways and clutch.In the torque converter, the left side is the engine power output shaft is directly connected with thepump wheel shell. In the torque converter on the left, a turbine, through the shaft and thetransmission system is located on the right side of the connection. There is no direct connectionbetween the guidewheel mechanism and turbine, both sealing in the torque converter shell, andthe torque converter inside is filled with a viscous liquid.When the engine runs at a low speed, the torque converter will do the samefor low speed operation, vane pump wheel can drive a viscous fluid torque converter, it makes the circulation flow. But because the speed is too low, theliquid for turbine applied force, is not enough to propel the vehicle, the vehicle canbe stationary, and can reach as clutch separation conditionWhen the throttle is stepped down, the engine speed upgrade, pumpwheel speed will besynchronized to upgrade, the flow rate of the liquid torque converter continues to increase, theturbine force continues to increase, when it exceeds the running resistance, the vehicle can move forward, power canbe transmitted to the transmission system and the wheel, achieve the purpose of power transmission.The car needs in the initial acceleration driving force is relatively large, the vehicle speed is low,while the engine is in high speed to output to the larger power.When the speed gradually accelerated, driving dynamics need cars has been gradually reduced,this time as long as the engine to reduce speed to reduce the power output, and can provideenough power for automobile. The speed of the carin the process from low to high, the speed of the engine is the transition from highto low, how to solve the contradiction phenomenon? Socalled "the transmission" can change between the engine and the wheel changing device of rotordifference therefore born.Gearbox as dependent on the operation of the different and "manual transmission" and "automatic gearbox" two systems, these two kindsof transmission way of working is not the same. In recent years, due to consumer demand and the progress of technology, automatic transmission car factory development called "manumatic" can be operated manually; in additionthe car factory is also a vehicle for developing high performance called "manual transmissionwith automatic operation function of sequential semi-automatic gearbox". F1 racing currentcomprehensive use "order type semi-automatic gearbox", so use this type manual transmissionvehicles were advertised fromF1 technology.1 manual transmission mechanism: commonly known as "manual transmission", to shift to manual operation mode.A clutch, manual gearbox twomain parts in the manual transmission system.Clutch: the engine is used to power to the transmission mechanism, the use of friction friction to transmit power. Clutch used in general models of only two pieces of friction plates, and the carand truck vehicles use more friction plate with clutch. Clutch and dry and wet two, wet clutch at present almost no longer be used in automotive top.Manual gearbox: manually operated gearbox to do shift action, the gear meshing manual gear boxinput shaft and the output shaft. After a plurality of groups of different number of teeth meshinggear collocation, can produce a varietyof deceleration rate. At presentManual transmissions are engagingmechanism using synchronous gear shift, make the operation more simple, shift smoothness better2 automatic transmission mechanism: commonly known as "automatic transmission", to change gears using oil pressure function. In order to makethe car operation becomes simple, and let not good at operating manual transmission drivers can also easily driving cars, so making a capable of automatic transmission shift becomes an important work, so the automobile engineers in 1940 developed the world's first automatic gearbox with. After driving a car stopped at the start, and the running process of acceleration and deceleration, the drivers do not need the shift action.Automatic transmission system of modern contains threemain fluid torque converter, automatic transmission, electronic controlsystem. Control procedures to join the manual shift in theelectroniccontrol system, became a manual gearbox with manual operation "".Fluid torque converter: between active and passive impeller impeller, the useof hydraulic oil aspower transmission medium. The power is transmitted to the output shaft from the input shaft tothe output shaft via the, power can be transmitted tothe automatic gearbox.Because the power of the hydraulic oil flow betweenthe active and passive impeller impeller will consume part of the. In order to reduce the power loss, joined the group as a real impeller makes the transfer efficiency of energy between active and passive impeller; and joined a group of clutchin liquid torque converter, and the active and passive impeller lock using a clutch in the properrunning condition, let no longer have the speed difference between the active and passiveimpeller. And improve the transmission efficiency of power.Automatic transmission: planetary gear set consists of a shift mechanism, the use of hydraulicdriven friction plate multi group, to control the planetary gear set of the action, to change thepower transmission path in the gear group, resulting in a variety of different reduction ratio.Electronic control system: the shift control of automatedmechanical transmission is in earlychange of pressure oil to decide when to do the shift action, even after many years of research and improvement, the shifting performance of mechanical automatic transmission is stillunsatisfactory. So the electronic type automatic gearbox coping out. In order to make the shifttiming more precise, and get more smooth shift quality, various car manufacturers have investeda lot of resources, do research on electronic control system of automatic transmission.Three, the differential after solving the problem of vehicle power transmission, automotive engineer and ran into another problem - turn. When the vehicle when turning, left and right two sides of the wheel will producedifferent rotating speed, thus driving the two side of the shaft from left to right, will have different speed, so the use of differential to solve the two left and right edges speed different problems.Turn, except must have the steering system of the auxiliary, also must make adjustments in thetransmission system. The reason is that, when the vehicleis cornering, path located on the inside of the wheels go short, a longer path is located outside the wheels go. At the same time through this path, the left and right sidesof the wheel speed is bound to face different problems. If there is not a special agency to deal with, will cause the vehicle have been not past difficulties in turn;evenif forced to turn in the past, will also have a serious problem of wheel wear. At this time, the differential is the transmission system of imported cars.From the figure we can see, the differential is composed ofmany gear group. When the row isabout the same, wheel speed, the innergear group did not happen as role, left and right wheelsin thesame axle operation. When a vehicle enters a curve, the speed difference between left and right wheels, by rotating the middle gear sets to absorb, so that it canbe smoothly curved.。

Automobile Brake SystemThe braking system is the most important system in cars. If the brakes fail, the result can be disastrous. Brakes are actually energy conversion devices, which convert the kinetic energy (momentum) of the vehicle into thermal energy (heat).When stepping on the brakes, the driver commands a stopping force ten times as powerful as the force that puts the car in motion. The braking system can exert thousands of pounds of pressure on each of the four brakes.Two complete independent braking systems are used on the car. They are the service brake and the parking brake.The service brake acts to slow, stop, or hold the vehicle during normal driving. They are foot-operated by the driver depressing and releasing the brake pedal. The primary purpose of the brake is to hold the vehicle stationary while it is unattended. The parking brake is mechanically operated by when a separate parking brake foot pedal or hand lever is set.The brake system is composed of the following basic components: t he “master cylinder” which is located under the hood, and is directly connected to the brake pedal, converts driver foot’s mechanical pressure into hydraulic pressure. Steel “brake lines” and flexible “brake hoses” connect the master cylinder to the “slave cylinders” located at each wheel. Brake fluid, specially designed to work in extreme conditions, fills the system. “Shoes” and “pads” are pushed by the slave cylinders to contact the “drums” and “rotors” thus causing drag, which (hopefully) slows the car.The typical brake system consists of disk brakes in front andeither disk or drum brakes in the rear connected by a system of tubesand hoses that link the brake at each wheel to the master cylinder (Figure).Basically, all car brakes are friction brakes. When the driver applies the brake, the control device forces brake shoes, or pads, against the rotating brake drum or disks at wheel. Friction between the shoes or pads and the drums or disks then slows or stops the wheel sothat the car is braked.In most modern brake systems (see Figure 15.1), there is a fluid-filled cylinder, called master cylinder, which contains two separate sections, there is a piston in each section and both pistons are connected to a brake pedal in the driver’s compartme nt. When th e brake is pushed down, brake fluid is sent from the master cylinder to the wheels.At the wheels, the fluid pushes shoes, or pads, against revolving drums or disks. The friction between the stationary shoes, or pads, and the revolving drums or disks slows and stops them. This slows or stops the revolving wheels, which, in turn, slow or stop the car.The brake fluid reservoir is on top of the master cylinder. Most cars today have a transparent r reservoir so that you can see the level without opening the cover. The brake fluid level will drop slightly as the brake pads wear. This is a normal condition and no cause for concern. If the level drops noticeably over ashort period of time or goes down to about two thirds full, have your brakes checked as soon as possible. Keep the reservoir covered except for the amount of time you need tofill it and never leave a cam of brake fluid uncovered. Brake fluid must maintain a very high boiling point. Exposure to air will cause the fluid to absorb moisture which will lower that boiling point.The brake fluid travels from the master cylinder to the wheels through a series of steel tubes and reinforced rubber hoses. Rubber hoses are only used in places that require flexibility, such asat the front wheels, which move up and down as well as steer. The rest of the system uses non-corrosive seamless steel tubing with special fittings at all attachment points. If a steel line requires a repair, the best procedure is to replace the compete line. If this is not practical, a line can be repaired using special splice fittings that are made for brake system repair. You must never use copper tubing to repair a brake system. They are dangerous and illegal.Drum brakes, it consists of the brake drum, an expander, pull back springs, a stationary back plate, two shoes with friction linings, and anchor pins. The stationary back plate is secured to the flange of the axle housing or to the steering knuckle. The brake drum is mounted on the wheel hub. There is a clearance between the inner surface of the drum and the shoe lining. To apply brakes, the driver pushes pedal, the expander expands the shoes and presses them to the drum. Friction between the brake drum and the friction linings brakes the wheels and the vehicle stops. To release brakes, the driver release the pedal, the pull back spring retracts the shoes thus permitting free rotation of the wheels.Disk brakes, it has a metal disk instead of a drum. A flat shoe, or disk-brake pad, is located on each side of the disk. The shoes squeezethe rotatin g disk to stop the car. Fluid from the master cylinderforces the pistons to move in, toward the disk. This action pushes the friction pads tightly against the disk. The friction between the shoes and disk slows and stops it. This provides the braking action. Pistons are made of either plastic or metal. There are three general types of disk brakes. They are the floating-caliper type, the fixed-caliper type, and the sliding-caliper type. Floating-caliper and sliding-caliper disk brakes use a single piston. Fixed-caliper disk brakes have either two or four pistons.The brake system assemblies are actuated by mechanical, hydraulicor pneumatic devices. The mechanical leverage is used in the parking brakes fitted in all automobile. When the brake pedal is depressed, the rod pushes the piston of brake master cylinder which presses the fluid. The fluid flows through the pipelines to the power brake unit and thento the wheel cylinder. The fluid pressure expands the cylinder pistons thus pressing the shoes to the drum or disk. If the pedal is released, the piston returns to the initialposition, the pull back springs retract the shoes, the fluid is forced back to the master cylinder and braking ceases.The primary purpose of the parking brake is to hold the vehicle stationary while it is unattended. The parking brake is mechanically operated by the driver when a separate parking braking hand lever is set. The hand brake is normally used when the car has already stopped. Alever is pulled and t he rear brakes are approached and locked in the “on” position. The car may now be left without fear of its rolling away. When the driver wants to move the car again, he must press abutton before the lever can be released. The hand brake must also beable to stop the car in the event of the foot brake failing. For this reason, it is separate from the foot brake uses cable or rods instead of the hydraulic system.Anti-lock Brake SystemAnti-lock brake systems make braking safer and more convenient,Anti-lock brake systems modulate brake system hydraulic pressure to prevent the brakes from locking and the tires from skidding on slippery pavement or during a panic stop.Anti-lock brake systems have been used on aircraft for years, and some domestic car were offered with an early form of anti-lock braking in late 1990’s. Recently, several automakers have introduced more sophisticated anti-lock system. Investigations in Europe, where anti-lock brakin g systems have been available for a decade, have led one manufacture to state that the number oftraffic accidents could be reduced by seven and a half percent if all cars had anti-lock brakes. So some sources predict that all carswill offer anti-lock brakes to improve the safety of the car.Anti-lock systems modulate brake application force several times per second to hold the tires at a controlled amount of slip; all systems accomplish this in basically the same way. One or more speed sensors generate alternating current signal whose frequency increases with the wheel rotational speed. An electronic control unit continuously monitors these signals and if the frequency of a signal drops too rapidly indicating that a wheel is about to lock, the control unit instructs a modulating device to reduce hydraulic pressure to the brake at theaffected wheel. When sensor signals indicate the wheel is again rotating normally, the control unit allows increased hydraulic pressure to the brake. This release-apply cycle occurs several time per second to “pump” the brakes like a dr iver might but at a much faster rate.In addition to their basic operation, anti-lock systems have two other things in common. First, they do not operate until the brakes are applied with enough force to lock or nearly lock a wheel. At all other times, the system stands ready to function but does not interfere with normal braking. Second, if the anti-lock system fail in any way, the brakes continue to operate without anti-lock capability. A warning light on the instrument panel alerts the driver when a problem exists in the anti-lock system.The current Bosch component Anti-lock Braking System (ABSⅡ), is a second generation design wildly used by European automakers such as BWM, Mercedes-Benz and Porsche. ABSⅡsystem consists of : fou r wheel speed sensor, electronic control unit and modulator assembly.A speed sensor is fitted at each wheel sends signals about wheel rotation to control unit. Each speed sensor consists of a sensor unitand a gear wheel. The front sensor mounts to the steering knuckle andits gear wheel is pressed onto the stub axle that rotates with the wheel. The rear sensor mounts the rear suspension member and its gear wheel is pressed onto the axle. The sensor itself is a winding with a magnetic core. The core creates a magnetic field around the winding, and as the teeth of the gear wheel move through this field, an alternating current is induced in the winding. The control unit monitors the rate o changein this frequency to determine impending brake lockup.The control unit’s functi on can be divided into three parts:signal processing, logic and safety circuitry. The signal processing section is the converter that receives the alternating current signals form the speed sensors and converts them into digital form for the logic section. The logic section then analyzes the digitized signals to calculate any brake pressure changes needed. If impending lockup is sensed, the logic section sends commands to the modulator assembly.Modulator assemblyThe hydraulic modulator assembly regulates pressure to the wheel brakes when it receives commands from the control utuit. The modulator assembly can maintain or reduce pressure over the level it receives from the master cylinder, it also can never apply the brakes by itself. The modulator assembly consists of three high-speed electric solenoid valves, two fluid reservoirs and a turn delivery pump equipped with inlet and outlet check valves. The modulator electrical connector and controlling relays are concealed under a plastic cover of the assembly.Each front wheel is served by electric solenoid valve modulated independently by the control unit. The rear brakes are served by asingle solenoid valve and modulated together using the select-low principle. During anti-braking system operation, the control unit cycles the solenoid valves to either hold or release pressure the brake lines. When pressure is released from the brakelines during anti-braking operation, it is routed to a fluid reservoir. There is one reservoir for the front brake circuit. The reservoirs are low-pressure accumulators that store fluid under slightspring pressure until the return delivery pump can return the fluid through the brake lines to the master cylinder.汽车制动系统制动系统是汽车中最重要的系统。

附录1外文翻译Automobile Brake SystemThe braking system is the most important system in cars. If the brakes fail, the result can be disastrous. Brakes are actually energy conversion devices, which convert the kinetic energy (momentum) of the vehicle into thermal energy (heat).When stepping on the brakes, the driver commands a stopping force ten times as powerful as the force that puts the car in motion. The braking system can exert thousands of pounds of pressure on each of the four brakes.Two complete independent braking systems are used on the car. They are the service brake and the parking brake.The service brake acts to slow, stop, or hold the vehicle during normal driving. They are foot-operated by the driver depressing and releasing the brake pedal. The primary purpose of the brake is to hold the vehicle stationary while it is unattended. The parking brake is mechanically operated by when a separate parking brake foot pedal or hand lever is set.The brake system is composed of the following basic components: the “master cylinder” which is located under the hood, and is directly connected to the brake pedal, converts driver foot’s mechanical pressure into hydraulic pressure. Steel “brake lines” and flexible “brake hoses”connect the master cylinder to the “slave cylinders” located at each wheel. Brake fluid, specially designed to work in extreme conditions, fills the system. “Shoes” and “pads” are pushed by the slave cylinders to contact the “drums” and “rotors” thus causing drag, which (hopefully) s lows the car.The typical brake system consists of disk brakes in front and either disk or drum brakes in the rear connected by a system of tubes and hoses that link the brake at each wheel to the master cylinder (Figure).Basically, all car brakes are friction brakes. When the driver applies the brake, the control device forces brake shoes, or pads, against the rotating brake drum or disks at wheel. Frictionbetween the shoes or pads and the drums or disks then slows or stops the wheel so that the car is braked.In most modern brake systems (see Figure 15.1), there is a fluid-filled cylinder, called master cylinder, which contains two separate sections, there is a piston in each section and both pistons are connected to a brake pedal in the driver’s compartment. When the brake is pushed down, brake fluid is sent from the master cylinder to the wheels. At the wheels, the fluid pushes shoes, or pads, against revolving drums or disks. The friction between the stationary shoes, or pads, and the revolving drums or disks slows and stops them. This slows or stops the revolving wheels, which, in turn, slow or stop the car.The brake fluid reservoir is on top of the master cylinder. Most cars today have a transparent r reservoir so that you can see the level without opening the cover. The brake fluid level will drop slightly as the brake pads wear. This is a normal condition and no cause for concern. If the level drops noticeably over a short period of time or goes down to about two thirds full, have your brakes checked as soon as possible. Keep the reservoir covered except for the amount of time you need to fill it and never leave a cam of brake fluid uncovered. Brake fluid must maintain a very high boiling point. Exposure to air will cause the fluid to absorb moisture which will lower that boiling point.The brake fluid travels from the master cylinder to the wheels through a series of steel tubes and reinforced rubber hoses. Rubber hoses are only used in places that require flexibility, such as at the front wheels, which move up and down as well as steer. The rest of the system uses non-corrosive seamless steel tubing with special fittings at all attachment points. If a steel line requires a repair, the best procedure is to replace the compete line. If this is not practical, a line can be repaired using special splice fittings that are made for brake system repair. You must never use copper tubing to repair a brake system. They are dangerous and illegal.Drum brakes, it consists of the brake drum, an expander, pull back springs, a stationary back plate, two shoes with friction linings, and anchor pins. The stationary back plate is secured to the flange of the axle housing or to the steering knuckle. The brake drum is mounted on the wheel hub. There is a clearance between the inner surface of the drum and the shoe lining. To apply brakes, the driver pushes pedal, the expander expands the shoes and presses them to the drum. Friction between the brake drum and the friction linings brakes the wheels and the vehicle stops. To release brakes, the driver release the pedal, the pull back spring retracts the shoes thus permitting free rotation of the wheels.Disk brakes, it has a metal disk instead of a drum. A flat shoe, or disk-brake pad, is located on each side of the disk. The shoes squeeze the rotating disk to stop the car. Fluid from the master cylinder forces the pistons to move in, toward the disk. This action pushes the friction pads tightly against the disk. The friction between the shoes and disk slows and stops it. This provides the braking action. Pistons are made of either plastic or metal. There are three general types of disk brakes. They are the floating-caliper type, the fixed-caliper type, and the sliding-caliper type. Floating-caliper and sliding-caliper disk brakes use a single piston. Fixed-caliper disk brakes have either two or four pistons.The brake system assemblies are actuated by mechanical, hydraulic or pneumatic devices. The mechanical leverage is used in the parking brakes fitted in all automobile. When the brake pedal is depressed, the rod pushes the piston of brake master cylinder which presses the fluid. The fluid flows through the pipelines to the power brake unit and then to the wheel cylinder. The fluidpressure expands the cylinder pistons thus pressing the shoes to the drum or disk. If the pedal is released, the piston returns to the initial position, the pull back springs retract the shoes, the fluid is forced back to the master cylinder and braking ceases.The primary purpose of the parking brake is to hold the vehicle stationary while it is unattended. The parking brake is mechanically operated by the driver when a separate parking braking hand lever is set. The hand brake is normally used when the car has already stopped. A lever is pulled and the rear brakes are approached and locked in the “on” position. The car may now be left without fear of its rolling away. When the driver wants to move the car again, he must press a button before the lever can be released. The hand brake must also be able to stop the car in the event of the foot brake failing. For this reason, it is separate from the foot brake uses cable or rods instead of the hydraulic system.Anti-lock Brake SystemAnti-lock brake systems make braking safer and more convenient, Anti-lock brake systems modulate brake system hydraulic pressure to prevent the brakes from locking and the tires from skidding on slippery pavement or during a panic stop.Anti-lock brake systems have been used on aircraft for years, and some domestic car were offered with an early form of anti-lock braking in late 1990’s. Recently, several automakers have introduced more sophisticated anti-lock system. Investigations in Europe, where anti-lock braking systems have been available for a decade, have led one manufacture to state that the number of traffic accidents could be reduced by seven and a half percent if all cars had anti-lock brakes. So some sources predict that all cars will offer anti-lock brakes to improve the safety of the car.Anti-lock systems modulate brake application force several times per second to hold the tires at a controlled amount of slip; all systems accomplish this in basically the same way. One or more speed sensors generate alternating current signal whose frequency increases with the wheel rotational speed. An electronic control unit continuously monitors these signals and if the frequency of a signal drops too rapidly indicating that a wheel is about to lock, the control unit instructs a modulating device to reduce hydraulic pressure to the brake at the affected wheel. When sensor signals indicate the wheel is again rotating normally, the control unit allows increased hydraulic pressure to the brake. This release-apply cycle occurs several time per second to “pump” the br akes like a driver might but at a much faster rate.In addition to their basic operation, anti-lock systems have two other things in common. First, they do not operate until the brakes are applied with enough force to lock or nearly lock a wheel. At all other times, the system stands ready to function but does not interfere with normal braking. Second, if the anti-lock system fail in any way, the brakes continue to operate without anti-lock capability. A warning light on the instrument panel alerts the driver when a problem exists in the anti-lock system.The current Bosch component Anti-lock Braking System (ABSⅡ), is a second generation design wildly used by European automakers such as BWM, Mercedes-Benz and Porsche. ABSⅡsystem consists of : four wheel speed sensor, electronic control unit and modulator assembly.A speed sensor is fitted at each wheel sends signals about wheel rotation to control unit. Each speed sensor consists of a sensor unit and a gear wheel. The front sensor mounts to the steering knuckle and its gear wheel is pressed onto the stub axle that rotates with the wheel. The rear sensor mounts the rear suspension member and its gear wheel is pressed onto the axle. The sensor itself is a winding with a magnetic core. The core creates a magnetic field around thewinding, and as the teeth of the gear wheel move through this field, an alternating current is induced in the winding. The control unit monitors the rate o change in this frequency to determine impending brake lockup.The contr ol unit’s function can be divided into three parts: signal processing, logic and safety circuitry. The signal processing section is the converter that receives the alternating current signals form the speed sensors and converts them into digital form for the logic section. The logic section then analyzes the digitized signals to calculate any brake pressure changes needed. If impending lockup is sensed, the logic section sends commands to the modulator assembly.Modulator assemblyThe hydraulic modulator assembly regulates pressure to the wheel brakes when it receives commands from the control utuit. The modulator assembly can maintain or reduce pressure over the level it receives from the master cylinder, it also can never apply the brakes by itself. The modulator assembly consists of three high-speed electric solenoid valves, two fluid reservoirs and a turn delivery pump equipped with inlet and outlet check valves. The modulator electrical connector and controlling relays are concealed under a plastic cover of the assembly.Each front wheel is served by electric solenoid valve modulated independently by the control unit. The rear brakes are served by a single solenoid valve and modulated together using the select-low principle. During anti-braking system operation, the control unit cycles the solenoid valves to either hold or release pressure the brake lines. When pressure is released from the brake lines during anti-braking operation, it is routed to a fluid reservoir. There is one reservoir for the front brake circuit. The reservoirs are low-pressure accumulators that store fluid under slight spring pressure until the return delivery pump can return the fluid through the brake lines to the master cylinder.译文汽车制动系统制动系统是汽车中最重要的系统。

Automobile Brake SystemThe braking system is the most important system in cars. If the brakes fail, the result can be disastrous. Brakes are actually energy conversion devices, which convert the kinetic energy (momentum) of the vehicle into thermal energy (heat).When stepping on the brakes, the driver commands a stopping force ten times as powerful as the force that puts the car in motion. The braking system can exert thousands of pounds of pressure on each of the four brakes.Two complete independent braking systems are used on the car. They are the service brake and the parking brake.The service brake acts to slow, stop, or hold the vehicle during normal driving. They are foot-operated by the driver depressing and releasing the brake pedal. The primary purpose of the brake is to hold the vehicle stationary while it is unattended. The parking brake is mechanically operated by when a separate parking brake foot pedal or hand lever is set.The brake system is composed of the following basic components: the “master cylinder” which is located under the hood, and is directly connected to the brake pedal, converts driver foot’s mechanical pressure into hydraulic pressure. Steel “brake lines” and flexible “brake hoses” connect the master cylinder to the “slave cylinders” located at each wheel. Brake fluid, specially designed to work in extreme conditions, fills the system. “Shoes” and “pads” are pushed by the slave cylinders to contact the “drums” and “rotors” thus causing drag, which (hopefully) slows the ca r.The typical brake system consists of disk brakes in front and either disk or drum brakes in the rear connected by a system of tubes and hoses that link the brake at each wheel to the master cylinder (Figure).Basically, all car brakes are friction brakes. When the driver applies the brake, the control device forces brake shoes, or pads, against the rotating brake drum or disks at wheel. Friction between the shoes or pads and the drums or disks then slows or stops the wheel so that the car is braked.In most modern brake systems (see Figure 15.1), there is a fluid-filled cylinder, called master cylinder, which contains two separate sections, there is a piston in each section and both pistons are connected to a brake pedal in the driver’s compartment. When the brake is pushed down, brake fluid is sent from the master cylinder to the wheels. At the wheels, the fluid pushes shoes, or pads, against revolving drums or disks. The friction between the stationary shoes, or pads, and the revolving drums ordisks slows and stops them. This slows or stops the revolving wheels, which, in turn, slow or stop the car.The brake fluid reservoir is on top of the master cylinder. Most cars today have a transparent r reservoir so that you can see the level without opening the cover. The brake fluid level will drop slightly as the brake pads wear. This is a normal condition and no cause for concern. If the level drops noticeably over a short period of time or goes down to about two thirds full, have your brakes checked as soon as possible. Keep the reservoir covered except for the amount of time you need to fill it and never leave a cam of brake fluid uncovered. Brake fluid must maintain a very high boiling point. Exposure to air will cause the fluid to absorb moisture which will lower that boiling point.The brake fluid travels from the master cylinder to the wheels through a series of steel tubes and reinforced rubber hoses. Rubber hoses are only used in places that require flexibility, such as at the front wheels, which move up and down as well as steer. The rest of the system uses non-corrosive seamless steel tubing with special fittings at all attachment points. If a steel line requires a repair, the best procedure is to replace the compete line. If this is not practical, a line can be repaired using special splice fittings that are made for brake system repair. You must never use copper tubing to repair a brake system. They are dangerous and illegal.Drum brakes, it consists of the brake drum, an expander, pull back springs, a stationary back plate, two shoes with friction linings, and anchor pins. The stationary back plate is secured to the flange of the axle housing or to the steering knuckle. The brake drum is mounted on the wheel hub. There is a clearance between the inner surface of the drum and the shoe lining. To apply brakes, the driver pushes pedal, the expander expands the shoes and presses them to the drum. Friction between the brake drum and the friction linings brakes the wheels and the vehicle stops. To release brakes, the driver release the pedal, the pull back spring retracts the shoes thus permitting free rotation of the wheels.Disk brakes, it has a metal disk instead of a drum. A flat shoe, or disk-brake pad, is located on each side of the disk. The shoes squeeze the rotating disk to stop the car. Fluid from the master cylinder forces the pistons to move in, toward the disk. This action pushes the friction pads tightly against the disk. The friction between the shoes and disk slows and stops it. This provides the braking action. Pistons are made of either plastic or metal. There are three general types of disk brakes. They are thefloating-caliper type, the fixed-caliper type, and the sliding-caliper type. Floating-caliper and sliding-caliper disk brakes use a single piston. Fixed-caliper disk brakes have either two or four pistons.The brake system assemblies are actuated by mechanical, hydraulic or pneumatic devices. The mechanical leverage is used in the parking brakes fitted in all automobile. When the brake pedal is depressed, the rod pushes the piston of brake master cylinder which presses the fluid. The fluid flows through the pipelines to the power brake unit and then to the wheel cylinder. The fluid pressure expands the cylinder pistons thus pressing the shoes to the drum or disk. If the pedal is released, the piston returns to the initial position, the pull back springs retract the shoes, the fluid is forced back to the master cylinder and braking ceases.The primary purpose of the parking brake is to hold the vehicle stationary while it is unattended. The parking brake is mechanically operated by the driver when a separate parking braking hand lever is set. The hand brake is normally used when the car has already stopped. A lever is pulled and the rear brakes are approached and locked in the “on” position. The car may now be left without fear of its rolling away. When the driver wants to move the car again, he must press a button before the lever can be released. The hand brake must also be able to stop the car in the event of the foot brake failing. For this reason, it is separate from the foot brake uses cable or rods instead of the hydraulic system.Anti-lock Brake SystemAnti-lock brake systems make braking safer and more convenient, Anti-lock brake systems modulate brake system hydraulic pressure to prevent the brakes from locking and the tires from skidding on slippery pavement or during a panic stop.Anti-lock brake systems have been used on aircraft for years, and some domestic car were offered with an early form of anti-lock braking in late 1990’s. Recently, several automakers have introduced more sophisticated anti-lock system. Investigations in Europe, where anti-lock braking systems have been available for a decade, have led one manufacture to state that the number of traffic accidents could be reduced by seven and a half percent if all cars had anti-lock brakes. So some sources predict that all cars will offer anti-lock brakes to improve the safety of the car.Anti-lock systems modulate brake application force several times per second to hold the tires at a controlled amount of slip; all systems accomplish this in basically the same way. One or more speed sensors generate alternating current signal whosefrequency increases with the wheel rotational speed. An electronic control unit continuously monitors these signals and if the frequency of a signal drops too rapidly indicating that a wheel is about to lock, the control unit instructs a modulating device to reduce hydraulic pressure to the brake at the affected wheel. When sensor signals indicate the wheel is again rotating normally, the control unit allows increased hydraulic pressure to the brake. This release-apply cycle occurs several time per second to “pump” the brakes like a driver might but at a much faster rate.In addition to their basic operation, anti-lock systems have two other things in common. First, they do not operate until the brakes are applied with enough force to lock or nearly lock a wheel. At all other times, the system stands ready to function but does not interfere with normal braking. Second, if the anti-lock system fail in any way, the brakes continue to operate without anti-lock capability. A warning light on the instrument panel alerts the driver when a problem exists in the anti-lock system.The current Bosch component Anti-lock Braking System (ABSⅡ), is a second generation design wildly used by European automakers such as BWM, Mercedes-Benz and Porsche. ABSⅡsystem consists of : four wheel speed sensor, electronic control unit and modulator assembly.A speed sensor is fitted at each wheel sends signals about wheel rotation to control unit. Each speed sensor consists of a sensor unit and a gear wheel. The front sensor mounts to the steering knuckle and its gear wheel is pressed onto the stub axle that rotates with the wheel. The rear sensor mounts the rear suspension member and its gear wheel is pressed onto the axle. The sensor itself is a winding with a magnetic core. The core creates a magnetic field around the winding, and as the teeth of the gear wheel move through this field, an alternating current is induced in the winding. The control unit monitors the rate o change in this frequency to determine impending brake lockup.The control unit’s function can be divided into three parts: signal processing, logic and safety circuitry. The signal processing section is the converter that receives the alternating current signals form the speed sensors and converts them into digital form for the logic section. The logic section then analyzes the digitized signals to calculate any brake pressure changes needed. If impending lockup is sensed, the logic section sends commands to the modulator assembly.Modulator assemblyThe hydraulic modulator assembly regulates pressure to the wheel brakes whenit receives commands from the control utuit. The modulator assembly can maintain or reduce pressure over the level it receives from the master cylinder, it also can never apply the brakes by itself. The modulator assembly consists of three high-speed electric solenoid valves, two fluid reservoirs and a turn delivery pump equipped with inlet and outlet check valves. The modulator electrical connector and controlling relays are concealed under a plastic cover of the assembly.Each front wheel is served by electric solenoid valve modulated independently by the control unit. The rear brakes are served by a single solenoid valve and modulated together using the select-low principle. During anti-braking system operation, the control unit cycles the solenoid valves to either hold or release pressure the brake lines. When pressure is released from the brake lines during anti-braking operation, it is routed to a fluid reservoir. There is one reservoir for the front brake circuit. The reservoirs are low-pressure accumulators that store fluid under slight spring pressure until the return delivery pump can return the fluid through the brake lines to the master cylinder.译文汽车制动系统制动系统是汽车中最重要的系统。

Nonlinear Dyn (2014) 76:125–138DOI10.1007/s11071-013-1115-1翻译！Robustcontrolofwheelslipinanti-lockbrakesystem ofautomobilesTohidSardarmehni·HosseinRahmani·Mohammad BagherMenhajReceived:3November2012/Accepted:9October2013/Publishedonline:6November2013© Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht2013Abstract In this paper, performances of two model- free control systems including Fuzzy Logic Control (FLC) and Neural Predictive Control (NPC) on track- ing performance of wheel-slip in Anti-lock Braking System (ABS) are compared. As an accurate andcon- trol oriented model, a half vehicle model is devel- opedtogenerateextensivesimulationdataofthebrak- ing system. Brake system identification is preformed through a Perceptron neural networks model of brake system which is trained with offline data by Gradi- ent Descent Back Propagation (GDBP) algorithm. In order to reduce the time cost of the calculations and improving the robustness of closed loop control sys- tem, an online Perceptron neural network adaptively generatestheoptimumcontrolactions.Byacompara- tive simulation analysis it is shown that the NPC sys- tem has a better tracking performance, shorter stop- ping time and distance than the FLC controllers. The robustness of the proposed control systems are eval- uated under ±25 % uncertainty. It is shown that the NPC system is more robust against both exogenous disturbances and modeling uncertainties than theFLC system.T. Sardarmehni(B) ·H.Rahmani FacultyofMechanicalEngineering,UniversityofTabriz, Tabriz,Irane-mail:t.sardarmehni88@ms.tabrizu.ac.irM.B.MenhajDepartment of Electrical Engineering,AmirkabirUniversity of Technology, Tehran,Iran Keywords ABS ·NPC ·FLCAbbreviationsFLC FuzzyLogicControlNPCNeuralPredictiveControlABS Anti-lock BrakingSystemGDBP Gradient Descent Back PropagationECU Electronic ControlUnitSMC SlidingModecontrolMPCModelPredictiveControlMLP Multi-LayerPerceptronMAE MeanAbsoluteErrorMATE Mean Absolute TrackingErrorVehicle brake systemparametersV Vehicle velocity[m/s]ωWheel angular velocity[rad/s]g Gravity acceleration[m/s2]R Radius of tire[m]J f Moment of inertia of front wheel [kgm2]J r Moment of inertia of rear wheel [kgm2]a Distance from center of gravity to frontaxle[m]b Distance from center of gravity to rearaxle[m]h f Height of front unsprung mass[m]h s Height of the sprung mass[m]h r Height of rear unsprung mass[m]m f Front unsprung mass[kg]m s Sprung mass of the vehicle[kg]m r Rear unsprung mass[kg]126T. Sardarmehni etal. Fig. 1 Friction coefficientversus wheel slip[2]m tot Total mass of the vehicle[kg]P i Hydraulic pressure[kPa]P p Constantpumppressure[kPa]P low Constantreservoirpressure[kPa]C d1 BuildvalvecoefficientC d2Dumpvalvecoefficient A wc Wheelcylinderarea[m 2]hMechanicalefficiencyB F Brakefactorr r Effective radius of braking disk[m]C f CoefficientofflowK br Brake displacement proportionalityconstant1 IntroductionReducingrequiredstoppingtimeanddistanceinbrak- inghasalwaysbeenoneofthemostimportantcontrol goalsindesigningthebrakingsystemsofautomobiles. Without any control on angular velocity of wheels,an ordinary braking system exerts dissident fixed brak- ing torque on wheels. This fixed torque causes abrupt decrease in wheel angular velocity with a greater rate than the vehicle speed which results in wheel lock- ups during braking. Through locking-up, friction co- efficient and road adhesion become smaller which re- ducestheactive-appliedbrakingtorqueontires.Asthe result, the stopping time increases and vehicle stops afteralongerdistance.Furthermore,directionalstabil- ity of vehicle would considerably degrade. Toprevent wheel lock-ups and their probable catastrophicconse- quences during severe braking, ABS has been intro- duced to automotive industry. The main idea in ABS is controlling the active brake torque so that prevents wheel lock-ups. This procedure results in generationofmaximumnegativeaccelerationofvehiclewhiletheRobustcontrolofwheelslipinanti-lockbrakesystemofautomobiles 127 directional stability and steering ability of vehicle isguaranteed[1].Inordertogeneratethemaximumnegativeacceler-ation of vehicle, the longitudinal force should bekept around its peak value which requires thefrictionforce to be at its peak amount [2].Researches show that thevalueofthefrictioncoefficientgreatlydependsonroad conditions. As shown in Fig. 1, the peakvalueoffrictioncoefficientvariesfrom0.02to0.43indifferentroad conditions[2].In general, two different strategies are used tocon- trol the braking torque in ABS for preventingwheel lock-ups. The first method is based on wheeldeceler- ation. In this method no information fromvehicle ve-locitysensorsisrequired.However,theoperatingloadfrom the road cannot be used completely in wheelde-celerationmethod.Thesecondmethoduseswheelslipratio, defined by the ratio of the difference betweenwheel linear velocity and vehicle speed over vehiclespeed. The second method uses the oil pressure inanactuatortoregulatethebrakingtorque.Thisregulation ispreformedasthewheelslipratiotracksapredefinedvalue regarding the friction coefficient peak valuein different road conditions [3,4].PI-controllers, which are commonly used in ABSof automobiles, require long time calibrationprocess and would not function effectively in thepresence of exogenous noises and disturbances.Furthermore, the performance of a PI controller isnot satisfactory robust to the vehicle brake modelsevere nonlineari-ties,structuredorunstructureduncertainties,andtime-varying dynamics due to variation of roadandvehicle conditions. Nowadays, regarding theadvancementsin microcomputer industry, theintelligent and adaptive controltechniquescouldbeimplementedinElectronicControl Units (ECU) of vehicles. Besides thesignif-128T. Sardarmehni etal. icant transient and steady-state performances, these controllers are adjusted simply and also are robust to the uncertainties[5].As the state of the art in the designing of ABSs, FLC and neural networks have been used. Regarding satisfactory transient and steady-state performance of the FLC in nonlinear time-varying systems, signifi- cantresearchhasbeenperformedonthesecontrolsys- tems.MauerdesignedaFLCsystemappliedonaquar- ter vehicle model which could identify different road conditions. The proposed FLC system could generate action brake signals through considering current and past values of the brake pressure and slip ratio [6]. Zhang et al. developed a FLC system by considering data to estimate vehicle speed. The estimated vehi- cle speed was used for predicting the amount of slip. Theproposedcontrollercalculatedthemodifiedbrake torque signal based on the predicted the amount of wheelslip[11].Jacquetetal.proposedaMPCsystem togeneratetheoptimalbraketorque.Theonlinerecon- structionwasdonebaseduponestimationofthebrake adhesion torque and estimation of the wheel speed. Furthermore, the necessity of wheel speed sensors for identifying the tire/road characteristics was avoided by using a torque sensor located in the wheel. The simulation results showed that the proposedcontroller had a fast and stable response under rapid changes of theroadconditions.Moreover,thedesignedcontroller dμ dμdλand ( dλ)/dt as inputs of the controller. The pro- posed FLC system led to better performance in pedal pushingfeeling[3].Sharkawydevelopedaself-tuning PID controller which was accompanied by Fuzzy and Geneticalgorithmtoobtaintheoptimalmodulesofthe designed FLC. The results showed that the proposed controller had a fast response with low overshoot and short stopping distance[7].As a model-based nonlinear control system, the Sliding Mode control (SMC) systems are preferred duetotheirfastandtheeaseoftheirapplicationonthenonlinear models. Besides the possibility of fast im- plementation, the robustness and the stability of SMC could be guaranteed in most applications [8]. There has been much research work on application of SMC systems in ABS. Harifi et al. designed a SMC sys- tem for ABS which used integral switching surface for reducing the chattering effects [9]. Half vehicle model was used so the designed controller provided two separated brake torques for front and rear wheel. Furthermore, the results of this controller were com- paredwiththoseofaFuzzy,aselflearningFuzzyslid- ing mode and a neural network hybrid controller. It wasstatedthatthedesignedcontrollerhadtheshortest stoppingdistance.However,theneuralnetworkhybrid controller had the least amount of wheel slip tracking error regarding to other controllers[9].Model Predictive Control (MPC) is a control tech- nique that tries to minimize the tracking errorthrough predictions of the future outputs of a plant which de- finesthepredictionhorizon[10].Duetotherobustand stable performance of this control system, it has al- ways attracted the attention of control engineers. An- war and Ashrafi presented a MPC system for ABS. The presented method required wheel speed sensors could satisfactorily shorten the stopping distance[1]. In this paper, half vehicle model is used for gen- erating the simulation data of a braking system. Two differentmodel-freecontroltechniquesincludingFLC andneuralnetworkMPCsystemsaredeveloped.Fora better assessment, the overall performance of the pro- posed FLC and MPC systems are compared. A neu- ral network-based algorithm is developed in the MPC system to generate the brake torque through track- ing a modified desired slip trajectory. In the MPC system, identification of the half vehicle brake sys- tem model is performed by a Multi-Layer Perceptron (MLP) neural network for the front wheel. In order to improve the identification error and cope with the se- vere time-varying dynamics of the vehicle brake sys- temmodel,asmalldatacollectionsampletimeisused for collecting the training patterns of the neural net- works.Inordertoincreasethecalculationspeedofthe MPC system, the brake system identification is per- formed by an offline MLP model. Training process of the MLP neural network model of the brake sys- tem is performed with offline data by Gradient De- scent Back-Propagation (GDBP) algorithm. In order toacceleratethecomputationsintheMPCsystem,the prediction horizon is shortened. To accelerate the op- timization and improve the robustness of the control system,adaptivestrategyisusedintheoptimizationof the MPC system. In the NPC system, an online MLP neural network is adaptively designed to generate the optimum values of brake torque such that predicted amount of slip in the NPC tracks its modified desired value. Here, GDBP algorithm is used for the online training of the MLP system in the controller. At the end,robustnessofthedesignedFLCandNPCsystems against modeling uncertainties and inputdisturbancesRobustcontrolofwheelslipinanti-lockbrakesystemofautomobiles 129 F = (m h + m h + m h) ⎪⎪ Fig. 2 Free-body diagramof the halfvehiclemodel[12]are evaluated by imposing 25 % Gaussian noises. Be- tweentheproposedmodel-freecontrolsystems,itwas seenthattheNPCsystemismorerobustthantheFLC system.Thesimulationresultsshowedthatthecontrol action input is a smooth signal in the designed NPC. The normal force can be considered as the difference between the vehicle mass distribution and mass trans- fer of the vehicle during acceleration or deceleration. The normal force due to vehicle mass distribution can be formulated as[12] Besides,thestoppingtimeanddistanceisshorterin ⎧ b the NPC system than the FLC controlsystem.The entire program is running in MATLAB/simu- linksoftware.⎪⎨F zf 1=a +b (m tot g) a ⎪⎩F zr 1=a +b (m tot g) (4)2 SystemdynamicsThe second part of the normal force on front wheel is obtainedfromusingtheconversionlawofmomenton rear wheel as[12] 2.1 A half vehicle dynamicmodelComprehensive vehicle models including all parame- ters are not control oriented models due to their com- plexity and highly nonlinearity. Therefore, a simpli- fied dynamical vehicle model that possesses all the (a +b)F zf 2=(m f h f +m s h s +m r h r )V ˙ Dividing both sides to (a + b ), onehas V ˙ zf 2 f f s s r r (a +b) (5) (6) main characteristics of vehicle systems isconsidered.A free-body diagram of the half vehicle model is shown in Fig.2.Applying the same procedure on the front wheels,the normal force of rear tire can be definedas V ˙ As shown in Fig. 2, steering effects and drag force are not considered in modeling to avoid complexity. The total traction force can be presented as[12] F tot = F xf +F xr (1) F zr 2=−(m f h f +m s h s +m r h r )(a +b) The normal forces of tires are defined as[12] ⎧F zf =F zf 1−F zf 2 ⎪⎪ (7) In(1),F xf and F xr are,respectively,thefrontandrear longitudinaltire-roadcontactforcesandaredefined ⎪⎪⎪ ⎨ b = a +b V ˙ m t g −(m f h f +m s h s +m r h r )(a +b) (8) as[12] ⎪⎪F zr =F zr 1−F zr 2 ⎪ F xf =μ(λf )F zf (2) ⎪⎪ a V ⎪⎪ ˙ F xr =μ(λr )F zr (3) where F zf and F zr arethenormalforcesactingonthe frontandrearwheel.μ(λf )and μ(λr )arefrictioncoef- ficientsbetweenroadandfront/reartires,respectively. ⎩ =a +b m t g +(m f h f +m s h s +m r h r )(a +b) Through some substitutions, the total traction force is obtained as[12] F tot =μ(λf )(m 1g −m 3V ˙)+μ(λr )(m 2g +m 3V ˙)(9)130T. Sardarmehni etal. ⎪ ⎩ ⎨ ⎪ 2J f ⎪⎪ ⎪ − Table 1 Constant values for different road condition [2] Road condition C 1 C 2 C 3where ⎧m 1=b m totand F zr in (14) and (15), angular acceleration for front wheel and rear wheel would be definedas 1 ⎪⎪ . . ⎪⎪ ⎨ m 2= ⎪⎪ a +b a a +btot(10)ω˙f =2J 1 −T bf +μ(λf )m 1gR −μ(λf )m 3R V ˙+T e (16) ⎪⎪⎪m 3= m f h f + m s h s +m r h ra +bω˙r = 2J r .T br +μ(λr )m 2gR +μ(λr )m 3R V ˙. (17) In (10), λ is the wheel slip which can be formulated for the front and rear wheel as[12]Since the main goal is controlling the wheel slip, the defined state variables in this paper are vehicle veloc- ity, the front and rear wheel slip (x 1 = V and x 2 =λf ⎧⎪λf = ⎪⎩λr = V −ωf RV V −ωr R V(11)and x 3 = λr ). Consequently, the state-space equations could be defined as[12] ⎧x ˙1=V ˙=f 1(x 2,x 3) ⎪ Wheel slip changes from 0 to 1 which indicatescom- pletelyrollingtireontheroadwithoutanyslipand⎪⎪⎪x ˙2 ⎪ =λ˙f bf wheel lock-up, respectively. Mostly, wheel lock-ups happen during deceleration while the angular veloc- ⎪⎪⎨ ⎪⎪ f 1(x 2,x 3)(1−x 2)−Rf 2(x 2,x 3)+RT = V (18) ity of wheels becomes zero. Burckhardt tire friction model is used to describe the relationship betweenthe ⎪⎪⎪x ˙3=λ˙r ⎪ RT br friction coefficient and wheel slip[2]:⎪⎪⎩ f 1(x 2,x 3)(1−x 3)−Rf 3(x 2,x 3)+ = V 2J r μ(λ) = C 1.1 − e −C 2λ.−C 3λ (12)where C 1, C 2 and C 3 are constants which depend on where ⎧ ⎪⎪f 1(x 2,x 3)=−g μ(x 2)m 1 +μ(x 3)m 2 roadcondition.Table 1showsthedifferentvaluefor ⎪⎪⎪ m tot 1 −μ(x 2)m 3 +μ(x 3)m 3 various roadconditions.By assuming the front wheel to be the driver one, the engine torque only acts on the front wheel. Free- body diagram of the Front-wheel is shown in Fig. 3. Applying Newton’s second law along the horizontal ⎨f 2(x 2,x 3)= ⎪⎪⎪ ⎪⎩f 3(x 2,x 3)= 2J f 1 2J r .μ(x 2)m 1Rg − μ(x 2)m 3Rf 1.(19) .μ(x 3)m 2Rg −μ(x 3)m 3Rf 1. direction one has[12]m tot V ˙=−F tot (13) 2J f ω˙f =−T bf +μ(λf )F zf R +T e (14) 2J r ω˙r =−T br +μ(λr )F zr R (15) In(14),T e representstheenginetorquewhichwould becomezeroduringdeceleration.Bysubstituting F zf 2.2 Dynamics of the hydraulic brakemodelThe structure of a standard hydraulic brake actuatoris shown in Fig. 4. There are two solenoid valves which can only be open or close. The amount of braking pressure is regulated through the opening conditionof each valve which is simply specified by coefficients C d1 and C d2. For instance, when C d1 = 1 and C d2 =0 f Dryasphalt 1.2801 23.99 0.52 Drycobblestones 1.3713 6.4565 0.6691 Dryconcrete 1.1973 25.168 0.5373 Wetasphalt 0.857 33.822 0.347 Wet cobblestones 0.4004 33.708 0.1204 Snow 0.1946 94.129 0.0646 Ice 0.05 306.39 0 Fig. 3 Front-wheel free-body diagram[12]Robustcontrolofwheelslipinanti-lockbrakesystemofautomobiles 131− = − Fig. 4 Structure of astandard hydraulicmodel[13]Fig. 5a Membershipfunction ofvelocitythe build valve is open and the dump valve is closed (see Fig. 4) which increases the braking pressure and vice versa. The hydraulic system dynamic model can be represented as[13]in this section. The parallel structure of FLC systems enables the control system to activate all rules simul- taneously. This characteristic of the FLC systems im- proves the required time for calculations[6]. In general, FLC systems perform four mainstages C dp i f dt ,2 = A 1C d1 ρ (P p −P i ) which are Fuzzification, rule base, inference mecha- nism and Defuzzification. Fuzzification andDefuzzi- −A 2C d2 ,2 (P i P low ) (20) ρ ficationstagestransformanynumericaldatatoitscor- responding fuzzy value and vice versa. The inferencemechanismdeterminesthematchingdegreeofthecur- Throughsomesimplifications,thebraketorquecanbe defined as[13] T b =P i A wc ηB F r r (21) It is assumed that the brake torque defined by (21), only acts on the driver wheel which is the front one. Theamountoftherearwheelbraketorqueisdepended on that of the front wheel and could be definedas T br =K br T bf (22) The value for K br is often selected to be less than 1 in order to prevent rear wheel lock-ups at the situations which front wheel locks-up[12]. 3 An ABS fuzzy controllerdesign Due to an acceptable performance of the FLC in non- linearsystems,thistypeofcontrolsystemisdevelopedrent fuzzy input with respect to each rule and decides which rules should be fired. At the end, the firedrules are combined to form the control action[14].Mamdani method is applied for designing a fuzzy controller for the front wheel. The input vector of the proposed controller is consisted of the vehicle speed, wheel slip error and oil pressure differences. The wheel slip error is the difference between the current wheel slip and the modified desired wheel slip which varies with the condition of the road. The wheel-slip errors of the front and rear wheel are definedas .e f λd λf (23) e r = λd −λrAs shown in Figs. 5a , 5b , 5c and 5d , six Gaussian membership functions are used for the vehicle speed. Moreover, seven Gaussian membership functions are usedforthewheelsliperror;fortheoilpressurediffer-encetwoS-shapemembershipfunctionsareused.De-130 T. Sardarmehni etal. Fig. 5b Membershipfunction of LambdaerrorFig. 5c Membershipfunction ofΔPFig. 5d Membershipfunction of C dTable 2a Positive pressure difference (ΔP >0) Table 2b Negative pressure difference (ΔP <0)Vλerror VλerrorNVB NB NS ZO PS PB PVB NVB NB NS ZO PS PB PVBVS DEC DEC DEC DEC INC INC INC VS DEC DEC DEC DEC INC INC INC S DEC DEC DEC DEC INC INC INC S DEC DEC DEC DEC INC INC INC M DEC DEC DEC DEC INC INC INC M DEC DEC DEC DEC INC INC INC B DEC DEC DEC DEC INC INC INC B DEC DEC DEC INC INC INC INC VB DEC DEC DEC DEC INC INC INC VB DEC DEC DEC INC INC INC INC VVB DEC DEC DEC DEC INC INC INC VVB DEC DEC DEC INC INC INC INCfuzzification is performed through two Z-shapemem- bershipfunctions.After defining fuzzy sets for inputs and output, fuzzy control rules are designed as described in Ta- bles2a and 2b. Fuzzy control rules are developed for two different positive and negative oil pressurediffer- ence situations. In Tables 2a and 2b, INC represents the command that opens the build valve and closes the dump valve and DEC expresses the commandthat closesthebuildvalveandopensthedumpvalve. 4MultiLayerPerceptron(MLP)modelingofthe brakesystem4.1Structure of the MLP neuralnetworkThe structure of a MLP neural network is shown in Fig. 6. The proposed neural network model of the brake system is consisted of two layers comprising hidden layer and output layer. The input data are re-ceivedanddistributedtothenodesofthehiddenlayer.132T. Sardarmehni etal. 2 2 × f W (i,1) W 1 W (j,1) Fig. 6 Block diagram ofMLP neuralnetworksThe nonlinear activation function, f 1 in everyneuronofthehiddenlayerreceivestheweightedsumofallin-putdataplusthebiastermofeachcorrespondingnode.Intheoutputlayer,theweightedoutputsofthehidden layerarelinearlysummeduptotheoutputlayer’sbiaswhere Q is the total number of training patterns and l defines the in-process training pattern. Based on the back propagation algorithm, the bias term of (27) is updatedas ∂E(k) term and form the output of thenetwork.b 2(k +1)=b 2(k)−η ∂b 2(30) Assuming the number of inputs as p , the numberof neurons in the hidden layer as q and the dimen-sion of the network’s output as 1, the attributes ofthewhere η is a small positive number called thelearning rate. More precisely, it can beshown Q neural network model become as W 1 R q ×p ,b 1R q ×1,2 2 .∂E(k) ∂y(l) net 1 R q ×1, a 1 R q ×1, W 2 R q ×1 and b 2 R 1×1.Theactivationfunction f 1isasigmoidfunctiondefinedas 2b (k + 1) = b (k) −η = b (k) −η l =1 Q . ∂y(l)∂b 2(k) e l (l) (31) f 1(x)=1 +exp (−βx) − 1 (24)l =1 The same procedure can be performed for updating where 0 < β <1 is a tuning parameter and could beadjusted by experience or trial and error. Now, theweightedinputvector,P isgatheredwiththeneuron’sW 1, W 2, and b 1. So onehas W 2(k +1) Q bias term to obtain net 1as= W (k) −η .∂E(k) ∂y(l) 2 net 1 = W 1P +b 1 (25)l =1 Q ∂y(l) ∂W (k) Therefore, the output of the hidden layer, a 1 isob-2 . 1. 1 1. tainedasa 1 =f .net 1. (26)= b (k) −η b 1 l =1 e l (l)f W P (l) +b (32)The network’s overall output can now be obtained asfollows [10, 15,16]:(i,1)(k +1) =b 1 Q ..l (1,i) y = W 2a 1 +b 2 (27)(i,1)(k) −η l =1 e (l) ×W 2 (k) r .1 (i,j) (k)P (i,1)(l)+b 1 (k).. (33) 4.2 Training algorithm of the MLPnetworkThe parameters of MLP model, including b 1, b 2,W 1And similarly, onehas (j,i)(k +1) Q . and W 2,areupdatedbytheGDBPalgorithmbasedonthefollowingerror,e l :e l = y −y d (28)= W 1 (k) (j,i) .p −η.e l (l)W 2f r j l =1 .where y and y d are the MLP’s and desired outputs,respectively.Theindexofperformancecanbedefined..1 × (j,i) i =1 . (k)P (i,1)(l)+b 1 (k). as×P (j,1)(l) 1 Q (34) .. .E =2l =1y(l)−y d (l) (29)Comprehensive details and formulation of GDBP al- gorithm can be found in [10, 15,16].Robustcontrolofwheelslipinanti-lockbrakesystemofautomobiles133Fig. 7a Illustration ofnormalized brake torqueused fortrainingFig. 7b Illustration ofnormalized slip ratio usedfortraining4.3 The MLP model training and validationdataFor the front wheel, an MLP neural network istrainedby the GDBP algorithm. Considering λ(t) as the out-put slip of each MLP network at the current sampletime, t , the input vector of the training process is con-sistedofthebraketorqueandtheslipat(t −1)and(t ) as P = .T b (t), T b (t − 1), λ(t − 1), λ(t −2).T (35)ThroughwidespreadsimulationdataoftheMLPbrakesystem model, four neurons are chosen in the hid-den layer and thereby the neural network parame-ters are specified as W 1 R 4×4, b 1 R 4×1, W 2 R 4×1and b 2 R 1×1. A 4000-tuple random signal of braketorque, which was bounded to the interval 400 to5000 (Newton-meter), is imposed to the brakesystemmodel. To consider both the transient and the steady-state performance of the brake system, one half ofthe training patterns are generated with pulse widthof0.1 second and the other half has a wide pulse width,1.5 second. By imposing the input training data onthe brake system, 4000 output values for slip are gen-erated, which are used in the training process of the neural network systems. As Figs. 7a and 7b show, all trainingpatternsarenormalizedintotheinterval [0,1]. A fixed 0.01 second sample time is used in the gener- ation of the training data. β in (24) is considered2. In training with GDBP, the learning rate is set to 0.001. The initial values for weights and biases were taken as random numbers. The training process was finished when all errors (29) of the training patterns reached 0.01. The training process with GDBP was performedin458.25seconds.Aftertraining,theaccu- racy of the trained MLP model is evaluated by a new set of bounded random samples for the brake torque. Theresulted0.0026MeanAbsoluteError(MAE)cor- responding to the evaluation data in Fig. 8is signifi- cantlysmall. TheconvergedweightandbiasesoftheMLPneural network models for the front wheel are presented in Table 3. 5 MPC The schematic of the proposed NPC system is shownin Fig. 9. In each sample time, the NPC generates N u134T. Sardarmehni etal.⎢ ⎢ ⎢ ⎥⎥Fig. 8 Illustration ofvalidationdataMAE =0.0026Fig. 9 Schematic of NPCsystemTable 3 Final parameters of the MLPmodel⎡0.1791 ⎤ T ⎡0.4025 ⎤ ⎡ 0.2504 −0.1039 0.08790.4792 ⎤ ⎢0.6155 ⎥⎢0.6992 ⎥ ⎢ 0.1193 −0.1287 0.74980.4613 ⎥ b 1=⎢− ⎥ b 2 =−0.0847 W 2 =⎢ ⎥ W 1 =⎢ ⎥ 0.4755 ⎥ −0.2207⎥ ⎢0.6112 0.5432 0.7971 0.5464⎥ ⎣ ⎦1.1208 ⎣ ⎦ 0.6099 ⎣ ⎦ 0.4545 0.3086 0.8599 0.8654number of future constrained control inputs such thatthe predicted amount of system output tracks a modi-fied desired trajectory throughout the prediction hori-zon. N u defines the predictionhorizon.InFig.9,T b (t 0)and λ(t 0)showthebraketorqueand the slip at time t 0, respectively. Therefore, in thetime interval t 0 through t 0+Δt , all the components ofthe following vector, P i are known for i =0: P i =.T b (t 0 +iΔt),T b .t 0 +(i −1)Δt .,λ.t 0+(i −1)Δt .,λ.t 0+(i −2)Δt ..Ti =0,..., N u (36)In the NPC system, the vector P i is given to the MLPmodel of the brake system for predicting the slip.Therefore,intheinterval,t 0to t 0+Δt ,NPCrequiresthe predicted values of T b and λ at time samples t 0 + iΔt (i = 0,..., N u ). The values of λ(t 0 + iΔt) for each P i in Fig. 9is predicted through the trained MLP model of the brake system using P i −1 for i = 1,..., N u . The optimal values of T b (t 0 + iΔt) are obtained through the optimization process fully discussed in Sect.5.1. Theonlineoptimizationresultsinoptimizedvalues of all U i s in each sample time. As shown in Fig. 9, only the first component of P 1, which is shown as U 1,is used as the control input. Similarly, the remain- ing U i s are considered as the initial values for the fu- ture time steps, recursively. This usage of the preced- ing optimized values as the initial values of the cur- renttime results in fast convergence of the NPC sys- tem.Robustcontrolofwheelslipinanti-lockbrakesystemofautomobiles135 2 = − (j,1) = − + = − = − 1 + = 1 − 1 W W ∂Ψ (k) 2 W (j,1) (i,1) . f 5.1 OptimizationForreducingthecalculation’stimecostandimproving therobustnessoftheMPCsystem,optimizationunitis constructedbasedonMLPneuralnetworks.Inthepro- and ∂U 1(k) ∂Φ2(k) =1 (44) Similarly, ψ 2 is updatedas posedoptimizationmethod,anMLPneuralnetworkis adaptivelytrainedtogeneratetheonlineoptimumval- ues for control actions. These optimal control actions aregeneratedbasedonthetrackingperformanceofthe slip in the MPCsystem.As a result, an MLP neural network with thesame Ψ2(k +1)=Ψ2(k)−η∂E(k) ∂Ψ(k) From chain rule, (45) simplifiesto Ψ 2(k +1) Ψ 2(k) η∂E(k) ∂e l (k) ∂λ1(k)∂U 1(k) ∂e l (k) ∂λ1(k) ∂U 1(k) ∂Ψ2(k) (45) (46) structuregiveninSect.4.1isusedforanonlinegener- ation of front wheel brake torque signal. Considering ψ 1 and ψ2 as the first and second layer weightmatri- ces, and ϕ1 and ϕ2 as the first and second layer bias terms, the output can be definedaswhere: ∂U 1(k) ∂Ψ2(k) 4 ..4 .. U 1=Ψ2g .Ψ1X 0+Φ1.+Φ2 (37) = g i =1 . j =1 1 (i,j) X 0(j,1)+Φ1 (47) where g is the activation function defined by (24) for β = 2. For N u = 1, the error terms can be definedas According the GDBP algorithm, Φ1 could be updated as 1 1 ∂E(k) e l = λ(1)−λd (1) (38) where λ(1) is definedasλ(1) = W 2f 1.W 1X 1 + b 1.+b 2 (39)Φ (k + 1) = Φ (k)−η∂Φ1(k) (48) We apply the chain rule andwrite Φ1(k +1) The error term is definedas Φ1(k) η∂E(k) ∂e l (k) ∂λ1(k)∂U 1(k) ∂e l (k)∂λ1(k)∂U 1(k)∂Φ1(k) (49) 1 2with E = 2e l (40) ForonlineupdatingoftheparametersoftheMLPnet- work, back propagation algorithm is used. Hence,one ∂U 1(k) ∂Φ1(k) 4 . .4 .. has = .Ψ 2 r .(i,j)X 0(j,1)+Φ(j,1) Φ2(k 1) Φ2(k) η∂E(k)∂Φ2(k)(41)i =1 (i,1)g Ψ1 j =1 1 (50) We use the chain rule to rewrite (40)as Φ2(k +1) Φ2(k) η∂E(k) ∂e l (k) ∂λ1(k)∂U 1(k)∂e l (k)∂λ1(k)∂U 1(k)∂Φ2(k)(42)By the same procedure ψ1 can be updatedas ∂E(k) Ψ (k 1) Ψ (k) η ∂Ψ1(k) We use the chain rule toobtain Ψ 1(k +1) (51) The first two partial derivative terms on the rightside of(42)areeasilydefinedandthethirdtermcanbe =Ψ1(k)−η∂E(k)∂e l (k)∂λ1(k)∂U 1(k) (52) formulatedas4 .where ∂e l (k) ∂λ1(k) ∂U 1(k)∂Ψ (k) ∂λ1(k) ∂U 1(k)= .i =1 2 (1,i) 1 r(i,1) ∂U 1(k ) 1 (i,j) = Ψ (i,1)X 0(i,1)g r .4. × j =11 (i,j) ..X 1(j,1)+b 1 (43).4 . × j =1 1 (i,j) . X 0(j,1)+Φ1 (53) Ψ Ψ。

1 前言减少刹车时所需的制动时间和距离，一直以来都是汽车刹车系统设计中最重要的控制目标之一。

如果不对车轮角速度进行控制，一个普通的刹车系统将会对车轮产生一个与之相反的，固定的刹车力矩。

这一固定力矩，将会使车轮角速度以一个大于行车速度的速率突然减速，并将导致车轮在刹车时上锁。

车轮上锁，摩擦系数和路面支持力减小，轮胎主动力的刹车力矩也随之减小。

因此，制动时间增加，车辆停止前的滑行距离也增大。

此外，车辆方向稳定性也会大大下降。

为防止车轮上锁及剧烈刹车可能带来的灾难性后果，汽车行业引入了防抱死制动系统（ABS），其主题思想是为控制主动刹车力矩，从而减少车轮上锁情况。

这一过程会产生车辆的最大负加速度，却可以保证方向稳定性和车辆转向能力。

为确保车辆最大附加速度的产生，纵向力应保持在最大值，这就要求摩擦力也最大。

研究表明，摩擦系数很大程度上取决于路面情况。

如图1所示，不同路面情况下的摩擦系数最大值在0.02到0.43之间变动。

总之，为防止车轮上锁，ABS系统中有两种不同方法来控制刹车力矩。

第一种方法基于车轮减速，不需要车辆速度感应器收集信息。

但路面的操作负荷，使其不能完全用于车轮减速方法中。

第二种方法利用了滑差系数（车轮线速度和车辆速度的差值与车辆速度的比值），用驱动器的油压调节刹车力矩。

在不同的路面情况下，当相关摩擦系数达到峰值，滑差系数达到预定值时，调节过程便会预先形成。

汽车ABS系统中常用的PI控制器，需要长时间的校准过程，当有外部噪音和干扰时，也无法有效运作。

另外，由于路面情况及车辆状况的不同，PI控制器的表现并不令人满意，没有车辆刹车模型所要求的严格的非线性特征，结构性或非结构性不确定性和随时间变化的动力等。

现在，微型计算机工业领域的相关进步及智能可适控制技术可以运用到车辆的电子控制装置（ECU）中。

除去重要的却短暂而不变的表现之外，这些控制器调节简便，对各种不确定性也有很强的控制力。

作为ABS系统设计中的尖端科技，FLC和神经网络也运用其中。

Automobile Brake SystemThe braking system is the most important system in cars. If the brakes fail, the result can be disastrous. Brakes are actually energy conversion devices, which convert the kinetic energy (momentum) of the vehicle into thermal energy (heat).When stepping on the brakes, the driver commands a stopping force ten times as powerful as the force that puts the car in motion. The braking system can exert thousands of pounds of pressure on each of the four brakes.Two complete independent braking systems are used on the car. They are the service brake and the parking brake.The service brake acts to slow, stop, or hold the vehicle during normal driving. They are foot-operated by the driver depressing and releasing the brake pedal. The primary purpose of the parking brake is to hold the vehicle stationary while it is unattended. The parking brake is mechanically operated by when a separate parking brake foot pedal or hand lever is set.The brake system is composed of the following basic c omponents: the “master cylinder” which is located under the hood, and is directly connected to the brake pedal, converts driver foot’s mechanical pressure into hydraulic pressure. Steel “brake lines” and flexible “brake hoses” connect the master cylinder to the “slave cylinders” located at each wheel. Brake fluid, specially designed to work in extreme conditions, fills the system. “Shoes” and “pads” are pushed by the slave cylinders to contact the “drums” and “rotors” thus causing drag, which (hopefully) slows the car.The typical brake system consists of disk brakes in front and either disk or drum brakes in the rear connected by a system of tubes and hoses that link the brake at each wheel to the master cylinder (Figure).Basically, all car brakes are friction brakes. When the driver applies the brake, the control device forces brake shoes, or pads, against the rotating brake drum or disks at wheel. Friction between the shoes or pads and the drums or disks then slows or stops the wheel so that the car is braked.In most modern brake systems (see Figure 15.1), there is a fluid-filled cylinder, called master cylinder, which contains two separate sections, there is a piston in each section and both pistons are connected to a brake pedal in the driver’s compartment. When the brake is pushed down, brake fluid is sent from the master cylinder to the wheels.At the wheels, the fluid pushes shoes, or pads, against revolving drums or disks. The friction between the stationary shoes, or pads, and the revolving drums or disks slows and stops them. This slows or stops the revolving wheels, which, in turn, slow or stop the car.The brake fluid reservoir is on top of the master cylinder. Most cars today have a transparent reservoir so that you can see the level without opening the cover. The brake fluid level will drop slightly as the brake pads wear. This is a normal condition and no cause for concern. If the level drops noticeably over ashort period of time or goes down to about two thirds full, have your brakes checked as soon as possible. Keep the reservoir covered except for the amount of time you need to fill it and never leave a cam of brake fluid uncovered. Brake fluid must maintain a very high boiling point. Exposure to air will cause the fluid to absorb moisture which will lower that boiling point.The brake fluid travels from the master cylinder to the wheels through a series of steel tubes and reinforced rubber hoses. Rubber hoses are only used in places that require flexibility, such as at the front wheels, which move up and down as well as steer. The rest of the system uses non-corrosive seamless steel tubing with special fittings at all attachment points. If a steel line requires a repair, thebest procedure is to replace the compete line. If this is not practical, a line can be repaired using special splice fittings that are made for brake system repair. You must never use copper tubing to repair a brake system. They are dangerous and illegal.Drum brakes, it consists of the brake drum, an expander, pull back springs, a stationary back plate, two shoes with friction linings, and anchor pins. The stationary back plate is secured to the flange of the axle housing or to the steering knuckle. The brake drum is mounted on the wheel hub. There is a clearance between the inner surface of the drum and the shoe lining. To apply brakes, the driver pushes pedal, the expander expands the shoes and presses them to the drum. Friction between the brake drum and the friction linings brakes the wheels and the vehicle stops. To release brakes, the driver release the pedal, the pull back spring retracts the shoes thus permitting free rotation of the wheels.Disk brakes, it has a metal disk instead of a drum. A flat shoe, or disk-brake pad, is located on each side of the disk. The shoes squeeze the rotatin g disk to stop the car. Fluid from the master cylinder forces the pistons to move in, toward the disk. This action pushes the friction pads tightly against the disk. The friction between the shoes and disk slows and stops it. This provides the braking action. Pistons are made of either plastic or metal. There are three general types of disk brakes. They are the floating-caliper type, the fixed-caliper type, and thesliding-caliper type. Floating-caliper and sliding-caliper disk brakes use a single piston. Fixed-caliper disk brakes have either two or four pistons.The brake system assemblies are actuated by mechanical, hydraulic or pneumatic devices. The mechanical leverage is used in the parking brakes fitted in all automobile. When the brake pedal is depressed, the rod pushes the piston of brake master cylinder which presses the fluid. The fluid flows through the pipelines to the power brake unit and then to the wheel cylinder. The fluidpressure expands the cylinder pistons thus pressing the shoes to the drum or disk. If the pedal is released, the piston returns to the initialposition, the pull back springs retract the shoes, the fluid is forced back to the master cylinder and braking ceases.The primary purpose of the parking brake is to hold the vehicle stationary while it is unattended. The parking brake is mechanically operated by the driver when a separate parking braking hand lever is set. The hand brake is normally used when the car has already stopped. A lever is pulled and the rear brakes are approached and locked in the “on” position. The car may now be left without fear of its rolling away. When the driver wants to move the car again, he must press a button before the lever can be released. The hand brake must also be able to stop the car in the event of the foot brake failing. For this reason, it is separate from the foot brake uses cable or rods instead of the hydraulic system.Anti-lock Brake SystemAnti-lock brake systems make braking safer and more convenient, Anti-lock brake systems modulate brake system hydraulic pressure to prevent the brakes from locking and the tires from skidding on slippery pavement or during a panic stop.Anti-lock brake systems have been used on aircraft for years, and some domestic car were offered with an early form of anti-lock braking in late 1990’s. Recently, several automakers have introduced more sophisticated anti-lock system. Investigations in Europe, where anti-lock brakin g systems have been available for a decade, have led one manufacture to state that the number of traffic accidents could be reduced by seven and a half percent if all cars had anti-lock brakes. So some sources predict that all cars will offer anti-lock brakes to improve the safety of the car.Anti-lock systems modulate brake application force several times per second to hold the tires at a controlled amount of slip; all systems accomplish this in basically the same way. One or more speed sensors generate alternating current signal whose frequency increases with the wheel rotational speed. An electronic control unit continuously monitors these signals and if the frequency of a signal drops too rapidly indicating that a wheel is about to lock, the control unit instructs a modulating device to reduce hydraulic pressure to the brake at the affected wheel. When sensor signals indicate the wheel is again rotating normally, the control unit allows increased hydraulic pressure to the brake. This release-apply cycle occurs several time per second to “pump” the brakes like a driver might but at a much faster rate.In addition to their basic operation, anti-lock systems have two other things in common. First, they do not operate until the brakes are applied with enough force to lock or nearly lock a wheel. At all other times, the system stands ready to function but does not interfere with normal braking. Second, if the anti-lock system fail in any way, the brakes continue to operate without anti-lock capability. A warning light on the instrument panel alerts the driver when a problem exists in the anti-lock system.The current Bosch component Anti-lock Braking System (ABSⅡ), is a second generation design wildly used by European automakers such as BWM, Mercedes-Benz and Porsche. ABSⅡ system consists of : four wheel speed sensor, electronic control unit and modulator assembly.A speed sensor is fitted at each wheel sends signals about wheel rotation to control unit. Each speed sensor consists of a sensor unit and a gear wheel. The front sensor mounts to the steering knuckle and its gear wheel is pressed onto the stub axle that rotates with the wheel. The rear sensor mounts the rear suspension member and its gear wheel is pressed onto the axle. The sensor itself is awinding with a magnetic core. The core creates a magnetic field around the winding, and as the teeth of the gear wheel move through this field, an alternating current is induced inthe winding. The control unit monitors the rate o change in this frequency to determine impending brake lockup.The control unit’s function can be divided into three parts: signal processing, logic and safety circuitry. The signal processing section is the converter that receives the alternating current signals form the speed sensors and converts them into digital form for the logic section. The logic section then analyzes the digitized signals to calculate any brake pressure changes needed. If impending lockup is sensed, the logic section sends commands to the modulator assembly.Modulator assemblyThe hydraulic modulator assembly regulates pressure to the wheel brakes when it receives commands from the control utuit. The modulator assembly can maintain or reduce pressure over the level it receives from the master cylinder, it also can never apply the brakes by itself. The modulator assembly consists of threehigh-speed electric solenoid valves, two fluid reservoirs and a turn delivery pump equipped with inlet and outlet check valves. The modulator electrical connector and controlling relays are concealed under a plastic cover of the assembly.Each front wheel is served by electric solenoid valve modulated independently by the control unit. The rear brakes are served by a single solenoid valve and modulated together using the select-low principle. During anti-braking system operation, the control unit cycles the solenoid valves to either hold or release pressure the brake lines. When pressure is released from the brake lines during anti-braking operation, it is routed to a fluid reservoir. There is one reservoir for the front brake circuit. The reservoirs are low-pressure accumulators that storefluid under slight spring pressure until the return delivery pump can return the fluid through the brake lines to the master cylinder.汽车制动系统制动系统是汽车上最重要的系统。

TransmissionBrakesBrake is a movement of vehicles or impede the movement of the trend components. According to brake torque generated in different ways, the brakes can be divided into: friction brake and retarder brakes, brake, broadly speaking, usually referred to the friction brake. At present all kinds of cars used by the brake drum brakes and can be divided into two major categories of disc brakes. Drum brake friction in the rotating components of the brake drum, and its work surface for the cylindrical surface of the rotating disc brake components for the brake disc, to end the work surface. In addition, under the rotating components of the installation of different positions, the brakes can be divided into the wheel brakes and brake two categories. Among them, the rotating wheels, brake components installed in thesolid-wheel or axle, brake torque that is a direct role in both sides of the wheels, respectively, for its general travel brake, and can also be used to brake the second and the car braking; rotating components of the brake-installed in the transmission of the transmission shaft, after its brake torque to be driven to the redistribution of the bridge on both sides of the wheel, generally used only for its cars in the system Retarded and dynamic braking.Drum brakes are within and outside the beam-type-two. The former brake drum to work within the cylindrical surface of the car on the wide application of the latter brake drum is the work of Outer cylindrical surface, only a handful of cars will be used in car brakes.Zhang-drum brakes, mainly by the brake drum (Xingzhuang Si pot, installed in the wheel, and synchronization with the rotating wheels), brake shoes, (arc-shaped parts, a group of two, shoes, with a lateral Nien Moment of friction brake lining film), fixed sales andbrake-cylinder, and so on. Brake, brake drum in the internal brake shoes, brake points from one end to bear the Prokinetic cylinder, around the other side of the fulcrum of its outward rotation, the pressure on the brake drum with a round face, then friction Torque.Disc brake mainly by the brake discand calipers. Among them, ventilated brake disc-andtwo-solid; mainly floating calipers clamp, fork-floating, such as several fixed-clamp. Braking system of new technologiesAs people of vehicle safety requirements and the continuous improvement of the rapid development of electronic technology, today's automobile braking system have taken place in the revolutionary progress. On the one hand, the brake system through a variety of sensors for real-time monitoring of the braking system braking to provide a more efficient and effective security assurances on the other hand, automobile braking systems and other systems constitute stretches of the regional network, in Implementation of intelligent brake control at the same time, but also further reduce the energy consumption of motor vehicles; addition, with new materials and new structure of the large number of applications, the reliability of its braking system has been further improved.制动器是产生阻碍车辆运动或运动趋势的力的部件。

中文3165字Automobile Brake SystemThe breaking system is the most important system in cars. If the breaks fail, the result can be disastrous. Brakes are actually conversion devices, which convert the kinetic energy(momentum) of the vehicle into thermal energy (heat). When stepping on the brakes, the driver commands a stopping force ten times as powerful as the force that puts the car in motion. The braking system can exert thousands of pounds of pressure on each of the four brakes.Two complete independent braking system are used on the car. They are the service brake and the parking brake.The service brake acts to slow, stop, or hold the vehicle during normal driving . They are foot-operated by the driver depressing and releasing the brake pedal. The primary purpose of the brake is hold the vehicle stationary while it is unattended. The parking brake is mechanically operated by when a separate parking brake foot pedal or hand lever is set.The brake system is composed of the following basic components :the“master cylinder”which is located under the hood, and is directly connected to the brake pedal, converts drivers foot’s mechanical pressure into hydraulic pressure. Steel “brake lines”and flexible “brake hoses”connect the master cylinder to the “slave cylinder”located at each wheel. Brake fluid, specially designed to work in extre me conditions, fill the system. “Shoes”and “pads”are pushed by the slave cylinde rs to c ontact the “drums”and “rotors”thus causing drag, which(hopefully) slows the car.The typical brake system consists of disk brakes in front and either disk of drum brakes in the rear connected by a system of tubes and hoses that link the brake to at each wheel to the master cylinder (Figure).Basically, all car brakes are friction brakes. When the driver applies the brake, the control device forces brakes shoes, or pads, against the rotating brake drum or disk at wheel. Friction between the shoes or pads and the drums or disks then slows or stops the wheel so that the car is braked.In most modern brake systems, there is a fluid-filled cylinder, called master cylinder, which contains two separate sections, there is a piston in each section and both p istons are connected to a brake pedal in the driver’s compartment. When the brake pushed down, brake fluid is sent form the master cylinder to the wheels. At the wheels, the fluid pushes shoes, or pads, against revolving drums or disks. The friction between the stationary shoes, or pads, and the revolving drums or disks slows and stops them. This slows or stops the revolving wheels, which, in turn, slow or stop the car.The brake fluid reservoir is on top of the master cylinder. Most cars today have a transparent or reservoir so that you can see the level without open the cover. The brake fluid level will drop slightly as the brake pads wear This is a normal condition and no cause for concern. If the level drops noticeably over a short period of time or goes down to about two thirds full, have your brakes checked as soon aspossible. Keep the reservoir covered except for the amount of time you need to fill it and never leave a cam of break fluid uncovered. Brake fluid must maintain a very high boiling point. Exposure to air will cause fluid to absorb moisture which will lower that boiling point.The brake fluid travels from the master cylinder to the wheels through a series of steel tubes and reinforced rubber hoses. Rubber hoses are only used in places that require flexibility, such as at the front wheels, which move up and down as well as steer. The rest of the system uses non-corrosive seamless steel tubing with special fittings at all attachment points. If a steel line requires a repair, the best procedure is to replace the compete line. If this is not practical, a line can be repaired using special splice fittings that are made for brake system repair. You must never use copper tubing to repair a brake system. They are dangerous and illegal.Drum brakes, it consists of the brake drum, an expander, pull back springs, a stationary back plate, two shoes with friction linings, and anchor pins. The stationary back plate is secured to the flange of the axle housing or to the steeling knuckle. The brake drum is mounted on the wheel hub. There is a clearance between the inner surface of the drum and the shoe lining. To apply brakes, the driver pushes pedal, the expander expands the shoes and presses them to the drum. Friction between the brake drum and friction linings brakes the wheels and the vehicle stops. To release brakes, the driver release the pedal, the pull back spring retracts the shoes thus permitting free rotation of the wheels.Disk brakes, it has a metal disk instead of a drum. A flat shoe, or disk-brake pad, is located on each side of the disk. The shoes squeeze the rotating disk to stop the car. Fluid from the master cylinder forces pistons to move in, toward the disk. This action pushes the friction pad tightly against the disk. The friction between the shoes and disk slows and stop it. This provides the braking action. Pistons are made of either plastic or metal. There are three general types of disk brakes. They are the floating-caliper type, the fixed-caliper type, and the sliding-caliper type. Floating-caliper and sliding-caliper disk brakes used single piston. Fixed-caliper disk brakes have either two or four pistons.The brake system assemblies are actuated by mechanical, hydraulic or pneumatic devices. The mechanical leverage is used in the parking brakes fitted in all automobile. When the brake pedal is depressed, the rod pushes the piston of brake master cylinder which presses the fluid. The fluid flows through the pipeline to the power brake unit and then to the wheel cylinder. The fluid pressure expands the cylinder pistons thus pressing the shoes to the drum or disk. If the pedal is released, the piston returns to the initial position, the pull back springs retract the shoes, The fluid is forced back to the master cylinder and braking ceases.The primary purpose of the parking brake is to hold the vehicle stationary while it is unattended. The parking brake is mechanically operated by the driver when a separate parking braking hand lever is set. The hand brake is normally used when the car has already stopped. A lever is pulled and the rear brakes are approached and located in the “on”position. The car may now be left without fear of its rolling away. When the driver wants to move the car again ,he must press a button before the levercan be released. The hand brake must also be to stop the car in the event of the foot brake failing. For this reason, it is separate from the foot brake uses cable or rods instead of the hydraulic system.Anti-lock Brake SystemAnti-lock brake system make braking safer and more convenient, Anti-lock brake system modulate brake system hydraulic pressure to prevent the brakes from locking and the tires from kidding on slippery pavement or during a panic stop.Anti-lock brake system have been used on aircraft for years, and some domestic car were offered with an early form of anti-lock braking in late 1990’s.Recently, several automakers have introduced more sophisticated anti-lock system. Investigation in Europe, where anti-lock braking systems have been available for a decade, have led one manufacture to state that the number of traffic accidents could be reduced by seven and a half percent if all cars had anti-lock brakes. So some sources predict that all cars will offer anti-lock brakes to improve the safety of the car.Anti-lock system modulate brake application force several times per second to hold the tires at a controlled amount of slip; all system accomplish this in basically the same way. One or more speed sensors generate alternating current signal whose frequency increases with the wheel rotational speed. An electronic control unit continuously monitors these signals and if the frequency of a signal drops too rapidly indicating that a wheel is about to lock, the control unit instructs a modulating device to reduce hydraulic pressure to the brake at the affected wheel. When sensor signals indicate the wheel is again rotating normally, the control unit allows increased hydraulic pressure to the brake. This release-apply cycle occurs several time per second to “pump”the brakes like a driver might but at a much faster rate.In addition to their basic operation, anti-lock system have two other things in common. First, they do not operate until the brakes are applied with enough force to lock or nearly lock a wheel. At or other times, the system stands ready to function but does not interfere with normal braking. Second, if the anti-lock system fail in any way, the brakes continue to operate without anti-lock capability. A warning light on the instrument panel alerts the driver when a problem exists in the anti-lock system.The current Bosch component Anti-lock Braking System(ABSⅡI), is a second generation design wildly used by European automakers such as BMW, Mercedes-Benz and Porsche. ABSⅡsystem consists of : four wheel speed sensor, electronic control unit and modulator assembly.A speed sensor is fitted at each wheel sends signals about wheel rotation to control unit. Each speed sensor consists of a sensor unit and a gear wheel. The front sensor mounts to the steering knuckle and its gear wheel is pressed onto the stub axle that rotates with the wheel. The rear sensor mounts the rear suspension member and its gear wheel is pressed onto the axle. The sensor itself is a winding with a magnetic core. The core creates a magnetic field around the winding, and as the teeth of the gear wheel move through this field, an alternating current is induced in the winding. The control unit monitors the rate o change in this frequency to determine impending brake lockup.The control unit’s function can be divided into three parts: signal processing,logic and safety circuitry. The signal processing section is the converter that receives the alternating current signals form the speed sensors and converts them into digital form for the logic section. The logic section then analyzes the digitized signals to calculate any brake pressure changes needed. If impending lockup is sensed, the logic section sends commands to the modulator assembly.The hydraulic modulator assembly regulates pressure to the wheel brakes when it receives commands from the control utuit. The modulator assembly can maintain or reduce pressure over the level it receivers from the master cylinder, it also can never apply the brakes by itself. The modulator assembly consists of three high-speed electric solenoid valves, two fluid reservoirs and a turn delivery pump equipped with inlet and outlet check valves. The modulator electrical connector and controlling relays are concealed under a plastic cover of the assembly.Each front wheel is served by electric solenoid valve modulated independently by the control unit. The rear brakes are served by a single solenoid valve and modulated together using the select-low principle. During anti-braking system operation, the control unit cycles the solenoid valves to either hold or release pressure the brake lines. When pressure is released from the brake lines during anti-braking operation, it is routed to a fluid reservoir. There is one reservoir for the front brake circuit. The reservoirs are low-pressure accumulators that store fluid under slight spring pressure until the return delivery pump can return the fluid through the brake lines to the master cylinder.汽车制动系统制动系统是汽车中嘴重要的系统。

Brake systemsWe all know that pushing down on the brake pedal slows a car to a stop. But how does this happen？How does your car transmit the force from your leg to its wheels？ How does it multiply the force so that it is enough to stop something as big as a car?Brake Image GalleryLayout of typical brake system. See more brakeimages。

When you depress your brake pedal， your car transmits the force from your foot to its brakes through a fluid. Since the actual brakes require a much greater force than you could apply with your leg， your car must also multiply the force of your foot. It does this in two ways：•Mechanical advantage (leverage)•Hydraulic force multiplicationThe brakes transmit the force to the tires using friction， and the tires transmit that force to the road using friction also。

Before we begin our discussion on the components of the brake system, we’ll cover these three principles:•Leverage•Hydraulics•FrictionLeverage and HydraulicsIn the figure below, a force F is being applied to the left end of the lever. The left end of the lever is twice as long (2X) as the right end （X）。

TransmissionBrakesBrake is a movement of vehicles or impede the movement of the trend components. According to brake torque generated in different ways, the brakes can be divided into: friction brake and retarder brakes, brake, broadly speaking, usually referred to the friction brake. At present all kinds of cars used by the brake drum brakes and can be divided into two major categories of disc brakes. Drum brake friction in the rotating components of the brake drum, and its work surface for the cylindrical surface of the rotating disc brake components for the brake disc, to end the work surface. In addition, under the rotating components of the installation of different positions, the brakes can be divided into the wheel brakes and brake two categories. Among them, the rotating wheels, brake components installed in thesolid-wheel or axle, brake torque that is a direct role in both sides of the wheels, respectively, for its general travel brake, and can also be used to brake the second and the car braking; rotating components of the brake-installed in the transmission of the transmission shaft, after its brake torque to be driven to the redistribution of the bridge on both sides of the wheel, generally used only for its cars in the system Retarded and dynamic braking.Drum brakes are within and outside the beam-type-two. The former brake drum to work within the cylindrical surface of the car on the wide application of the latter brake drum is the work of Outer cylindrical surface, only a handful of cars will be used in car brakes.Zhang-drum brakes, mainly by the brake drum (Xingzhuang Si pot, installed in the wheel, and synchronization with the rotating wheels), brake shoes, (arc-shaped parts, a group of two, shoes, with a lateral Nien Moment of friction brake lining film), fixed sales andbrake-cylinder, and so on. Brake, brake drum in the internal brake shoes, brake points from one end to bear the Prokinetic cylinder, around the other side of the fulcrum of its outward rotation, the pressure on the brake drum with a round face, then friction Torque.Disc brake mainly by the brake discand calipers. Among them, ventilated brake disc-andtwo-solid; mainly floating calipers clamp, fork-floating, such as several fixed-clamp. Braking system of new technologiesAs people of vehicle safety requirements and the continuous improvement of the rapid development of electronic technology, today's automobile braking system have taken place in the revolutionary progress. On the one hand, the brake system through a variety of sensors for real-time monitoring of the braking system braking to provide a more efficient and effective security assurances on the other hand, automobile braking systems and other systems constitute stretches of the regional network, in Implementation of intelligent brake control at the same time, but also further reduce the energy consumption of motor vehicles; addition, with new materials and new structure of the large number of applications, the reliability of its braking system has been further improved.制动器是产生阻碍车辆运动或运动趋势的力的部件。