Language and Culture(2011)

Chapter 9 Language and CultureIntroduction语言和文化之间有密切的联系，这是一条不证自明的公理。

如果我们简要回顾一下过去一个世纪中语言学领域发生的事情，就可以找到更多的证据支持这个观点。

必须承认，18世纪初以来，对语言的探究从本质上说要么是历史比较的，要么是结构形式化的；然而，一些新的变化在20世纪开始的时候出现了。

无论是在英国还是在北美，语言研究都开始了人类学转向这种新传统的特征就是将语言研究置于社会文化的语境之中。

在英国，马林诺夫斯基和弗斯是这一运动的先驱，而在与之平行却有着独立传统的北美，鲍阿斯，萨丕尔和沃尔夫自然是其代表。

由于他们的创新和不懈努力，在语言和文化关系的研究领域中，许多重要而有创造性的工作得以完成。

尤为重要的是，这些研究建立了一种范式。

在此后多年中，这一学科范式引发了对这个问题的各种研究。

早在20世纪20年代，一个人类语言学学派在英国产生。

人类学家马林诺夫斯基在新几内亚东岸的Trobriand岛进行田野调查时，观察到这这种原始文化中，一个词的意义在很大程度上依赖于它所出现的语境，或者说依赖于生活中真实的语言环境。

比如wood一词，在本地文化中，它既有英语中相当的用法，即指树的坚固的物质成分，也可以更具体地指独木舟。

独木舟是这些岛屿居民的一种重要交通工具，在这个言语社会的日常生活中具有十分重要的功用。

然而这个词的第二种释义有着极强的环境色彩和文化意味，对一个来自不同文化环境的外来者而言，可能不那么容易掌握。

文化在语言研究中占什么地位？从20世纪70年代初开始，随着向水门(Watergate)事件这样的政治丑闻不断被揭露，一连串的衍生词语涌进了英语。

如―Billygate (比利门)‖，―Cattlegate (牲畜门)‖都是这样的复合形式。

在这种情形下人们感到在―(gate)‖构成的组合形式和衍生形式进行社会语言学研究时，有必要考察这些新词涉及的语义，结构以及功能的发展情况，同时在进行构词研究时需要更多了解这些相关因素之间的相互关系。

Language and Culture●IntroductionSince human being appeared ,all kinds of languages came into being bir by bit .And with the development of languages ,cultures, varieties of cultures grew ,too .What we can not deny is that there is a intimate relationship between language and culture . There are many ways in which the phenomena of language and culture are intimately related. Both phenomena are unique to humans and have therefore been the subject of a great deal of anthropological, sociological, and even memetic study. Language, of course, is determined by culture, though the extent to which this is true is now under debate. The converse is also true to some degree: culture is determined by language - or rather, by the replicators that created both, memes.●Language as Determined by CultureEarly anthropologists, following the theory that words determine thought, believed that language and its structure were entirely dependent on the cultural context in which they existed. This was a logical extension of what is termed the Standard Social Science Model, which views the human mind as an indefinitely malleable structure capable of absorbing any sort of culture without constraints from genetic or neurological factors.In this vein, anthropologist Verne Ray conducted a study in the 1950's, giving color samples to different American Indian tribes and asking them to give the names of the colors. He concluded that the spectrum we see as "green", "yellow", etc. was an entirely arbitrary division, and each culture divided the spectrum separately. According to this hypothesis, the divisions seen between colors are a consequence of the language we learn, and do not correspond to divisions in the natural world. A similar hypothesis is upheld in the extremely popular meme of Eskimo words for snow - common stories vary from fifty to upwards of two hundred.Extreme cultural relativism of this type has now been clearly refuted. Eskimos use at most twelve different words for snow, which is not many more than English speakers and should be expected since they exist in a cold climate. The color-relativity hypothesis has now been completely debunked by more careful, thorough, and systematic studies which show a remarkable similarity between the ways in which different cultures divide the spectrum.Of course, there are ways in which culture really does determine language, or at least certain facets thereof. Obviously, the ancient Romans did not have words for radios, televisions, or computers because these items were simply not part of their cultural context. In the same vein, uncivilized tribes living in Europe in the time of the Romans did not have words for tribunes, praetors, or any other trapping of Roman government because Roman law was not part of their culture.Our culture does, sometimes, restrict what we can think about efficiently in our own language. For example, some languages have only three color terms equivalent to black, white, and red; a native speaker of this language would have a difficult time expressing the concept of "purple" efficiently. Some languages are also moreexpressive about certain topics. For example, it is commonly acknowledged that Yiddish is a linguistic champion, with an amazing number of words referring to the simpleminded.Language is never the entity which has been invented or scripted in isolation. It certainly has evolved gradually with the continuous development of a culture. A culture being a building made of social behaviors, human emotions, or way of expressing feelings, the language has continually adapted accordingly to accommodate these identified notion and gesture of human activity. Finding a symbolism every time to register it in the language, thus contributing to its growth. A language has always been a weapon to express one's ideas and feelings. And the reason enough to make this weapon more efficient to handle one's need of expressing things with intended accuracy. It has been tuned-up with each new finding, getting honed up continually to get its flawless shape with developing culture.●Cultu Culture and Language - United by MemesAccording to the memetic theorist Susan Blackmore, language developed as a result of memetic evolution and is an example of memes providing a selection pressure on genes themselves. The definition of a culture in memetic theory is an aggregate of many different meme sets or memeplexes shared by the majority of a population. Using memetic reasoning, it can be seen that language - itself created by memes and for memes - is the principal medium used for spreading memes from one person to another.As Blackmore states in The Meme Machine, memes were born when humans began to imitate each other. According to her theory, this event preceded - indeed, had to precede - the development of language. When imitation became widespread, producing selection pressure on genes for successful imitation, memes began to exploit verbalizations for better and more frequent transmission. The end result of this complex process was language, and the anatomical alterations needed for its successful use.Language, created by memes as a mechanism for ensuring better memetic propagation, has certainly been a success. Today, the vast majority of memes are transmitted via language, through direct speech, written communication, radio or television, and the internet. Relatively few memes are transmitted in a non-linguistic way, and those that are have very specific, localized purposes, such as artwork and photography. Even these media, though nonlinguistic in themselves, assume language and very rarely appear without some sort of linguistic commentary. This might take the form of a critical analysis of an artwork, a caption for a photograph, a voice-over for a video, etc.●Language as Part of CultureFor many people, language is not just the medium of culture but also is a part of culture. It is quite common for immigrants to a new country to retain their old customs and to speak their first language amid fellow immigrants, even if all present are comfortable in their new language. This occurs because the immigrants are eager to preserve their own heritage, which includes not only customs and traditions but also language. This is also seen in many Jewish communities, especially in oldermembers: Yiddish is commonly spoken because it is seen as a part of Jewish culture. Linguistic differences are also often seen as the mark of another culture, and they very commonly create divisiveness among neighboring peoples or even among different groups of the same nation. A good example of this is in Canada, where French-speaking natives of Quebec clash with the English-speaking majority. This sort of conflict is also common in areas with a great deal of tribal warfare. It is even becoming an issue in America as speakers of standard American English - mainly whites and educated minorities - observe the growing number of speakers of black English vernacular. Debates are common over whether it is proper to use "Ebonics" in schools, while its speakers continue to assert that the dialect is a fundamental part of the "black culture".English is far more world wide in its distribution than all other spoken languages. It is an official language in 52 countries as well as many small colonies and territories. In addition, 1/4 to 1/3 of the people in the world understand and speak English to some degree. It has become the most useful language to learn for international travel and is now the de facto language of diplomacy. In 2001, the 189 member countries in the United Nations were asked what language they wish to use for communication with embassies from other countries. More than 120 chose English, 40 selected French, and 20 wanted to use Spanish. Those who wanted English to be the common language included all of the former Soviet republics, Viet Nam, and most of the Arab world. English is also the dominant language in electronic communication, particularly on the Internet. However, the percentage of Internet users who are not native English speakers is increasing rapidly, especially in Asia. In fact, China estimated in 2008 that there are now more people who have online access in their country than in the U.S., which had been the global leader in Internet access.In reality, the distribution of languages globally is very complex and difficult to easily describe. Numerous migrations of people over the last several centuries have resulted in most large nations now having many different languages. There are at least 165 languages spoken in the United States today. Consequently, it is somewhat misleading to describe the U.S. as being an English speaking country. The same caution applies to other multicultural nations as well.Some parts of the world have unusually high concentrations of different languages. There are around 900 native languages spoken by the 5-10 million people of New Guinea and its neighboring islands. That is roughly 1/6 of all languages being spoken by far less than 1% of the world's people. Other language high density areas have been native California and the Caucasus Mountains north of Turkey and Iran.The majority of the languages in the world are unwritten and many of them are disappearing. About 1/2 of the world's languages are no longer spoken by children. This is the first step in the extinction of a language. About 2,000 languages now have less than 1,000 speakers. The most threatened are the indigenous languages of Australia and the Americas. By the end of the 20th century, about 200 Australian languages survived, but more than 1/2 had less than 10speakers. Two dozen had a single elderly speaker. Young Aborigines now predominantly speak English, especially in urban areas. There has been a similar pattern in California where Indian languages disappeared at the rate of nearly one a year during the late 20th century. Globally, the rate of language loss now is one every two weeks. The areas where indigenous languages are being lost the most rapidly are central South America, Oklahoma and the American Southwest, the Northwest coastal region of the U.S. and Canada, eastern Siberia, and northern Australia.There are no "primitive" languages. All languages have a system of sounds, words, and sentences that can adequately communicate the content of culture. The languages of the so-called "primitive" peoples are often very complex in their grammatical structures. There seems to be no correlation between a language's grammatical complexity and the technological level of a society or other aspects of culture. However, cultures that have more complex, diverse economies and advanced technologies have larger vocabularies. For instance, English has roughly 615,000 non-technical words. If slang and specialized technical words are added, English has more than 2,000,000 words and is growing at a rate of hundreds to thousands every year. By comparison, German has about 185,000 non-technical words, French may have less than 100,000, and Spanish even fewer. The major reason that English has so many more non-technical words is the fact that as it evolved from its Germanic roots, it acquired words from more than 240 other languages. However, it is unlikely that any one individual knows the meaning of all English words. Most Americans only use 800-1,000 words in everyday conversation. A typical American college student knows 20,000-30,000 words by the time he or she graduates. While this is 20-37 times more than the average person who has not gone to college, it is still less than 2% of all English words.Every language can create new words to describe new situations and objects. Therefore, it is not surprising that all languages change through time. None is static. However, they change at different rates at different times in response to new social, cultural, and environmental situations. Some nations strongly resist the acquisition of new words from other languages. This has been the case with the French government's response to the relentless invasion of English words in recent decades, especially in pop culture and technology. However, young people in most developed nations eagerly embrace new words regardless of attempts by their governments to retain "language purity."From hat has been discussed above ,we may safely draw the conclusion that the word men use not only express but shape their ideas .Language is an instrument ;it is even more an environment .It has as much to do with the philosophical and political conditioning of a society as geography or climate .Just as Ludwing Wittgenstein said “the limits of my language are the limits of my world”.References:⏹The Language Instinct⏹How the Mind Works⏹Words and Rules⏹The Meme Machine⏹The Environment of Language。

nida, e. a. (2001). language and culture的主要内容1. 引言1.1 概述本文将探讨Nida, E.A. (2001)的著作《Language and Culture》中关于语言和文化之间相互影响的观点和理论。

语言和文化是人类社会中不可分割的两个要素，它们相互交织、相互影响，并共同塑造着我们的社会生活和认知方式。

通过深入研究Nida的论述，本文将展示语言如何塑造文化，以及文化又如何影响着语言使用。

1.2 文章结构本文主要分为四个部分：引言、Nida, E.A. (2001). Language and Culture背景介绍、语言与文化的关系以及Nida的观点和理论、正文（包括语言对文化的影响、文化对语言的影响以及跨文化交流中的挑战和解决途径）和结论。

每一部分都将详细阐述相关内容，并根据作者的观点进行阐释和探讨。

1.3 目的本文旨在通过研究Nida, E.A. (2001)所提出的有关语言和文化之间相互关系的理论，增进我们对这一领域认识的理解。

通过实证研究和案例分析，本文将探索语言如何塑造文化，以及文化对语言的影响，并讨论跨文化交流中的挑战以及可能的解决途径。

通过深入理解语言和文化之间的互动关系，我们可以更好地理解多样性、发展跨文化教育方法并促进更有效的跨文化交流。

综上所述，本篇文章旨在探讨语言与文化之间的紧密联系并阐述Nida, E.A. (2001)在此领域的观点和理论。

以下部分将详细介绍Nida, E.A. (2001). Language and Culture的背景、语言与文化之间的关系以及相关问题。

2. Nida, E.A. (2001). Language and Culture:2.1 背景介绍:Nida, E.A.是一位著名的语言学家和翻译家，他对多种语言及其文化之间的关系进行了深入研究。

在他的著作《Language and Culture》中，他探讨了语言与文化之间的紧密联系，并提出了一些重要观点和理论。

language and cultureLanguage and CultureIntroductionLanguage and culture are intricately connected. Language, as a means of communication, plays a vital role in the development and expression of culture. It serves as a medium through which individuals convey their thoughts, values, beliefs, and traditions. In turn, culture shapes and influences the development of language, giving it context and meaning. This symbiotic relationship between language and culture is evident across various aspects of human society.Language as a Cultural IdentityLanguage is not merely a tool for communication; it is also a medium through which individuals express their cultural identity. Different languages carry unique cultural elements, such as idioms, proverbs, and sayings, which reflect the values, customs, and traditions of a specific group of people. For instance, the use of honorifics in Japanese language represents the respect and hierarchical nature of their society.Similarly, the use of certain terms and expressions in the English language can reveal the history, literature, and social norms of the Anglophone world. Thus, language acts as a repository of cultural heritage, preserving and transmitting values from one generation to another.Language and Social InteractionLanguage shapes social interaction and influences the way individuals communicate within a particular culture. Cultural norms often dictate the appropriate use of language, including rules of politeness, formality, and respect. For example, many cultures have specific terms to address elder family members or higher-ranking individuals, reflecting their emphasis on hierarchy and respect. Moreover, different cultures have varying degrees of directness and indirectness in their communication styles. In some cultures, speaking directly may be seen as confrontational, while in others, it may be valued as a sign of honesty and openness. Understanding these cultural nuances is essential for effective cross-cultural communication.Language and PerceptionLanguage not only reflects cultural perspectives but also shapes how individuals perceive the world around them. Language acts as a filter through which individuals interpret and understand their experiences. Different languages may have unique ways of categorizing and conceptualizing the world, influencing the way people think and perceive reality. For instance, certain languages have more words to describe particular colors, such as the distinction between light blue and dark blue in Russian or the various shades of green in some African languages. These linguistic differences can often result in variations in cognitive processes and the way individuals perceive and interpret their surroundings.Language and PowerLanguage plays a significant role in power dynamics within a culture or society. The dominant language of a particular group often has a stronger influence and status, exerting power over other languages. Linguistic imperialism, the dominance of one language over others, has been historically prevalent in various colonial contexts. The imposition of a dominant language can result in the marginalization and erosion of minority languages and cultures. Language policies and language rights are important in maintaining linguistic diversity and preserving cultural heritage.Language, Culture, and GlobalizationGlobalization has had a profound impact on language and culture. It has facilitated the spread of dominant languages, such as English, as a lingua franca in many parts of the world. As a consequence, local languages and dialects face the risk of being diluted or extinct. Additionally, globalization has led to cultural hybridization, as cultures intermingle and influence each other. This has resulted in the emergence of new forms of language and culture, blending both local and global elements. While embracing the opportunities and benefits of globalization, it is essential to safeguard linguistic and cultural diversity.ConclusionLanguage and culture are intertwined in complex ways. Language serves as a vehicle for the expression of cultural identity, social interaction, perception, and power dynamics. At the same time, culture shapes and gives meaning to language, contributing to its evolution and preservation. Understanding the intricate relationship between language and culture is crucial in fostering effective communication, promoting cultural diversity, and appreciating the richness and complexity of human societies.。

Language and CultureI firmly believe that language and culture are familiar with everyone on earth. Nevertheless, I don’t think everyone is clear about the real meaning of language and culture. On this basis, this essay will explain some basic information about language and culture, including what is language, what is culture and the relationship between language and culture. What’s more, quite a number of examples will be cited to help you have a better understanding of language and culture.Let’s begin with the concept of language. When we put a key word “language”into the online Wikipedia(维基百科)，which is a free encyclopedia to people all over the world, we find that language is defined as the human capacity for acquiring and using complex system of communications , and a language is any specific example of such a system. From this definition, we have a clear consciousness towards language. When we look into the Oxford English-Chinese Dictionary, Language is divided into several meanings as follow：1. use of words in an agreed way as a method of human communications 2. system of words of a particular community or country etc. 3. faculty of speech 4. system of symbols and rules for writing computer programs 5. any method of communication.6. professional or specialized vocabulary. Besides, I have also learned the definition of language from my linguistics class. In the book A New Concise Course in Linguistics for Students of English(新编简明英语语言学教程). Langue is thought to be a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for human communication. Short as it is, this definition has captured the main features of language. First of all, language is a system, that is, elements of language are combined according to rules. Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that theme is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for. This conventional nature of language is well illustrated by a famous quotation: A rose by any other name would smell as sweet. This quotation means rose is still rose even it is called by another name.For my part, the definition of language is varied. Generally speaking, it is a series code that facilitates human communication. And beyond a specific context, language has no intrinsic meaning.After finishing talking about what is language, let’s know more about culture. Similarly, in the Wikipedia, culture is defined as fallowing meanings, Firstly, culture is deemed as a modern concept based on a term first used in classical antiquity by the roman orator Cicero: Cultura animi ( cultiration of the soul). Secondly, the term “culture”in American anthropology had two meanings: the evolved human capacity to classify and represent experiences with symbol, and to act imaginatively and creatively. Thirdly, Hoebel describes culture as an integrated system of learned behavior patterns and which are not a result of biological inheritance. Besides, we learn the meaning of culture from theIntercultural Communication course. Culture is defined as the group of people who share the same ancestry. There are also many renowned socialists give culture several definitions. For example, E.sapir once said that culture may be defined as what a societu does and thinks.Shortly, culture is involved in so many aspects that it is hard to give it an accurate definition. Put in another way, for different people, culture has very different meaning, according to their own value, education background, social status and so forth. So there is nothing to criticize when other’s understanding of culture is different from yours.Having known so much basic information about language and culture, we will have look at the relationship between language and culture. In the book Intercultural communication in English(新编跨文化交际英语)，there is a description of the relationship between language and culture. It goes like this: culture and language are intertwined and shape each other. Language is not a matter of neutral codes and grammatical rules. Each time we select words form sentences, and send a message, either oral or written. We also make cultural choices. We all agree that language helps in communication with people from different backgrounds. However, we may be less aware that cultural literary is necessary to understand the language being used. Personally speaking, language and culture is not two totally different subjects with no relevance. On the contrary, they are tightly related. That is to say, onlywhen language is put into a specific environment of cultural context does it have some real meaning.To have a better understanding of language and culture, several typical examples of the language and cultural difference between China and the western countries will be cited. We all know that the Chinese culture is both profound and extensive which leads to numerous idioms, allusions, proverbs and sayings, which is hard for foreigners to understand. Take some of them for instances. Firstly, take “过着牛郎织女的生活” for example, it can be literally translated as the Herd-boy and the spinning maid(mythical lovers separated by the Milky Way). But a foreigner may feel puzzled when look at this allusion, for they do not have the cultural background of the allusion. Actually, it is a folk tale of ancient China which means husband and wife living apart. If you want a foreigner fully understand this allusion, you’d better to tell him the whole tale, which also help him to know more about Chinese culture.There are also other four-character allusions in Chinese. Such as 三顾茅庐—make three calls at the thatched cottage(as Liu Bei did when he sought the aid of Zhuge Liang, a master straight then living in seclusion)—repeatedly request someone to take up a responsible post.完璧归赵——return the jade intact to the state of Zhao—return something to its owner in perfect condition.拔苗助长—stand by a stump waiting for hares to come and dash themselves against it—trust to chance and waiting forgains without pains.对牛弹琴—play music to an ox—cast pearls before swine.Most of the allusions come into being according to china’s long history. That’s why many foreigners find it hard to know comprehensively about Chinese language and culture. Nevertheless, there are some equivalents between these two different cultures. For example, in Chinese , there is an allusion called “画蛇添足” , in English, there is a similar proverb called gilding the lily. What’s more, it takes two to make a quarrel can be found in Chinese 一个巴掌拍不响. Hopefully, these make it easier to understand each other’s culture.In short, language in different cultures is hard to understand to most foreigners. The only thing to do is try one’s best to know more about each other’s culture, including all walks of life.。

Vocabulary【Words】Find out the particular cultural message behind the word.3. 我注意到了关于每个人说英语的方式的一些有趣的事儿。

I noticed something funny about the way everyone spoke English.4. 她出来的时候带着一包薯片！She came out with a packet of crisps!5. 文化因素可能会影响语言的含义，并在跨文化交流中引发错误的理解。

Cultural factors may influence meanings of languages and cause misunderstandings in cross-cultural communication.【长难句分析】1. My mum then told me that they call “pants” what we call “trousers,” the outer clothing that you wear on your legs!主干部分：My mum then told me that they call A B…句中包含了：宾语从句、名词性从句、定语从句、还有同位语Grammar【句子类型】五大基本类型1、Subject(主语)+ Verb(谓语)谓语种类：__________如此类动词后要接宾语，须加上__________常见动词：appear, die, disappear, end, fail, last等。

2、Subject(主语)+ Verb (谓语)+ Object(宾语)动词后需有宾语，宾语的形式为__________、__________、__________等。

常见动词：see, catch, like, offer, raise, arouse, forget 等。