sentences, words and phrases

Unit 5 phrases and sentencesPhrases:2.等公交车：wait for the bus3.发出响声；爆炸；熄灭：go off4.接电话；接某人：pick up5.挂电话：hang up6.雨下的大：rain heavily/hard7.错过公交车：miss the bus8.感觉像；想要：feel like9.区域内：in the area10.入睡：fall asleep11.减弱，逐渐消失：die down12.处于杂乱状态：in a mess13.打坏了许多东西：14.在……时候：in times ofSentences：1.What were you doing at the time of the rainstorm?2.So while you were sleeping, I called Jenny and she helped me .3.With no light outside, it felt like midnight.4.It was hard to have fun with a serious storm happening outside.5.Although the storm broke many things apart, it brought families and neighborscloser together.6.How can we help each other in times of difficulty?7.One’s mind works fast in times of danger.急中生智8.When we got to the place of the accident, the car was in bad shape from hitting atree.9.People often remember what they were doing when they heard the news ofimportant events in history.10.We finished the rest of our dinner in silence.11.Even the date has meaning to most Americans.12.I have trouble thinking clearly after that because i was very afraid. Language points:1.(1) 过去进行时：表示过去某段特定的时间或一段特定的时刻发生的动作。

Unit Five LanguageIn-class Reading: How I Discovered WordsWords and Phrasesapply immeasurable eventful linger prey upon succeed dense flushed penetrate blossom vainly/in vain thrill long (for sb ) to do sth at the first/ earliest opportunity1)I did not know what the future held of marvel or surprise for me. (Line 11)我的未来究竟会出现什么样的奇迹，我茫然无知。

2)Anger and bitterness had preyed upon me continually for weeks and a deep languor had succeeded this passionate struggle. (Line 12)几个星期以来，愤怒和怨恨一直折磨着我。

这种激烈的感情争斗之后则是一种极度的疲惫不堪。

3)Have you ever been at sea in a dense fog, when it seemed as if a tangible white darkness shut you in, and the great ship, tense andanxious, groped her way toward the shore with plummet and sounding-line, and you waited with beating heart for something to happen? (Line 16) 你可曾在航海时遇上过浓雾？那时，你仿佛被困在了触手可及的一片白茫茫中，不见天日。

Section ⅥWriting——故事本单元的写作任务是写一则故事。

这种文体的特点是要交待清楚事情发生的时间、地点、人物等，通常要按照事情发展的时间顺序进行叙述。

Ⅰ.Pre－writing(Ⅰ)Learn to write after the modelThe Final SprintIt was the final sprint of the Santa Barbara XV Grand Prix cyclo－cross race in Spain.Fans lined the road to the finishing line，cheering on the competitors.Ismael Esteban，in third place，was just ahead of his competitor，Agustin Navarro，with only 300 metres to the finishing line.Esteban had been cycling as hard as he could for hours and with the finishing line in sight all the cyclists began to speed up to cross it.Then，suddenly Esteban got a puncture.What should he do？Give up or continue？Esteban threw his bike over his shoulders and raced towards the finishing line.Just a few seconds later，fourth－placed Navarro caught up with him.Surely，he could simply overtake Esteban and come third.But Navarro slowed down and let Esteban run ahead of him.The two cyclists reached the finishing line with Esteban ahead on foot，Navarro just behind him.Navarro had let Esteban finish in third place，while he came fourth.The audience was amazed at his show of sportsmanship and cheered and clapped for the cyclists.After the race，Navarro said，“I didn’t want to win that way.”Later，Esteban，who won the bronze medal，tried to give his medal to Navarro.However，Navarro refused，and his response was：“Offering me the prize was worth more than what I did for him.”The two cyclists made amazing sporting gestures—Navarro for refusing to take advantage of Esteban’s troubles，and Esteban for offering Navarro his medal.This was sportsmanship at its very best.篇章结构The title：The Final SprintSetting：the final sprint of the cyclo－cross race in SpainCharacters and event：Ismael Esteban and Agustin Navarro；Esteban got a puncture and raced towards the finishing lineDevelopment：Navarro caught up with him.Climax：Navarro let Esteban run ahead of him.He didn’t get any medal. Ending：Esteban tried to give his medal to Navarro，but was refused. Comment：What the two cyclists did was sportsmanship at its very best.(Ⅱ)Preparation for writing—Words and phrases①final adj.最后的②race n. 比赛③line v. 沿……形成行(或列、排)④the__finishing__line 终点线⑤cheer v. 欢呼；加油⑥in__third__place 居第三位⑦ahead__of... 在……的前面⑧in__sight 在眼前⑨speed__up 加速⑩catch__up__with 赶上⑪slow__down 放慢；减速⑫take__advantage__of 利用Ⅱ.While－writing假设你是红星中学高三学生李华。

Active Reading 1: The first oystercling v.to stick to someone or something, or seem to surround them；to hold someone or something tightly, specially because you do not feel safe Translate the following sentences.(1)We cling to the beliefs of our fathers.我们坚持祖先的信仰。

(2)他的湿衬衣紧紧贴着身体。

His wet shirt clung to his body.complain v.to say that you are annoyed, not satisfied, or unhappy about something or someoneComplete the sentences with words in the column.complain to Complain about complain of Complain thatShe _________________ the exam was too hard .Some workers _________________ this way of management.Our staff ________________ being underpaid and overwork.Neighbours _______________ the police about the dog’s barking.discard v.to get rid of somethingTranslate the following sentences.(1)我们应该抛弃旧观念。

We should discard old beliefs.(2)我们将不再使用这些旧书。

句子结构英语怎么说Sentence Structure: How to Say in English。

Sentence structure is the arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences in a language. In English, sentence structure is crucial for conveying meaning and ensuring clear communication. Understanding how to construct sentences in English is essential for language learners and writers alike. In this document, we will explore the different aspects of sentence structure in English and provide guidance on how to express ideas effectively.Firstly, let's discuss the basic elements of a sentence in English. A sentence typically consists of a subject, verb, and object. The subject is the person or thing performing the action, the verb is the action itself, and the object is the recipient of the action. For example, in the sentence "The cat chased the mouse," "The cat" is the subject, "chased" is the verb, and "the mouse" is the object. Understanding this basic structure is fundamental to constructing clear and coherent sentences.Next, it's important to consider the order of words in a sentence. In English, the standard word order is subject-verb-object (SVO). This means that the subject comes first, followed by the verb, and then the object. Deviating from this word order can lead to confusion or ambiguity in meaning. For example, "The mouse chased the cat" conveys a completely different meaning from "The cat chased the mouse," despite using the same words.Additionally, English sentences can be classified based on their structure. There are four main types of sentence structures in English: simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex. A simple sentence consists of a single independent clause, such as "I like to read." A compound sentence contains two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction, as in "I like to read, but my brother prefers to watch TV." A complex sentence includes one independent clause and at least one dependent clause, for example, "Although I like to read, I don't have much free time." Lastly, a compound-complex sentence combines the features of both compound and complex sentences, such as "I like to read, but I don't have much free time because of my busy schedule."Furthermore, understanding sentence structure also involves recognizing different types of phrases and clauses. A phrase is a group of words that functions as a single unit within a sentence, while a clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a verb. Phrases and clauses can be used to add variety and complexity to sentences, allowing for more nuanced expression of ideas.In addition to these structural aspects, sentence structure in English also encompasses the use of punctuation and conjunctions. Punctuation marks, such as commas, semicolons, and dashes, help to clarify the relationship between different parts of a sentence. Conjunctions, such as "and," "but," and "or," are used to connect words, phrases, and clauses, contributing to the overall coherence of a sentence.In conclusion, mastering sentence structure in English is essential for effective communication. By understanding the basic elements of a sentence, the standard word order, different sentence types, and the use of phrases, clauses, punctuation, and conjunctions, individuals can express their ideas clearly and coherently. Developing proficiency in sentence structure is a valuable skill for language learners and writers, enabling them to convey their thoughts with precision and impact.。

Unit One PersonalityIn-class Reading: The Misery of ShynessWords and Phrases:accent acquaintance assurance/ assured circulate contrast criticism eliminate excessively inadequacy interpret isolate inferiority/ inferior numerous overdo overweight reasonable self-esteem spontaneously statement timid reevaluatedwell on in/by contrast set aside have sth. at heartSentences：1)Worrisome thoughts are constantly swirling in their minds. 他们脑海中不断盘旋着一些使自己不安的想法。

2)It is obvious that such uncomfortable feelings must affect people adversely. 显然这种不安的感觉会对人产生不利的影响。

3)Shy people are very sensitive to criticism; they feel it confirms their inferiority.害羞的人对批评非常敏感；他们觉得批评正好证实了他们比别人差。

4)It is clear that, while self-awareness is a healthy quality, overdoing it is detrimental, or harmful. 显然，尽管自我意识是一种健康的品质，过分的自我意识却是不利和有害的。

5)The better we understand ourselves, the easier it becomes to live up to our full potential. 我们对自己了解得越多，就越容易充分发挥自己的潜力。

语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第四章)I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1. Syntax is a subfied of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language, including the combination of m orphemes into words. 2.Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.3. Sentences are composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order, with one adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic.4.Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules that comprise the system of internalized linguistic kn owledge of a language speak-er are known as linguistic competence.5. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.6. In a complex sentence, th e two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.7. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.8. Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are not fixed and new members are allowed for.9. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitiv e phrase, and auxiliary phrase. 10. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.11.What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a complete list of words and phrases rather than grammatical knowledge.12. A no un phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.13. It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-struct ure.14. WH-movement is obligatory in English which changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the l etter given: 15. A s________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a sub-ject a nd a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence. 16.A s______ is a structurally independ ent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question o r command. 17.A s______ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually prec edes the predicate.18. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called p_________.19. A c_________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other.20. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an e_ ______ clause.21. Major lexical categories are o___ categories in the sense that new words a re constantly added.22. A _____ Condition on case assignment states that a case assignor an d a case recipient should stay adjacent to each other.23. P_______ are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to signific ant linguistic variations between and among natural languages.24. The theory of C____ condit ion explains the fact that noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.III. There are four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete t he statement: 25.A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to the grammatical-cal knowledge in the mind of native speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical 26. A __________ in the embedd ed clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause. A. coordinato r B. particle C. preposition D. subordinator 27. Phrase structure rules have ____ properti es. A. recursive B. grammatical C. social D. functional 28. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand ____________A. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD. All of the above. 29. Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called ________. A. transformational rul esB. generative rules C. phrase structure rules D. x-bar theory 30. The theory of case conditio n accounts for the fact that __________. A. noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions. B. noun phrases can be used to modify another noun phrase C. noun phrase can be used in adverbial positions D. noun phrase can be moved to any place if necessary. 31. The sentence structure is ________. A. only linear B. Only hierarchical C. complex D. both linear and hierarchical 32. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite 33. The ________ rules are the rules that g roup words and phrases to form grammatical sentencesA. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational 34._______ rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence. A. Generative B. Transformational C. X-bar D. Phrase structureIV. Define the following terms: 35. syntax 36. Sentence 37. coordinate sentence 38. synta ctic categories 39. grammatical relations 40. linguistic competence 41. transformational rules42. D-structure V. Answer the following questions:43. What are the basic components of a sentence? 44. What are the major types of sentence s? Illustrate them with examples. 45. Are the elements in a sentence linearly structured? Why?46. What are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentence structures? 4 7. What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples.I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: l.F 2.T 3.F 4.T 5. T 6.T 7.T 8.F 9.F 10.T 11.F 12.T 13.T 14.T II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given: 15. simple, 16. sentence 17. subject 18. predicate 19. complex 20.embedded 21. open 22.adjacency 23.Parameters 24.Case III. There ar e four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement: 25. D 26. D 27. A 28. D 29. A 30. A 31. D 32. C 33. D 34. BIV. Define the following terms: 35. syntax: Syntax is a subfield of linguistics. It studies the sentence structur e of language. It consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with o ther words to form grammatical sentences. 36. Sentence: A sentence is a structurally indepen dent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and a predicate which conta ins a finite verb or a verb phrase. 37. coordinate sentence: A coordinate sentence contains t wo clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "o r". 38. syntactic categories: Apart from sentences and clauses, a syntactic category usually refe rs to a word (called a lexical category) or a phrase ( called a phrasal category) that performs a particular grammatical function. 39. grammatical relations: The structural and logical functi onal relations of constituents are called grammatical relations. The grammatical relations of a sentence concern the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. In many cas es, grammatical relations in fact refer to who does what to whom .40. linguistic competence: Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the syst em of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.41. Transformational rules: Transformational rules are the rules that transform one sentence type into another type.42. D-structure: D- structure is the level of syntactic representation that exists before movement takes place. Phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.V. Answer the following questions: 43.What are the basic components of a sentence? Normally, a sentence consists of at least a s ubject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase. 44. What are the maj or types of sentences? Illustrate them with examples. Traditionally, there are three major ty pes of sentences. They are simple sentence, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex se ntence. A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicat e and stands alone as its own sentence, for example: John reads extensively. A coo rdinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating con junction, such as "and", "but", "or". For example: John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for her history exam. A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentenc e do not have equal status, one is subordinate to the other. For exam-ple: Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in lin-guistics. 45. Are the elements in a sentence li nearly structured? Why? No. Language is both linearly and hierarchically structured. When a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after an other in a sequence. A closer examination of a sentence shows that a sentence is not comp osed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order with one adding onto another f ollowing a simple arithmetic logic. In fact, sen-tences are also hierarchically structured. They are orga-nized by grouping together words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phra se (NP) or verb phrase (VP), as can be seen from the following tree diagram:S NP VP Det N Vt NPDet N The boy likes the music. 46. Wh at are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentence structures? The tre e diagram can not only reveal a linear order, but also a hierarchical structure that groups wo rds into structural constituents. It can, in addition, show the syntactic category of each struct ural constituent, thus it is believed to most truthfully illustrate the constituent relationship am ong linguistic elements. 47. What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples. NP movemen t in-volves the movement of a noun phrase. NP-movement occurs when, for example, a sent ence changes from the active voice to the passive voice: (A)The man beat the child. (B). The child was beaten by the man. B is the result of the m ovement of the noun phrases "the man" and "the child" from their original positions in (A) to new positions. That is, "the man" is postposed to the right and "the child" is preposed to the left. Not all instances of NP-movement, however, are related to changing a sentenc e from the active voice to the passive voice. For example: (C) It seems they are quite fit for the job. (D) They seem quite fit for the job. These sentences are identical in meanin g, but different in their superfi-cial syntactic representations. It is believed that they have the same underly-ing structure, but (27b) is the result of an NP movement.语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第五章)I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1. Dialectal synonyms can often be found in different regional dialects such as British English and American Engl ish but cannot be found within the variety itself, for example, within British English or Ame rican English. 2. Sense is concerned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience, while the reference deals with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. 3. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different refere nces in different situations. 4. In semantics, meaning of language is considered as the intrinsi c and inherent relation to the physical world of experience. 5. Contextualism is based on t he presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable context s. 6. Behaviourists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer. 7. The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all its components. 8. Most languages have sets of lexical items similar in meaning but ranked differently according to their degree of formality. 9. “it is hot.”is a no-place predication because it contains no argument.10. In grammatical analysis, the sentence is taken to be the basic unit, but in semantic analy sis of a sentence, the basic unit is predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the let ter given: 11. S________ can be defined as the study of meaning. 12. The conceptualist vie w holds that there is no d______ link between a linguistic form and what it refers to. 13.R______ means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. 14. W ords that are close in meaning are called s________. 15. When two words are identical in s ound, but different in spelling and meaning, they are called h__________. 16.R_________ o pposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.17. C ____ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided i nto meaning components. 18. Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called s________ restrictions, which are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others. 19. An a________ is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence. 20. According to the n ____ theory of meaning, the words in a lan-guage are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. III. There are fou r choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement: 21. The naming theory is advanced by ________.A. PlatoB. BloomfieldC. Geoffrey LeechD. Firth 22. “We shall k now a word by the company it keeps.”This statement represents _______. A. the conce ptualist view B. contexutalism C. the naming theory D.behaviourism 23. Whic h of the following is not true? A. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the lin guistic form. B. Sense is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form. C. Sense is abstract and de-contextualized. D. Sense is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are not interested in. 24. “Can I borrow your bike?”_______ “You have a bike.”A. is synonymous withB. is inconsistent withC. entailsD. presupposes 25. ____ _______ is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning compone nts, called semantic features. A. Predication analysis B. Componential analysis C. Phonemic analysis D. Grammatical analysis 26. “alive”and “dead”are ______ ________. A. gradable antonyms B. relational opposites C. complementary antony ms D. None of the above 27. _________ deals with the relationship between the ling uistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. A. Reference B. C oncept C. Semantics D. Sense 28. ___________ refers to the pheno广告网址n that words having different meanings have the same form. A. PolysemyB. SynonymyC. HomonymyD. Hyponymy 29. Words that are close in meaning are called ______________. A. homonyms B. polysemy C. hyponyms D. synonyms 30. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by _ ______. A. grammatical rules B. selectional restrictions C. semantic rules D. semantic fea tures IV. Define the following terms: 31. semantics 32. sense 33 . reference 34. synonymy 35. polysemy 36. homonymy 37. homophones 38. Homographs 39. complete homonyms 40. hyponymy 41.antonymy 42 componential analysis 43.grammatical meaning 44. predication 45. Ar gument 46. predicate 47. Two-place predication V. Answer the following questions: 48. Why do we say that a meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components? 49. What is componential analysis? Illustrate it with exampl es. 50. How do you distinguish between entailment and presupposition in terms of truth val ues? 51. How do you account for such sense relations between sentences as synonymous re lation, inconsistent relation in terms of truth values? 52. According to the way synonyms di ffer, how many groups can we classify synonyms into? Illustrate them with examples. 53. W hat are the major views concerning the study of meaning? How they differ?I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: l.F 2.F 3.T 4.F 5. T 6.T 7.F 8.T 9.T 10.T II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given: 11. Semantics 12. direct 13.Reference 14. synonyms 15.homopho nes 16.Relational 17. Componential 18. selectional 19. argument 20. naming III. There are fo ur choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement: 2l.A 22.B 23.D 24.D 25.B 26.C 27.A 28.C 29.D 30.A IV. Define the following terms: 31. Se mantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language. 32. Sense: Se nse is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de -contextualised. 33. Reference: Refere nce means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relati onship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience 34. Synonym y :Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. 35. Polysemy :Polysemy r efers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning. 36. Homonymy:Homonymy refers to the pheno广告网址n that words having different mean-ings have the same form, i.e. , different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. 37. homoph ones :When two words are identical in sound, they are called homophones 38. homographs : When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs. 39. complete homonyms.:Wh en two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are called complete homonyms.40.Hyponymy :Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. 41. Antonymy :Antonymy refers to the relation of opposite ness of meaning. 42. Componential analysis : Componential analysis is a way to analyze word meaning. It was pro-posed by structural semanticists. The approach is based on the belief t hat the meaning of a -word can be divided into meaning components, which are called sema ntic features. 43.The grammatical meaning : The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality, i.e. , its grammatical well-formedness . The grammaticality of a sentence i s governed by the grammatical rules of the language. 44. predica-tion :The predica-tion is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. 45. ar-gument : An ar-gument is a logical particip ant in a predication. It is generally identical with the nominal element (s) in a sentence. 46. predicate : A predicate is something that is said about an argument or it states the logical re lation linking the arguments in a sentence. 47. two-place predication :A two-place predication is one which con-tains two arguments. V. Answer the following qu estions: 48. Why do we say that a meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the mea nings of all its components? The meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the mean ings of all its components because it cannot be worked out by adding up all the meanings of its constituent words. For example; (A) The dog bit the man. (B) The man bit the dog. If the meaning of a sentence were the sum total of the meanings of all its co mponents, then the above two sentences would have the same meaning. In fact they are diff erent in meanings. As we know, there are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical mea n-ing and semantic meaning. The grammatical meanings of “the dog”and “the man”in (A) are different from the grammatical meanings of “the dog”and “the man”in (B). T he meaning of a sentence is the product of both lexical and grammatical meaning. It is the product of the meaning of the constituent words and of the grammatical constructions that r elate one word syntagmatically to another. 49.What is componential analysis? Illustrate it with examples. Componential analysis, pro-pos ed by structural semanticists, is a way to analyze word meaning. The approach is based on t he belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components, which are c alled semantic features. Plus and minus signs are used to indicate whether a certain semantic feature is present or absent in the meaning of a word, and these feature symbols are usuall y written in capitalized letters. For example, the word “man”is ana-lyzed as consisting of the semantic features of [+ HUMAN, + ADULT, + ANIMATE, +MALE] 50. How do yo u distinguish between entailment and presupposition in terms of truth values? Entailment is a relation of inclusion. Suppose there are two sentences X and Y: X: He has been to Fran ce. Y: He has been to Europe. In terms of truth values, if X is true, Y is necessarily tru e, e.g. If he has been to France, he must have been to Europe. If X is false, Y may be t rue or false, e. g. If he has not been to France, he may still have been to Europe or he h as not been to Europe. If Y is true, X may be true or false, e.g. If he has been to Europe, he may or may not have been to France. If Y is false, X is false, e.g. If he has not been to Europe, he cannot have been to France. Therefore we conclude that X entails Y or Y i s an entailment of X. The truth conditions that we use to judge presupposition is as follows: Suppose there are two sentences X and Y X: John' s bike needs repairing. Y: J ohn has a bike. If X is true, Y must be true, e.g. If John' s bike needs repairing, John mus t have a bike. If X is false, Y is still true, e. g. If John' s bike does not need repairing, Jo hn still has a bike. If Y is true, X is either true or false, e.g. If John has a bike, it may or may not need repairing. If Y is false, no truth value can be said about X, e.g. If John doe s not have a bike, nothing can be said about whether his bike needs repairing or not. There fore, X presupposes Y, or Y is a presupposition of X. 51. How do you account for such sense relations between sentences as synonymous relation, inconsistent relation in terms of tr uth values? In terms of truth condition, of the two sentences X and Y, if X is true, Y is true; if X is false, Y is false, therefore X is synonymous with Y e.g. X; He was a bachelor all his life. Y: He never married all his life. Of the two sentences X and Y, if X is true, Y is false; if X is false, Y is true, then we can say A is inconsistent with Y e.g. X: John ismarried. Y: John is a bachelor.52. According to the ways synonyms differ, how many groups can we classify synonyms into? Illustrate them with examples.According to the ways synonyms differ, synonyms can be divided into the following group s. i. Dialectal synonyms They are synonyms which are used in different regional dialects. Bri tish English and American English are the two major geographical varieties of the English la nguage. For examples: British English American English autumn fall lift elevator Then dialectal synonyms can also be foun d within British, or American English itself. For example, "girl" is called "lass" or "lassie" in Scottish dialect, and "liquor" is called "whisky" in Irish dialect. ii. Stylistic synonyms They a re synonyms which differ in style or degree of formality. Some of the stylistic synonyms ten d to be more formal, others tend to be casual, and still oth-ers are neutral in style. For exa mple: old man, daddy, dad, father, male parent chap, pal, friend, companion iii. Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning They are the words that have the same meaning but express different emotions of the user. The emotions of the user indi cate the attitude or bias of the user toward what he is talking about . For exam-ple, “colla borator” and “accomplice” are synonymous, sharing the meaning of "a person who helps another", but they are different in their evaluative meaning. The former means that a person who helps another in do-ing something good, while the latter refers to a person who helps another in a criminal act. iv. Collocational synonyms They are synonyms which differ in the ir collocation. For example, we can use accuse, charge, rebuke to say that someone has done something wrong or even criminal, but they are used with different preposi-tions accuse. . . of, charge. . . with, rebuke. . .for. v. V. Semantically different synonyms Semantically differe nt synonyms refer to the synonyms that differ slight-ly in what they mean. For example, "a maze" and "astound" are very close in meaning to the word "surprise," but they have very s ubtle differences in meaning. While amaze suggests confusion andbewilderment, " astound" implies difficulty in believing. " 53. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning? How do they differ? One of the oldest w as the naming theory, proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato, who believed that the w ords used in a language are taken to be la-bels of the objects they stand for. The conceptua list view holds that there is no direct link between a lin-guistic form and what it refers to.The form and the meaning are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. Conte xtualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. Two kinds of context are recognized; the situational context and the linguistic context. For example, the meaning of the word "seal" in the sentence "The seal co uld not be found" can only be determined ac-cording to the context in which the sentence occurs: The seal could not be found. The zoo keeper became worried. (seal meaning an aqu atic mammal) The seal could not be found. The king became worried. (seal meaning the kin g's stamp)Behaviorism drew on behaviorist psychology when he tried to define the meaning of lingui stic forms. Behaviorists attempted to de-fine the meaning of a language form as " the situati on in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer".语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第六章)Historical Linguistics I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1. One of the tasks of the historical linguists is to explore methods to reconstruct linguistic history and establish the relationship between languages. 2. Language change is a gradual and constant process, therefore often indiscernible to speakers of the same generation. 3. The hi story of the English language is divided into the periods of Old English, Middle English and Modern English. 4. Middle English began with the arrival of Anglo-Saxons, who invaded th e British Isles from northern Europe. 5. In Old English, all the nouns are inflected to mark nominative, genitive, dative and accusative cases. 6. In Old English, the verb of a sentence often precedes the subject rather than follows it. 7. A direct consequence of the Renaissance Movement was the revival of French as a literary language. 8. In general, linguistic change i n grammar is more noticeable than that in the sound system and the vocabulary of a langua ge. 9. The sound changes include changes in vowel sounds, and in the loss, gain and move ment of sounds. 10. The least widely-spread morphological changes in the historical develop ment of English are the loss and addition of affixes. 11. In Old English, the morphosyntac tic rule of adjective agreement stipulated that the endings of adjective must agree with the h ead noun in case, number and gender. 12.。

Unit Four O·HenryThe Cop and The AnthemKey words and phrases:inhabitant :n.居民denizen：n.居住者，外籍居民，外来者；v.使归化，使入籍annual：a.年度的，一年一次的cognizant：a.认知的，知晓的committee ：n.委员，委员会Mediterranean ：n.地中海（此词认识即可）cruise：n. vi.巡游、巡航soporific：a.催眠的，令人昏昏欲睡的crave：v.渴望essence：n.本质，精华provision：n.提供，供给；准备，未雨绸缪；条文，条款in the name of：以。

的名义；打着。

旗号philanthropy：n.慈善，仁慈（认识即可）encumber：v.妨碍，阻碍insolvency：n.无力偿还，破产supreme：a.最高的，至高无上的fray：v.（被）磨损，破损decadent：a.堕落的，颓废的avert：v.防止，避免；转移，移开ignoble：卑鄙的，不光彩的cunning：a.狡猾的conspicuous：a.明显的，显眼的，招摇的sarcasm：n.讽刺、挖苦、嘲笑pitch：v.投、掷；迫使。

处于某种情况；定音调、音高capture：n.vt.抓获、捕获guise：n.外表、伪装demeano（u）r: n.举止，行为，风度despicable：a.可鄙的，卑鄙的contiguity：n.接触；邻近conscientious ：a.一丝不苟的，认真的，尽责的shrink：v.缩水，缩小，退缩impudent：a.放肆的，无礼的contemptible：a.可鄙的beckon：v.示意，召唤companion：n.伙伴，同伙vicious：a.恶毒的，有恶意的，凶恶的hurl：扔，投掷；辱骂wrathful：a.盛怒的，暴怒的excavation：n.发掘，挖开，开凿；挖开的洞穴，发掘物glitter：v.闪烁，闪光；n.光辉，魅力turmoil ：n.混乱，骚乱immaculate：a.纯洁无暇的，无过失的；一尘不染的falter：v.摇晃，蹒跚，颤抖；动摇，犹豫Difficult sentences:1.That was Jack Frost’s card……so that the inhabitants thereof may make ready.;2.Three months on the island was……the essence of things desirable.:3.In Soapy’s opinion……the gifts of charity are encumbered.:4.Its crockery and atmosphere were thick; its soup and napery thin.(here a rhetoric device is used: transferred epithet 移就，转移修饰);5.Soapy straightened the lady……the impudent and contemptible litany of the “masher.”:6.And the anthem that the organist played cemented Soapy to the iron fence……andimmaculate thoughts and collars.(here a rhetoric device is used: zeugma):Notes:1.Jack Frost: here the write uses the word “Frost” to imply the cold winter.2.As Caesar had his Brutus: Caesar, a famous emperor of ancient Rome, and Brutus was his subject, but who later betrayed Caesar and intrigued to murder Caesar. This phrase means “Every coins has two sides, just like great man may also have mean and evil guys around him.”3.Thanksgiving Day: the fourth Thursday of November. An American festival for people to show their thanks to God and family, friends, colleagues, etc., which originated from the first group of white settlers on the North America.A Day’s WaitKey words and phrases:Capsule: n.胶囊purgative：n.泻药epidemic (plague)：n.传染病，疫病detach：v.分离pirate：n.海盗，盗版，盗印者(piratic：a.盗印的，侵犯他人版权的copy right：版权royalty：n.王权，王位，皇室；版税intellectual property ：知识产权注：这几个词课文里没有，是补充的，但必须掌握) prescribe：v.开处方(prescription：n.药方，处方) varnish：n.清漆，vt.刷清漆flush：n. v.脸红；冲洗covey：n.一群commence：v.开始Centigrade：n.摄氏度Fahrenheit ：n.华氏度thermometer：n.温度计Difficult sentences:1....I took the young Irish setter….and having it slide away over the ice:2.…it was necessary to jump on……left to find on another day.:Notes:1.C elsius/Centigrade: a scale of temperature at which water freezes at 0ºC and boils at 100ºC.2.F ahrenheit: a scale of temperature at which water freezes at 32ºF and boils at 212ºF. The normal temperature of human body of 36ºC eaquels about 98ºF.A Clean, Well-Lighted PlaceKey words and phrases:Keep (a) watch on sb：注意，关注，留心terrace n. 一排（房屋）；平台，阳台rap：v.轻敲，急拍；受罚，代罪motion：n.动作，手势；做手势，示意run down：撞倒；诽谤，减少，缩减stay up：很晚睡觉，熬夜spill：v.泼，溅shutter(blinds)：n.百叶窗Difficult sentences:1.The street light shone……and hurried beside him.:2.The waiter poured on……the top saucer of the pile.3. Nor can you stand before a bar…..that is provided for these hours.:Notes:1.hombre: spanish:man.2.peseta: spanish coin.3.bodega: spanish: bar.4.……it all was nada y pues….pues nada: this part is written in spanish, and the writer here used a rhetoric device:parody, by imitating the praying words in verse 9, chapter 6 of The Gospel According to St. Matthew, The New Testament of The Bible.5.otro loco mas: spanish: another mad guy.6.copita: spansish: a kinkd of wine glass, looking like a tulip.t。

新视野⼤学英语读写教程第三版电⼦教案Book1Unit1Unit 1Fresh StartUnderstanding and LearningOverviewThe first unit of the first book of our series meets students who have just entered college or university and are beginning a new phase in their lives. We hope that students will be able to talk about their expectations of their college experience, and they will be aware of the expectations their parents and their educators have of them.Text A is a university president’s welcome speech, in which the president gives valuable guidance to and expresses expectations of freshman students.Text B is a letter written by a father to his child who is about to start college, in which the father expresses his expectations of the child. We hope that the two texts will stimulate students to share their own expectations regarding their college experience; and we also hope the two texts will help students look from a new perspective at the expectations their educators and their parents have of them Text A shows characteristics of a speech. Pronouns I, we and you are more frequently used than in other kinds of writing because the speaker is addressing the audience directly, hoping to motivate the audience and to gain their support and understanding. In a speech, the speaker can employ a variety of figures of speech to make his speech vivid and powerful, such as simile, metaphor, contrast, parallelism(排⽐), and repetition. A very common figure of speech is parallelism. In parallelism, coordinate ideas are arranged in words, phrases, sentences, and paragraphs to emphasize and point out relations. In Text A, for example, the president uses many sentences of parallel structure. This makes his speech powerful, persuasive, and thought-provoking. It can even produce humorous effect as in the example: “You may have cried tears of joy to be finally finished with high school, and your parents may have cried tears of joy to be finally with doing your laundry!”The most obvious feature of Text B is that it contains many imperative sentences, and these sentences tend to be brief. An imperative sentence advises, instructs, requests, or commands. It begins with a verb; the implied subject is you.In Text B, a father makes use of imperative sentences to give advice and instructions to his child who has just left home for college. For example: “Don’t be bound by what other people think.”“Pick friends who are genuine and sincere.”“Become the great thinker you were born to be.”In class the teacher can make the students compare the writing styles of Text A and Text B. Class activities may include pair work, group discussions, and mini-surveys about students’high school experience, their families and friends, and their expectations of college life. Section AToward a brighter future for allBackground information1. American higher educationIn the United States, students can choose to go to college after high school. (They can also choose to go straight to the workforce after high school.) They have the option of attending a two-year community college before applying to a four-year university. Admission to communitycollege is easier, tuition is lower, and class sizes are often smaller than at a university. Community college students can earn an associate agree and transfer up to two years of course credits to a university.College and university students need to pay tuition, but many earn scholarships or receive loans. Although admissions policies vary from one university to another, most determine admission based on several criteria, including a student’s high school course of study, high school Grade Point Average (GPA), participation in extracurricular activities, SAT(Scholastic Assessment Test) or ACT (American College Testing) exam scores, a written essay, and possibly a personal interview with a representative from the admissions office.Most students in the United States take the SAT Reasoning Test or the ACT during their final year of high school. Each university sets a minimum SAT or ACT score that a student must achieve in order to gain admission. These are standardized quantitative examinations. The SAT tests critical reading, mathematics, and writing skills, The ACT tests English, mathematics, reading, science reasoning, and includes an optional writing test.Extracurricular activities may include scholastic clubs, athletic teams, student government, and philanthropic clubs. V oluntary participation in these kinds of activities is an indication that a student has learned valuable life lessons, such as teamwork, leadership, or civic responsibility.University students pursuing a bachelor’s degree are called “undergraduates”; students pursuing a master’s or doctoral degree are called “graduate students”. Most universities give under graduate students a liberal education, which means students are required to take courses across several disciplines before they specialize in a major field of study. Graduate and professional programs, such asmedicine or law, are specialized. All degree programs require students to complete a minimum number of credit hours before graduating.Selection for admission to a graduate program is based on several criteria. These include completion of a bachelor’s degree, the student’s undergraduate coursework and GPA. Students are also expected to write an essay as part of their application or to submit a writing sample. Most master’s programs require students to have a minimum score on the Graduate Record Examination (GRE), which tests verbal reasoning, quantitative reasoning, critical thinking, and analytical writing skills.Students continue to take course at the graduate level. A final thesis is required for most master’s programs. Doctoral students take course until they have earned enough credit hours to attempt their qualifying examinations. These are usually taken over several days and often include a written and oral component. After doctoral students pass their qualifying exams, they are advanced to candidacy and can begin writing their dissertation. Before the degree is given, the completed dissertation must be orally defended before the candidate’s faculty committee.2. Vera WangVera Wang is a Chinese-American fashion designer. She was born and raised in New York City. While trained as a figure skater in high school, she eventually earned a degree in art history from Sarah Lawrence College in 1971. But a career in fashion was her dream. She worked as a senior fashion editor for Vogue magazine for 15 years. In 1985, she left vogue and joined Ralph Lauren as a design director for two years. In 1990, she opened her own design salon in New York, and featured her trademark bridal gowns. Wang has made wedding gowns for many celebrities and public figures, such as Jennifer Lopez (詹尼佛·洛佩兹), Sharon Stone (莎朗·斯通) and Chelsea Clinton (切尔西·克林顿).Detailed study of the text1. Your achievement is the triumph of years of hard work, both of your own and of your parents and teachers. (Para. 1)Meaning: Your entering this university is an important success. This success is due to many years of your hard work, and many years of your parents’ and teachers’ hard work.★triumph: n. [C] an important victory or success after a difficult struggle (尤指苦战后获得的)胜利，成功，成就Winning the championship was a great personal triumph for this young tennis player.赢得冠军对这个年轻的⽹球运动员来说是很⼤的个⼈成就。

Unit 7 College LifeKey words and Phrasesin-class readingAdequate: inadequate / scarceCrucial: critical / decisive / vitalDeadlineFacultyForgivingFormulateInformed: v. inform be informed ofPainless: painful / painstakingPreparatoryPresentation: present / represent / representativePretense: pretendSupposedlyTolerant: be tolerant oftripleUnchallengingUnimaginativeUnlearnAct outBe / get rid ofBy no meansGet down toLook back onAfter-class reading (1)contented / trace / possess / steady / discard /glow / desperation / leisurely / realization / weep / moan / administrator / combination / frustration / remind sb of sth / head for / lock up / glaze over / against all odds / sure enoughAfter class reading (2)contribute /transfer /attain /avoidable /beneficial /definite /merciless /motivated /shelter /sufficient/ unaccustomed/be accustomed to/ claim responsibility for/prey on/chase awaySentencesIn class Reading1. Despite your fantasies, it was not even that we wanted to be liked by you. It was that we did notwant to be bothered, and the easy way out was pretense: smiles and easy Bs. L302. It has failed you by being easy, free, forgiving, attentive, comfortable, interesting,unchallenging fun. L393. I mean, when you give you what you want but have not earned, don’t abuse them, insult them,act out with them your parlous relationship with your parents. L454. At college, we must learn to budget our time (and money!) and to be tolerant (otherwise wewouldn’t survive in a crowded triple room!) L20 P2575. When the going gets tough, the tough have to get down to work because, unlike what Neusnerbelieves, college does not give “painless” solutions to mistakes. L31 P257Translation:1.对这一切尽管你们可以想入非非，但我们决不是因为想要讨你们的欢心，而是因为我们不想让你们来罗嗦。

9. Phrases and sentences: grammar9.1 Grammar9.2 Grammatical description9.2.1 The parts of speechNouns, Adjectives, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Pronouns, Conjunctions9.2.2 Traditional categoriesNumber, Person, Tense, V oice, Gender9.2.3 Traditional analysisThe prescriptive approachThe descriptive approach▪ Structural analysis▪ Immediate constituent analysis∙ Labeled and bracketed sentences∙ Hierarchical organization9.1 Grammarthe lucky boys– well-formed piece of English*1boys the lucky / *lucky boys the– ill-formed/ungrammatical piece of EnglishGrammar - a way of describing the structure of phrases and sentences which will account for all of the grammatical sequences and rule out all the ungrammatical sequences.Types of grammar❶‘me ntal gra mmar’-a form of internal linguistic knowledge which operates in the production and recognition of appropriately structured expressions in that language-is subconscious and is not the result of any teaching; deals with what goes on in people‟s mi nds -studied by psychologist❷‘linguistic etiquette’-the identification of the …proper‟ or …best‟ structures to be used in a language-has to do with people‟s social attitudes and values-studied by sociologist❸ grammar2✧-the study and analysis of the structures found in a language, usually with the aim of establishing a description of the grammar of English-concerned with the nature of language, often independently of the users of the language-studied by linguists9.2 Grammatical description9.2.1 The parts of speechThe lucky boys saw the clowns at the circus and the cheered loudly article adjective noun verb article noun preposition article noun conjunction pronoun verb adverb❶Nouns–words used to refer to people, objects, creatures, places, qualities, phenomena and abract ideas as if they were all …things‟❷ Adjectives– words used, typically with nuns, to provide more information about the …things‟referred to (happy people, large objects, cute creatures, stupid ideas)❸Verbs–words used to refer to various kinds of actions (run, jump) and states (be, seem)suddenly). Some adverbs (really, very) are also used with adjectives to modify the information about …things‟ (really large objects, very stupid ideas)⍓Preposition–words (at, in, on, near, with, without) used with nouns in phrases providing information about time (at five, in the morning), place (on the table, near the window) and other connections (with a knife, without a thought) involving actions and thingsPronouns–words (me, they, he, himself, this, it) used in place of noun phrases, typically referring to things already known (he likes himself, this is it!)Conjunctions–words (and, but, although, if) used to connect, and indicate relationships between, events and things (we swam although it was very cold)9.2.2 Traditional categoriesThese terms, used to label the grammatical categories of words in sentences, come from traditional grammar, which has its origins in the description of languages like Classical Latin and Greek.These categories can be discussed in isolation, but their role in describing language structure becomes clearer when we consider them in terms of agreement3.❶ Number– whether the noun is singular and plural❷ Person–first person (involving the speaker), second person (involving the hearer) and third person (involving any others)❸ Tense4–past tense, present tense⌧ Voice5– active voice & passive voice⍓ Gender6– natural gender & grammatical genderare usually described in terms of person and number.The boy likes his dog⑥ the verb likes agrees with the third person singular noun boy⑥ the verb likes is in the present tense, which is distinguished from the past tense (liked)⑥ the sentence is in the active voice, with the boy doing the liking; an alternative is the passive voice, in which the liking is done to the boy, as in The boy is liked by his doy.⑥his agrees with boy because of natural genderIn English, we have to describe the relationship of boy and his in terms of natural gender, mainly derived from a biological distinction between male and female.he, his– male entitiesshe, her – female entitiesit, its– sexless entities, or animals when the sex of the animal is irrelevantIn Spanish, German, and French, we use grammatical gender. Nouns are classified according to their gender class and, typically, articles and adjectives take different forms to …agree with‟ the gender of the noun.Spanish: el sol (…the sun‟) - masculine; la luna (…the moon‟) – feminineGerman: der Mond (…the moon‟) – masculine; die Sonne (…the sun‟) – feminine; das Feuer (…the fire) - neuter9.2.3 Traditional analysis❶The prescriptive approach规定式– an approach taken by some grammarians, mainly in 18th century England, who set out rules for the correct or …proper‟use of England. The structure of English sentences should be like the structure of sentences in Latin.⑥ You must not split an infinitive.⑥ You must not end a sentence with a preposition.Captain Kirk‟s infinitiveCaptain Kirk ( …Star Trek‟): To boldly go….In English, the correct one is to say To go boldly or Boldly to goIn Latin, infinitives are single words and just do not split, ire (…to go‟) audacter (…boldly‟)There are structures in English which differ from those found in Latin, rather than to say that the English forms are …bad‟ because they are breaking a supposed rule of Latin grammar.❷The descriptive approach 描写式-analysts collect samples of the language they are interested in and attempt to describe the regular structures of the language as it is used, not according to some view of how it should be used.-the basis of most modern attempts to characterize the structure of different languages.① Structural analysis-to investigate the distribution of form ( e.g. morphemes) in a language-the method employed involves the use of …test-frames‟ which can be sentences with empty slots in themThe ______ makes a lot of noise.I heard a _______ yesterday.★Forms which can fit into these slots to produce good grammatical sentences of English are donkey, car, dog, radio, child, etc.★ We can suggest that all of these forms fit in the same test-frame, they are likely to be examples of the same grammatical category –…noun‟_____ makes a lot of noise.I heard _____ yesterday.★Forms which can fit these test-frames are Cathy, Anna Banana, it, the dog, an old car, the professor with the Scottish accent, ect.★ We can suggest that these forms are likely to be examples of the same grammatical category –…noun phrase‟.By developing a set of test-frames of this type and discovering what forms fit the slots in the test-frames of this type and discovering what forms fit the slots in the test-frames, you can produce a description of (at least some) aspects of the sentence structures of a language②Immediate constituent analysis直接成分分析法-to show how small constituents (or components) in sentences go together to form larger constituentsHer father brought a shotgun to the wedding.Noun phrases: Her father, a shotgun, the weddingPrepositional phrase: to the weddingVerb phrase: brought a shotgun★ This type of diagram can be used to show the types of forms which can substitute for each other★ Labeled and bracketed sentences-to show how the constituents in sentence structure can be marked off via labeled bracketsBracketed analysis of the constituent structure of the sentence[ [ [The] [dog] ] [ [followed] [ [the] [boy] ] ] ]With this procedure, the different constituents of the sentence are shown at the word level [the], at the phrase level [the boy], and at the sentence level [The dog followed the boy].Label each constituent with grammatical terms…A rt‟ = article…N‟ = noun…NP‟ = noun phrase…V‟ = verb…VP‟ = verb phrase…S‟ = sentence⑥ A English sentenceLabeled and bracketed analysis of the constituent structure of the sentenceS[ NP[ Art[The] N[dog] VP[ V[followed] NP[ Art[the] N[boy] ] ] ]Hierarchical organization of the constituentsSNP VPNPArt N V Art N[ [ [The] [dog] ] [ [followed] [ [the] [boy] ] ] ]In this hierarchy, the sentence is higher than, and contains, the noun phrase. The noun phrase is higher than, and contains, the noun.⑥ A Gaelic sentenceEnglish: …saw; …the‟…boy‟…the‟…dog‟…black‟SNP NPV Art N Art N Adj[ [Chunnaic] [ [an] [gille] ] [ [an] [cu] [dubh] ] ]The aim of the immediate constituent analysis is-to make explicit, via the diagram, what we believe to be the structure of grammatical sentences in a language;-to describe clearly how English sentences are put together as combinations of phrases which, in turn, are combinations of words;-to understand why a Spanish learner of English produces phrases like *the wine white (instead of the white wine), using a structural organization of constituents which is possible in Spanish, but not in English.1* asterisk星号，星标Linguistics An asterisk used to indicate an unattested sound, affix, or word.【语言学】用于表明未被证实的音，词缀或词的星号* is a conventional way of indicating that a structure is ill-formed, or ungrammatical2grammar1. The study of how words and their component parts combine to form sentences.文法学：对词以及其组成部分如何结合以形成句子的研究2. The study of structural relationships in language or in a language, sometimes including pronunciation, meaning, and linguistic history.语法学：对语言间或一种语言内部的结构关系的研究，有时包括语音，语义或语言史3. The system of inflections, syntax, and word formation of a language.语法，文法：一种语言的字尾变化，句法和单词构成的体系4. The system of rules implicit in a language, viewed as a mechanism for generating all sentences possible in that language.语法规则：隐含在一种语言中的规则体系，被看作在该语言中生成所有可能的语句的机制3agreement呼应，一致Grammar Correspondence in gender, number, case, or person between words.【语法】词之间性、数、格和人称的一致，呼应4tense时态Any one of the inflected forms in the conjugation of a verb that indicates the time, such as past, present, or future, as well as the continuance or completion of the action or state.指示时间如过去、现在或将来，或指示动作或状态的持续或完结的动词的各种曲折变化形式的任何一种语法中动词的屈折变化形式，用以表达所述事情发生的时间与叙述者说话的时间之间的关系。

单词、短语、句子、作文、语法的英文全文共6篇示例，供读者参考篇1Learning English Is Fun!Hi friends! Today I want to talk about the super cool English language. English has so many awesome words, phrases, and grammar rules. Once you start learning them, you'll be able to read books, watch movies, and talk to people from all around the world. How neat is that?Let's start with words. Words are like the building blocks of the English language. There are all kinds of words - words that name people (like John or Emily), words that name places (like London or New York City), words that name things (like apple or dinosaur), and words that describe things (like huge or tiny). Pretty much anything you can think of has a word for it in English.Some words are really fun to say, like hippopotamus, xylophone, and zzzzzzzz (that one's for when you're sleepy!). Other words just roll off your tongue nicely, like butterfly,rainbow, and lollipop. Don't you love how words can sound so different?Then you've got phrases, which are groups of words put together. Some phrases we use all the time, like "How's it going?" or "See you later!" Phrases can act like one word, giving extra meaning. Like if I say "The big doggy", that's just words. But if I say "the top dog", that's a phrase meaning the best or most important one.Putting words together into sentences is where it really gets fun. A sentence expresses a complete thought, like "I love ice cream!" or "The mouse ran up the clock." You can get really creative making sentences say what you want. And the punctuation marks like periods, question marks, and exclamation points help make your meaning clear.Once you start putting sentences together, that's when you get compositions - longer pieces of writing like stories, reports, or instructions. Learning to organize your ideas and develop them into a composition takes practice. But it's such an awesome feeling when you've written something engaging that really expresses what you want to say!Of course, we can't forget about grammar - the system of rules that explains how words go together into sentences.Grammar helps you communicate clearly. Like making sure you use verbs properly ("I run" not "I runs"), putting adjectives in the right order ("the big red ball" not "the red big ball"), and using punctuation so everything makes sense.Grammar might seem fussy at first, but think of it like the instructions that let you build amazing things with words! The more you understand and follow the rules, the better you'll be able to put meaningful sentences together into cool stories, opinions, or anything else.Honestly, words, phrases, sentences, compositions, and grammar rules - they're all kind of like one big kid's construction set for making awesome stuff with the English language. Sure, it takes work to learn it all. But isn't it exciting to have this powerful tool for communicating and expressing yourself in so many creative ways?Once you've mastered the basics, you can say anything you can imagine. You can tell hilarious jokes that make your friends laugh. You can share your thoughts and ideas with others near and far. You can read wonderfully entertaining books and stories. You can write poems, scripts, newsletters, or maybe evenbest-selling novels when you get older!English gives you a vibrant palette to paint pictures with words in ways that delight, influence, and connect with people across the globe. What an amazing gift to be able to learn and use a rich language like this one!So have fun mastering words, experimenting with phrases, building sentences, writing compositions, and learning those grammar rules. Before you know it, you'll be an English language expert ready to communicate, create, and explore the world through the power of the spoken and written word. How cool is that? Let's get started!篇2Learning English is Fun!WordsDo you know any English words? Here are some common ones: apple, cat, run, happy, friend. You can start by learning simple words like these.PhrasesAfter learning single words, you can put them together into phrases. Some examples:• My best friend• A red apple• Let's go play!SentencesThen you can make full sentences by adding more words. For example:• I have a pet cat.• She runs very fast.• We are happy today.Subjects and VerbsEvery sentence needs a subject (who/what the sentence is about) and a verb (the action). In the examples above, "I", "She", and "We" are subjects, and "have", "runs", and "are" are verbs.Capitalization and PunctuationThe first word in a sentence should be capitalized (use a capital letter). Sentences end with punctuation like a period (.), question mark (?), or exclamation point (!). For example:• My name is Amy.• Are you coming to the party?• Wow, that was fun!Parts of SpeechWords are categorized into different parts of speech:• Nouns - person, place, thing (e.g. teacher, park, bottle)• Verbs - action words (e.g. jump, think, exist)• Adjectives - describe nouns (e.g. big, colorful, friendly)• Adverb s - describe verbs (e.g. slowly, happily, often)Simple ParagraphLet's put some sentences together into a short paragraph:I love English class! We learn new words and phrases every day. My favorite part is reading stories. Last week, our teacher read us a funny book about a talking dog. We all laughed at the silly jokes. I can't wait to see what we do in class tomorrow!Compound SentencesYou can join two simple sentences using conjunctions like "and", "but", and "or". This makes a compound sentence:• I am eight years old, and I live in New York City.• Apples are healthy, but I prefer oranges.• Do yo u want pizza or tacos for dinner?Complex SentencesAdding clauses with "who", "which", "that", etc. makes a complex sentence:• English, which is my favorite subject, is fun to learn.• My sister, who is in fifth grade, helps me with my homework.• I finished the book that we read in class.Longer ParagraphThis summer, my family took an amazing vacation to California! We visited beaches, went hiking in the mountains, and even saw famous movie stars in Hollywood. One day, which was particularly hot, we cooled off at a water park that had huge waterslides and a massive wave pool. My little brother, who is only six years old, was a bit scared to go on the biggest slides. But my parents convinced him that it would be fun, and he ended up loving it! By the end of our trip, we were all exhausted but really happy from all the excitement and new experiences. Now that summer is over and school has started again, at least I have lots of fun stories and memories to share with my classmates during English time. Vacations are the best!I hope this gives you a helpful overview of how to construct words, phrases, sentences, and paragraphs in English while explaining some basic grammar rules along the way. Learning a new language takes time and practice, but can be very rewarding. Keep working hard and having fun with it! Let me know if you need any clarification or have additional questions.篇3Words Are Fun!Hi there! I'm going to tell you all about words, phrases, sentences, writing compositions, and grammar. It's a big topic but I'll try my best to explain it in a fun way!Let's start with words. Words are like the building blocks of language. They are single units that have meaning. Some examples of words are "cat", "run", "happy", and "because". There are all kinds of different words - nouns for people, places and things, verbs for actions, adjectives to describe things, and so many more!Words can be put together to make phrases. A phrase is a group of words that expresses a single idea but doesn't have a subject and verb like a full sentence does. For example, "underthe bed" is a phrase. Some other phrases are "the pretty flowers", "running quickly", and "because of the rain".Now we can talk about sentences! A sentence is a group of words with a subject and a verb that expresses a complete thought. For example, "The cat ran under the bed." That's a sentence because it has a subject (the cat), a verb (ran), and expresses a whole idea.Sentences can be simple with just a subject and verb like "I helped." They can also be compound by joining two simple sentences with a conjunction like "and" or "but". An example is "I helped and you watched." Sentences can also have more descriptive words to make them more complex.When we string a bunch of sentences together about the same topic, we have a composition or piece of writing. A composition tells a story, describes something, or shares information and ideas. This essay I'm writing is an example of a composition!Finally, we have grammar. Grammar is the system of rules for how words are used in a language. It covers things like how to make plurals, where to put adjectives, verb tenses, and how to structure sentences correctly. Following grammar rules helps make your writing and speaking clear and understandable.Some examples of grammar rules are:Add -s or -es to make most nouns plural (like "cat" becomes "cats")Use -ed at the end of a verb to show past tense (like "jump" becomes "jumped")Put adjectives before the noun they describe (like "the red ball" not "the ball red")Make a sentence with a subject, verb, and complete thoughtGrammar has a lot of rules, but don't worry - you'll learn them just by practicing reading, writing, and speaking over time.Well, that's words, phrases, sentences, compositions, and grammar in a nutshell! Using words to communicate is one of the most amazing things humans can do. Did you learn something new? Let me know if you have any other questions!篇4Learning English Words and SentencesDo you know what words are? Words are like the building blocks we use to make sentences and stories. Like how we useLego bricks to build houses and cars, we use words to build sentences! Pretty cool, right?There are all sorts of words in English. Some words name things like "apple", "book", and "sunshine". These are called nouns. Other words describe things by telling us what they are like, such as "red", "huge", and "beautiful". These descriptive words are called adjectives.Then we have words that show action, like "jump", "think", and "play". These words that show movement or doing something are called verbs. Verbs are really important for making sentences move and come alive!There are many other types of words too, like words that show location ("under", "beside", "everywhere"), words that express feelings ("happy", "scared", "excited"), and more. Learning all the different types of words is like filling up your treasure chest with lots of jewels you can use to make your sentences sparkle.Speaking of sentences, do you know what they are? Sentences are groups of words put together in a way that makes complete sense. They have a capital letter at the start and a period, question mark, or exclamation point at the end.For example: "The cute puppy ran around the park." See? That's a sentence made up of words. The words join together to make a complete thought that we understand.To make good sentences in English, we have to make sure to put the words in the right order. Like if I said "Ran puppy park the around cute the", that wouldn't make any sense because the words are all mixed up.But if we put the words in the proper order like "The cute puppy ran around the park", then it becomes a sentence that we can easily picture in our minds.The fun really begins when we start putting sentences together to tell stories and share ideas. A bunch of sentences one after another forms a paragraph. And paragraphs join up to make compositions or essays or stories about any topic you can imagine!You could write a whole book about your adventures at summer camp, or a essay describing your favorite superhero, or instructions explaining how to take care of a pet frog. The possibilities are endless when you start connecting sentences into bigger pieces that let your thoughts and creativity flow.Of course, we also have to follow some rules when making sentences in English so that everyone can understand each other. These rules are called grammar.Grammar tells us things like when to use capitalization, where to put periods and commas, how to make verbs agree with nouns, and more. Following grammar is like putting up the road signs and traffic signals that keep all the words, phrases, and sentences traveling smoothly.For instance, one grammar rule is that every sentence needs a verb. So you couldn't just say "The ball". You would need to say "The ball bounced" or "The ball is red" to make it a complete sentence with a verb.Another grammar rule is that nouns acting as subjects need to agree with their verbs. So we say "The girl runs" not "The girl run." The "girl" is one thing so we use the verb "runs" that goes with it.There are quite a few other grammar rules that help make our English clear and correct. But don't worry, you'll learn them bit by bit as you keep practicing with more words, phrases, and sentences. Pretty soon it will all start coming together like a puzzle!The greatest thing about learning English words, sentences, and grammar is that it gives you the power to express yourself in so many creative ways. You can tell stories that take us to magical lands, describe your biggest dreams, or simply share about your day at school.With every new word you learn and every sentence you build, you unlock another piece of the code to communicating in this amazing, global language of English. You're building up your vocabulary, bit by bit, just like I've been doing in this essay by introducing words like nouns, adjectives, verbs, grammar, and many more.So keep exploring and keep building sentences, one word at a time. The more you play around with words and phrases, the easier it will become to string them together into clear sentences that let your thoughts be heard. English is a hugely useful skill that will open up amazing opportunities for you.Who knows? One day you might write the next big storybook or movie that becomes famous around the world, all by continuing your journey into mastering more and more of these English words and sentences. The possibilities are endless when you learn to wield the magic of language!篇5Words, Words, Words!Do you like words? I love words! Words are so much fun. There are big words, small words, long words, and short words. Some words are easy to say like "cat" and "run". Other words are hard to say like "antidisestablishmentarianism". That's one of the longest words in English!My favorite words are funny words like "skedaddle", "hullabaloo", and "flibbertigibbet". I also love words that sound like what they mean, like "boom", "sizzle", and "squish". Words that rhyme are awesome too - "cat", "hat", "bat", "rat", "sat"! So many fun word games to play.There are over a million words in the English language. Can you imagine?? That's a ton of words. Where do all these words come from? Some were made up from scratch, like "blurb" or "quark". But most words have interesting origins and backstories.For example, the word "sandwich" comes from an English earl named John Montagu who was the 4th Earl of Sandwich. Legend has it that he invented the sandwich in 1762 because he didn't want to leave the gambling table! So he asked for a couplepieces of bread with meat in between so he could eat with his hands and not get the cards messy. Pretty cool, right?Words can be nouns, verbs, adjectives, and all sorts of other things. But words on their own aren't as fun as when we string them together into phrases and sentences...Phenomenal PhrasesPhrases are groups of words that go together. There are all kinds of phrases - noun phrases, verb phrases, prepositional phrases, and more. Phrases can make cool meanings when we combine words in certain ways.One of my favorite phrases is "raining cats and dogs." What a weird picture that creates in your mind! It doesn't actually mean cats and dogs are falling from the sky, silly. It just means it's raining really hard outside. "Letting the cat out of the bag" is another funny phrase that doesn't have anything to do with real cats or bags. It means you've accidentally revealed a secret. English phrases can be so wacky and idiomatically fun.Some phrases rhyme which makes them fun to say, like "easy peasy lemon squeezy" or "slug-a-bug". Other phrases use alliteration where the words start with the same sound, like"brave brass band" or "curious Calico cat". Phrases that play with word sounds are my favorites.You can combine phrases to build even bigger phrases, and then eventually you start making complete sentences. Let's take a look at...Sensational SentencesSentences are Like the building blocks of language. Every sentence has a noun or pronoun (naming word) and a verb (action word). For example, a simple sentence could be "The cat ran." The noun is "cat" and the verb is "ran".We can make sentences more descriptive by adding adjectives (describing words like colors or sizes) or adverbs (describing how something is done). Like this: "The small gray cat ran quickly." See how that adds more details?You can join simple sentences together into longer compound sentences using conjunctions like "and", "but" and "or". For example: "The cat ran quickly but the dog walked slowly." Two sentences joined together!Sentences can also have clauses, which are groups of words with their own noun and verb. Here's a sentence with a clause: "The brown puppy that was adopted yesterday is very energetic."The part "that was adopted yesterday" is a clause that gives more detail about the puppy.There are so many ways to build sentences and so many different types - interrogative (questions), exclamatory, declarative, and more. Playing around with putting words together into different sentences is like a puzzle game. What crazy sentence can you create?When sentences get joined together into paragraphs, you've got the building blocks of a composition. Let's wrap up by talking about...Courageous CompositionsA composition is a longer piece of writing that tells a whole story or informative passage. It's made up of multiple paragraphs organized into an introduction, body, and conclusion. Learning to write well-structured compositions is an important skill.The introduction paragraph introduces the main topic or story and gets the reader interested. The body paragraphs go into more detail with descriptions, explanations, examples, or narrative events. Each body paragraph focuses on one main idea.The conclusion paragraph wraps everything up and restates the key points.When writing a composition, it's important to use proper spelling, capitalization, and punctuation. But the most crucial element is developing your ideas fully through clear, logical sentences and paragraphs. A good composition takes the reader on a journey, leaping from one concept to the next through seamlessly linked sentences and paragraphs.The best compositions immerse the reader through vivid word choice, imagery, dialogue, and descriptive details. Writing an amazing composition is both an art and a skill that takes practice. But keep working on it because communicating through the written word is such an important way to express yourself and share your thoughts with the world!Grammatically GeniusOf course, polished compositions follow the rules of proper grammar. Grammar is the structural foundation of language. It's the way words are put together into sentences according to certain patterns and guidelines.For instance, in English sentences the subject-verb order is very important. "The dogs bark loudly" sounds correct. But "Barkloudly the dogs" sounds funny and ungrammatical. Following subject-verb-object order is one key grammar rule.Making nouns and verbs agree is another grammar rule. You wouldn't say "The dog barks" because there's a plural/singular mismatch between "dog" and "barks". It should be "The dogs bark".Then there are verb tenses, use of articles like "a" and "the", proper pronoun usage, and all sorts of other grammar concepts to master. It seems like a lot, but the more you read and write, the more the rules of English grammar will become second nature.Using good grammar makes your writing clear, articulate, and easy to understand. It's like giving your reader a grammatical GPS to navigate through your sentences without getting lost or confused along the way. Grammarlicious!The End...Or is it?Wow, learning about words, phrases, sentences, compositions, and grammar sure is fascinating! I could fill up book after book exploring all the different concepts. This is just the very tip of the iceberg when it comes to the intricacies of English.Words are the atoms that combine into phrases and sentences which build paragraphs, compositions, and so much more. Playing with words truly is one of the most creative and expansive domains there is.I hope you've enjoyed this little tour through the building blocks of language as much as I have. Keep learning, stay curious, and never stop discovering new words and new ways to string them together. The possibilities are en篇6Words, Words, and More Words!Do you know what words are? Words are cool little things we use to talk and write. Like "cat", "jump", and "happy". There are so many words in English!Some words just have one part, but others have two or more parts stuck together. Words with two parts are called compound words. "Baseball" is one, because it's "base" and "ball" put together. "Playground" is another, with "play" and "ground". Compound words are fun!Then there are phrases. Phrases are groups of words that go together, like "over there", "my friend", or "after school". Phrasesdon't have both a subject and a verb though. That's what makes them different from sentences.Sentences are really important in English. A sentence is a group of words with a subject and a verb that expresses a complete thought. For example: "The dog barked loudly." The subject is "the dog" and the verb is "barked".Some sentences are statements that tell us something, like "The sky is blue." Other sentences are questions that ask us something, like "What is your name?" Then there are exclamations that express strong feelings, like "Wow, that was amazing!"The really cool thing is that we can make lots of different sentences by changing the words around or adding new ones. Adjectives like "fuzzy" or "enormous" make our sentences more descriptive. And adverbs like "slowly" or "happily" give more details about the verbs.Once we have sentences, we can start putting them together into longer pieces of writing called compositions or essays. We write compositions about all sorts of topics - our favorite things, stories from our lives, or things we've learned about. Having an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion helps make our compositions easy to read and understand.But we have to be careful to follow the rules when writing sentences for compositions. That's where grammar comes in. Grammar is like a big rulebook that tells us how to put sentences together properly. It covers stuff like using the right verb tenses, making subjects and verbs agree, and putting words in the right order.Some of the grammar rules can be kind of tricky at first. Like when to use "a" or "an" before a word. Or how to make a plural by adding "s" (one cat, two cats). But the more we practice and use the rules, the easier it gets!Speaking, writing, and reading all use words, phrases, sentences, compositions, and grammar. The best way to get better at them is by listening, trying new vocabulary, and just having fun with the English language. After all, words are awesome! They let us share our thoughts, tell stories, and learn new things every single day.。