现代语言学资料整理2011

现代语言学现代语言学语言学是对语言的系统研究，对于一个学习英语的人来说，应该懂一点语言学的知识，它可以在理论上对学习语言有指导作用，有助于更好的学习语言，下面介绍一点语言学知识。

I. Introduction1. What is LanguageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication2. What is Linguistics（语言学）Linguistics is the scientific study of language3.Some Basic Distinctions（区分） in Linguistics3.1 Speech and WritingOne general principle（原则）of linguistic analysis is the primacy of speech over writing. Writing gives language new scope（范畴）and uses that speech does not have3.2 Descriptive（描述性）or Prescriptive（说明性）A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior3.3 Synchronic（共时）and Diachronic（历时）StudiesThe description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study and The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study3.4 Langue（语言）and Parole（言语）This is a distinction made by the Swiss linguist F.De Saussure （索绪尔）early last century. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole refers to the actualized（实际的） language, or realization of langue.3.5 Competence（能力）and Performance（行为）Competence is the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances（发声）4.The Scope of LinguisticsGeneral linguistics is the study of language as a whole Phonetics（语音学）is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. Phonology（音韵学）is the branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of languagesMorphology（词法）is the branch of linguistics which studies the form of wordsSyntax（句法） is the branch of linguistics which studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences Semantics（语义学）is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language. Applied linguistics（应用语言学） is the study of the teaching of foreign and second languages Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and societyPsycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the mindHistorical Linguistics（历史语言学） is the study of language changesAnthropological linguistics（人文语言学）uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of manNeurolinguistics（神经语言学）studies the neurological basis of language development and use in human beings Mathematical linguistics（数学语言学）studies themathematical features of language, often employing models and concepts of mathematicsComputational linguistics（计算语言学）is an approach to linguistics in which mathematical techniques and concepts（概念） are applied, often with the aid of a computerII. Phonetics（语音学）1. scope of phoneticsSpeech sounds may be studied from different angles, thus we have at least three branches of phonetics:Articulatory phonetics（发音语音学）we may examine the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate（协调）in the processAuditory phonetics （听觉语音学）we may look into the impression a speaker makes on the hearer as mediated（调节）by the ear, the auditory nerve（神经） and the brainAcoustic phonetics （声学语音学）we study the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted（传送）between mouth and ear2. The vocal organsThe vocal organs may be viewed as consisting of three parts, the initiator of the air-stream,（气流发生器官）the producer of voice（声音发生器官） and the resonating cavities.（声音共振器官）3. Consonants（辅音）Places of articulation（发音部位）: bilabial,（双唇）Labiodentals,（唇齿）dental,（齿）alveolar,（齿龈）retroflex,（卷舌）palate-alveolar,（上齿龈）palatal,（上颚）velar,（软腭）uvular,（小舌）glottal（声门）Manners of articulation: plosive,（暴破）nasal,（鼻音）trill,（颤音）lateral,（边音）fricative,（摩擦）approximant,（近似音）affricate（破擦）4. Vowels （元音）The classification of vowels: the height oftongue raising （high, mid, low）, the position of the highest part of the tongue（front, central, back）, and the degree of lip rounding（rounded, unrounded）III. Phonology（音韵学）1. phonemes（音素）：a distinctive（有区别的） sound in a language2. Allophones（音位变体）：The nondistinctive sounds are members of the same phoneme3. Minimal pairs（最小对立体）：word forms which differ from each other only by one sound4. Free variation （自由变异）：If two sounds occurring in the same environment（环境）, they does not produce a different word form, but merely a different pronunciation of the same word5. Complementary distribution（补充分类）：Not all the speech sounds occur in the same environment. When two sounds never occur in the same environment6.Suprasegmental phonology（超音段音位）：the study of phonological properties （性质）of units lager than the segment-phoneme. They are syllable（音节），stress,（重音）word stress, sentence stress. Pitch （音调）and intonation（语调）IV. Morphology（词法）1. inflection（构形法）：the grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes.（屈折词缀）2. Word-formation（构词）：the processes（过程） of word variations signaling lexical relationships.（表明词法关系）They are compound（合成）and derivation （派生）3. Morpheme（词素）：the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content4. Allomorph（同质异象变体）：some morphemes haveconsiderable variation, for instance, alternate shapes or phonetic forms5. Types of morphemes: They are roots,（词根） affix（词缀）and stem（词干）6. Lexicon（语言词汇）：in its most general sense, is synonymous with vocabulary7. Closed-class words（封闭性） and open-class words（开放性）：the former whose membership is fixed or limited and the latter whose membership is in principle（实际上） indefinite or unlimited8. Word class（词性）：It displays a wider range of more precisely defined classes9. Lexeme（词位）：the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other smaller units10. Idiom（习语，成语）：Most phrasal lexemes are idioms. It is especially true for a sequence of words（词序）which is semantically（语义上）and often syntactically（句法上）restricted.（限制）11. Collocation（搭配）： the habitual（习惯的）co-occurrences （同时出现）of individual lexical items V. Syntax （句法）1. Positional relation or word order（词序）：the sequential （顺序） arrangement of words in a language2. Construction or constituent （句子结构）：the overall process of internal （内部）organization of a grammatical unit3. Syntactic function（句法功能）： the relationship betweena linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used. The names of functions are expressed in terms of subjects, objects, predicates, modifiers,（修饰语） complements （补语）, etc4. Category（范畴）：It refers to classes and functions in itsnarrow sense, e.g. noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. The categories of the noun include number, gender, case and countability5. Phrase: a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of clause6. Clause: a group of words with its own subject and predicate, if it is included in a larger sentence7. Sentence: It is the minimum part of language that expresses a complete thoughtVI. Semantics1. Conceptualism or mentalism （概念主义）：Following F. De Saussure（索学尔）'s "sign" theory, the linguistic sign is said to consist of a signifier （所指）and signified（被指）, i.e., a sound image and a concept, liked by a psychological（心理的）"associative" bond.（相关联系）2. Mechanism（机械主义）：Some linguists, Bloomfield,（布鲁费尔德） for example, turned to science to counter（反）-act the precious theories and this leads to what call the mechanistic approach（方法）. The nature of this theory has nothing to do with the scientific study of mental phenomena.（智力现象）3. Contextualism （语境主义）：It is based on the presumption（假定）that one can derive meaning from or reduce it to observable context4. Behaviorism （行为主义）：Behaviourists attempt to define （定义）the meaning of a language form as "the situation （情景） in which the speaker utters（说话） it and the response （反应） it calls forth in the hearer."5. functionalism （功能主义）：Functionalists as represented （代表）by the Prague school（布拉格学派） linguists and neo-Firthian （新弗斯）linguists, approach the problem from an entirely new orientation（方法）. They argue（争辩）that meaning could only be interpreted（解释）from its use or function in social life6. Sense relationships: While reference deals with the relationship between the linguistic elements, words, sentences, etc.,and the non-linguistic world of experience, sense relates to the complex system of relationships that hold between the linguistic elements themselves. They include synonymy（同义词），antonymy（反义词）,hyponymy（下层次）Polysemy（一词多义）and Homonymy （同音异义词）7. Semantic analysis: It includes1）componential（成分）analysis which defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components.（意义成分）2） predication （表述）analysis in which the meaning of a sentence is not merely the sum of the meanings of the words which compose it.3） relational components in which the semantic analysis of some words presents a complicated picture, because they show relations between two and perhaps more terms.VII. Language Variation （语言变化）1. Lexical change（词汇的变化）：changes in lexis2. Invention: （新造词）new entities3. Compounding:（合成词）New words are sometimes constructed by combining two old words4. Blending: （混合词）：It is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two roots are blended by joining the initial part of the first root and the final part of the second root, or by joining the initial parts of the two roots5. Abbreviation or clipping:（缩写）A new word is created by cutting the final part or cutting the initial part6. acronym:（取首字母的缩写词）It is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified （修饰） headword7. Metanalysis:（再分化）It refers to a process through whicha division is made where there were note before8. Back-formation:（逆构词） It refers to an abnormal（非正常） type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting（去掉）an imagined affix from a longer form already present in the language.9. Analogical creation:（类比造词）It can account for（说明）the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation（结合） of some English verbs10. Borrowing（借用）：English in its development has managed to widen her vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages11. Phonological change（音变）：It is related to language variation in the phonological system of language. It includes loss,（省音）addition,（加音）assimilation,（同化）dissimilation.（异化）12. Grammatical change: Changes in both morphology（词法） and syntax（句法） are listed under this heading13. Semantic change:（语义变化）It includes broadening,（语义扩大） narrowing,（语义缩小） meaning shift,（意义转化）class shift（词性转换） and folk etymology.（词源变化）14. Orthographic change ：（正字法）Changes can also be found at the graphetic level。

3.What are the branches of linguistics? What does each of them study? (语言学的主要分支是什么。

每个分支的研究对象是什么？)Linguistics mainly involves the following branches:1)General linguistics, which is the study of language as a whole and which deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study2)Phonetics, which studies the sounds that are used in linguistic communication3)Phonology, which studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication4)Morphology, which studies the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words5)Syntax, which studies how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences6)Semantics, which is the study of meaning in language.7)Pragmatics, which is the study of meaning not in isolation, but in the context of use8)Sociolinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to society9)Psycholinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to the workings of mind.10)Applied linguistics, which is concerned about the application of linguistic findings in linguistic studies; in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.11)Other related branches are anthropological linguistics(人类语言学), neurological linguistics（神经语言学）, mathematical linguistics （数学语言学）, and computational linguistics（计算机语言学）.4.What makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar? (现代语言学与传统语法有什么区别？)Traditional grammar is prescriptive（规定性）; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) written language. It sets models for language users to follow. But Modern linguistics is descriptive（描述性）; its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken language data. It is supposed to be scientific and objective and the task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is "correct" or not.5.Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic（共时性）or diachronic（历时性）? Why?(The description of language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.)Modern linguistics is mainly synchronic, focusing on the present-day language. Unless the various states of a language are successfully studied, it will not be possible to describe language from a diachronic point of view.6.Which enjoys priority in modern linguistics, speech or writing? Why?在现代语言学里说话或写作哪一个有优先权？为什么呢？Modern linguistics gives priority to the spoken language for the following reasons:First, speech precedes writing. The writing system is always a later invention used to record the speech. There are still some languages that only have the spoken form.Then, a larger amount of communication is carried out in speech than in writing.Third, speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language.7.Saussure 是如何区分语言langue和言语parole的？(The distinction between langue and parole was made by the famous Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Langue and parole are French words.)Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.8.Chomsky的语言能力competence和语言使用performance各指什么？(American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s proposed the distinction between competence and performance.)Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc… Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard (偶然的).9.How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance? And what is their difference?索绪尔是如何区分语言和言语类似乔姆斯基的区分能力和表现？和它们的区别是什么？Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language. Their purpose is to single out one aspect of language for serious study. They differ in that Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual. 10.What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?你认为应该怎样用一个良好的，全面的定义来总结语言的特征？Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.First of all, language is a system, i.e. elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it refers to.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages.The term “human” is meant to specify that language is human-specific.11.What features of human language have been specified by Charles Hockett to show that it is essentially different from any animal communication system? 人类语言的甄别性特征是什么？1.Arbitrariness（任意性）: (课本答案：a sign of sophistication only humans are capable of) It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. Although language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary. Non-arbitrary words make up only a small percentage of the total number. The arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.2.Productivity（创造性）: （课本答案：creativity: animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send）Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the con¬struction and interpretation of an infinitely large number of sentences, including those they have never said or heard before.3.Duality（二重性）: （课本答案：a feature totally lacking in any animal communication）It means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds at the lower level and the other of meanings at the higher level. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of individual and meaningless sounds, which can be grouped into meaningful units at the higher level. This duality of structure or dou¬ble articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge.4.Displacement（移位性）: （课本答案：no animal can “talk” about things removed from the immediate situation）Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.5. Cultural transmission（文化传递性）：（课本答案：details of human language system are taught and learned while animals are born with the capacity to send out certain signals as a means of limited communication）While we are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.12.Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?人类的语言是否是完全任意的？为什么？Language is arbitrary in nature, it is not entirely arbitrary, because there are a limited number of words whose connections between forms and meanings can be logically explained to a certain extent, for example, the onomatopoeia, words which are coined on the basis of imitation of sounds by sounds such as bang, crash, etc.. Take compounds for another example. The two elements “photo” and “copy” in “photocopy” are non-motivated, but the compound is not arbitrary.2.What are the two major media of communication? Of the two, which one is primary and why? 语言交际的两大媒介是什么？哪一个是基本的交际媒介？为什么？Speech and writing are the major media of communication. Speech is considered primary over writing. The reasons are: speech is prior to writing in language evolution, speech plays a greater role in daily communications, and speech is the way in which people acquire their native language.3.What are the three branches of phonetics? How do they contribute to the study of speech sounds? 语音学的三个分支是什么。

中山大学中国语言文学系2011年现代汉语与语言学概论（代码613）真题及详解一、单项选择题（20分）在每小题列出的各个选项中，只有一个选项是符合题目要求的，请把答案写在答题纸上，注明题号。

1．下列汉字音节中，主要元音是舌面、前、半高、不圆唇元音的是________A．月B．对C．论D．界2．下列各组字中韵腹相同的是________。

A．问、军、肯、坤B．料、到、当、雅C．依、市、吉、迎D．桂、非、文、言3．下列加着重号的词语在句子中的比喻意义不是该词的固定义项的是________。

A．我们要避开市民出行的高峰．．。

B．党员要做党和广大群众联系的桥梁．．C．改革开放的春风吹遍了祖国大地。

．．为自己谋利益。

D．他打着政府的招牌．．4．下列句子中的“得”，属于助动词的是________。

A．这件事我不想干，免得添麻烦。

B．你不干也得干！C．老干那么多吃得消吗？D．没办法，这阵子大家都忙得晕头转向。

5．下列短语中不是谓词性短语的是________。

A．清新自然B．飞也似的C．为广大群众D．轻轻旋转6．下列句子中补语的语义指向主语的是________。

A．我写好了两篇文章。

B．天热得令人难受。

C．你要弄清楚他的意图。

D．猫把鸟儿吓跑了。

7．汉字“爱/阿/盎/案/奥”的汉语拼音分别是“ài/à/àng/àn/ào”，它们的拼式中都有一个共同的字母ɑ。

但实际上ɑ在以上各字中代表着不同的音位变体。

请问以上五字中含有几个拼音字母ɑ的音位变体？A．1个B．2个C．3个D．4个8．下列各组词中属于纯粹的借词的是________。

A．电话咖啡电视B．咖喱可乐蛇果C．吉普坦克手机D．沙发麦克风拷贝9．下列各词中附加色彩与其他词不同的是________。

A．大娘B．老大爷C．老头D．大妈10．下列各项中不是词缀的是________。

A．“worker”（工人）中的“er”（work：工作）B．“老板”中的“老”C．“working”（工作）中的“ing”D．“阿姨”中的“阿”二、多项选择题（20分）每题作出2项以上的选择，把答案写在答题纸上，注明题号。

一、语言和语言学1.语言学的核心: 语音学Phonetics, 音位学Phonology, 形态学Morphology, 句法学Syntax, 语义学Semantics, 语用学Pragmatics.2.瑞士语言学家索绪尔Saussure提出的langue语言vs parole言语.他是现在语言学之父3.语言的功能: the instrumental function,the regulatoryfunction,the heuristic function,the interactional function,the personal function,the imaginative function,the imformative function4.美国生成语法的创始人乔姆斯chomsky提出的competence语言能力vs performance语言运用5.语言的普遍特征: arbitrariness任意性,productivity多产性,duality双层结构,displacement移位性,cultural transmission文化传播性6.语用学研究的是上下文context中语言运用的情况7.Crash 拟声词onomatopoeic word8.现代语言学和传统语言学的不同点是: 描写性/规定性descriptive vs prescriptive, 口语/书面, 非拉丁语框架/拉丁语框架non-Latin-based framework vs Latin-based framework9.把语言学原理principle和理论theories应用到语言教学和学习的语言学是应用语言学applied linguistics10.语言文体学linguistic stylistics是介于语言学和文学之间的研究领域11.数学语言学mathematical linguistics, 人类语言学anthropological linguistics, 神经语言学neurolinguisitics12.孩子先学会说话再学会写字, 表明语言是发声的基础13.心理语言学研究儿童如何习得母语, 运用语言是大脑如何工作, 交流时如何处理接收到的信息14.语言的随意性说明语言在意义和声音方面没有逻辑关系15.语言的双层结构包含两种: 声音结构和语法结构16.形态学和句法学主要研究语法层面上的意义studythe units at the grammatical level17.Johnson 的大辞典为英语的用法和拼写制定了统一的标准二、语音学和音位学语音学三大分支: articulatory phonetics发音语音学,auditory phonetics听觉语音学,acoustic phonetics声学语音学辅音consonants的分类:根据发音方式: 爆破音stops, 摩擦音fricatives, 破擦音affricates, 鼻音nasals, 滑音glides根据发音部位：bilabials双唇音, labiodentals唇齿音, dentals齿间音, alveolars齿龈音, palatals上颚音, velars 软腭音, glottal声门音超音段音位suprasegmental phonology: stress重音,tone 音调,intonation语调三、形态学形态学主要研究单词的内部构造以及构成规则封闭性词汇closed class words: 连词conjunction, 介词preposition, 冠词article, 代词pronoun开放性词汇open class words: 名词noun, 动词verb, 形容词adjective, 副词adverb词素morpheme是语言中音义结合的最小单位, 也是语法分析的最小单位自由词素free morphemes, 粘着词素bound morphemes, 词干stem, 词根root, 外来词a borrowed one构词法包括：合成compound和派生derivation, 指的是自由词素屈折变化inflection指的是粘着词素,主要用于语法方面四、句法学句法学研究句子结构, 揭示构成某一语言句子的内在规则深层结构deep structure: 指抽象的句法结构表层结构surface structure: 是深层结构通过一系列转换规则之后得到的最后的结果, 就是人实际说出的句子英国语言学家韩礼德M.A.K.Halliday发展的系统功能语法, 主要关注语言和社会之间的关系简单句a simple sentence, 并列句a coordinate sentence, 复杂句a complex sentence一个词组主要包含: head中心语,specifier标志语,compliement补足语决定词类范畴category的有意义meaning, 屈折变化inflection, 分布distribution句法成分syntax component给句子提供了结构五、语义学语义学指语言产生意义的方法的系统研究, 主要研究对象是词义和句义同义词synonymy, 反义词antonymy, 多义词polysemy, （同音异义(一语双关)homophones, 同形异义homographs, 同音同形异义complete homonyms）都是homonymy, 上下义hynonymy,同义词包括: 方言性同义词dialectal synonyms, 风格性同义词stylistic synonyms指的是适用场合不同, 感情色彩不同的同义词emotive synonyms, 搭配不同的同义词collocational synonymsX entailing Y包含关系, X presupposing Y前提关系语义变化的四种模式: extension,narrowing,elevation,degradation成分分析componential analysis用于语义学的研究领域六、语用学英国哲学家John.Austin发明了言语行为理论speech act theory区分语义学和语用学的最本质因素是是否考虑了语言使用过程中的语境言语行为的三种次行为: 言内行为locutionary, 言外行为illocutionary, 言后行为perlocutionary act美国哲学语言学家john searle约翰舍尔把言外行为分为五大类: representative描述性功能, directive指示性功能（包括invitng,suggesting,requesting,advising,warning,threatening ,ordering）, commissive承担性功能, expressive表达性功能, declarative宣告性功能美国哲学家格莱斯Grice认为言语交际要包含以下四条准则：数量准则quantity maxim, 质量准则quality maxim, 关联准则relation maxim, 方式准则manner maxim情境因素contextual features包括时间, 地点和参与人, 不包括目的。

现代语言学复习要点现代语言学是研究语言的本质、结构、演化和使用的学科，涉及到语音学、语法学、语义学、语用学等多个方面。

下面是现代语言学中的重要知识点，帮助您进行复习。

语音学音位与音素音位是语音学中的基本单位，是被感知为一种有区别的声音的语音单位。

音素是语音学中的一个概念，是语音中能够起差别作用的最小单位。

一种语音中可能存在多个音位，但其对应的音素数量通常比较少。

### 调值语音学中通常使用调值来表示声音的高低的。

不同的语言中可能有不同数量的调，比如汉语中有四个音调，英语中没有固定的调值。

### 音系音系是指一种语言中所有音位（包括所有音素）的总体，包括其音位的数量、种类和分布等方面。

语法学句子成分句子成分是指构成句子的基本单词、短语或从句。

一般来说，句子成分包括主语、谓语、宾语、定语、状语等。

### 句子结构句子结构是指句子内不同成分的组成方式。

对于不同语言，其句子结构可能存在明显差异，如英语中主语一般出现在谓语前，而在汉语中通常是在谓语后。

### 语法关系语法关系是指句子中不同成分之间的关系，如主语与谓语之间的关系、宾语与谓语之间的关系等。

语义学词义词义是单词所表达的概念或意义。

不同的单词可能存在相同或相似的词义，因此在语义学中通常需要进行词义分类和比较。

### 语义关系语义关系是指单词、短语、句子等之间的意义相互联系。

常见的语义关系包括同义关系、反义关系、上下位关系等。

### 语篇意义语篇意义是指句子及其上下文所构成的整体意义。

在语篇分析中，不仅要关注句子内部的语义关系，还需考虑句子与上下文之间的语义关系。

语用学言语行为言语行为是指言语交流过程中所体现的具体行为，如陈述、命令、请求、批评等。

不同类型的言语行为具有不同的功能和表达方式。

### 语用礼貌语用礼貌是指在言语交际过程中对他人尊重、友好的表达方式。

常见的语用礼貌策略包括委婉语、礼貌用语、双重否定等。

### 上下文依存言语交际过程中，具体表达的含义通常需要依赖于上下文信息。

《现代语言学》复习资料1第一章绪论1/ What is linguistics?什么是语言学？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.2/ The scope of linguistics语言学的研究范畴The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics. （语音学）The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音系学）The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. （形态学）The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. （句法学）The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学）The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （语用学）The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics. （社会语言学）The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. （心理语言学）The study of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known as applied linguistics. （应用语言学）But in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language.Other related branches include anthropological linguistics, （人类语言学）neurological linguistics, （神经语言学）mathematical linguistics, （数字语言学）and computational linguistics. （计算机语言学）3/ Some important distinctions in linguistics语言学研究中的几对基本概念Prescriptive and descriptive 规定与描写If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “correct” or not.Synchronic and diachronic 共时和历时The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important.Speech and writing 口头语与书面语Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form. Reasons are: 1. Speech precedes writing; 2. There are still many languages that have only the spoken form; 3. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than the written.Langue and parole 语言和言语The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction between langue and parole early 20th century.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Competence and performance 语言能力和语言运用Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.He defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules.4/ What is language?语言的定义Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Sapir uses “ideas” “emotions” and “desires” in his definition. Hall, like S apir, treats language as a purely human institution. Chomsky’s definition is quite different, it focus on the purely structural properties of languages and to suggest that these properties can be investigated from a mathematically precise point of view.5/ Design features语言的甄别性特征Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. American linguist Charles Hockett specified twelve design features, five of which will be discussed here.Arbitrariness 语言的随意性Arbitrariness means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. It is not entirely arbitrary. Example: different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.Productivity 语言的创造性Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.Duality 语言的二重性The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meaning.Displacement 语言的移位性Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places.Cultural transmission 语言的文化传递性While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned anew. This indicates that language is culturally transmitted. It is passed down from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.《现代语言学》复习资料2Chapter 2 Phonology 音系学1. The phonic medium of language语言的声音媒介Speech and writing are the two media used by natural languages as vehicles for communication. Of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing. Speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises.For linguists, the study of sounds is of greater importance than that of writing.The limited ranges of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language (语言的声音媒介) . The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds （语音）.2．What is phonetics?什么是语音学？Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language；It is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.语音学研究的对象是语言的声音媒介，即人类语言中使用的全部语音。

语言学概论完整资料第一章语言和语言学1. 为什么语言和种族没有必然联系？答：语言能力和生理因素、心理因素有关，但语言不是一种生理现象，也不是一种心理现象，不是遗传的，而是一种社会现象。

语言完全是在一种语言环境中后天获得的，所以语言和种族没有必然联系。

2. 简答语言符号的特点。

答：（1）符号和语言，“能指”和“所指”。

能指是能够指称某种意义的成分，所指是给符号所指的意义内容创制了一个专门术语。

（2）语言符号的“任意性”。

符号的物质实体和表示的意义之间没有必然的理据关系，语言符号的物质实体和表示的意义之间也没有必然的理据关系，完全是任意的，约定俗成的。

（3）语言符号的强制性和可变性。

在同一社会、同一时代，对使用同一种语言的每一个社会成员来说是强制性的，而语言又是发展变化着的。

（4）语言符号的离散特性和线性特性。

话只能一个字一个字，一句话一句话地说，因此语言符号是离散的，而且在时间这根轴上是成线性排列的。

3. 组合关系和聚合关系的关系。

答：组合关系体现在一个语言单位和前一个语言单位或后一个语言单位，或和前后两个语言单位之间的关系，是横向关系。

聚合关系是在组合的某一个位臵上能够相互替换，有共同的特点，故能聚合归类。

组合是横向的结构关系，聚合是归类规则，有了组合、聚合关系，便展现出了整个语言平面，聚合关系是组合关系中体现出来的，或者说是从组合关系中分析出来的，而组合关系又表现为聚合类的线性序列。

所以组合关系和聚合关系是有机地统一，不可分割。

4. 解释“符号”答：符号指根据社会的约定俗成使用某种特定的物质实体来表示某种特定的意义而形成的实体和意义的结合体。

5. 解释“语言”答：语言是言语活动中同一社会群体共同掌握的，有规律可循而又成系统的那一部分，语言是均质的，是言语活动中的社会部分。

语言作为一种社会现象具有鲜明的地区性、民族性和历史性。

6. 口语和书面语的关系。

答：语言的客观存在形式首先是口语，第二种客观存在形式，是书面语。

第一章：语言与语言学A语言的特性：一、任意性与规约性1. 任意性：语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系。

2. 规约性：语言的形式和意义是约定俗称的关系。

二、二层性：指拥有两层结构这种特性，上层结构的单位由底层结构的元素构成，每层都有自身的组合规则。

（有限手段无限使用，人类交际最显著特征）三、创造性：指语言的能产性，这来源于语言的二层性和递归性。

四、移位性：指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体、时间和观点（好处：使得我们有可能用抽象的概念来交流或思考）B与动物语言区别：由于喉部结构的差异，不适合吐字发音。

但可使用手势语言C语言的功能：信息功能人际功能施为功能感情功能寒暄交谈娱乐功能元语言功能D语言学的发展脉络：一、传统语言学：1.从哲学角度思考（名实之争）：区分主语、谓、宾等逻辑成分概念、对语言起源问题的讨论2. 语文学习角度研究（梵文）：为阅读理解古代经典文献服务的3. 历史比较角度（主要比较印欧语系）：试图通过语言亲属关系的比较研究语言的发展规律，拟测它们共同母语（提供了科学的方法）二、现代语言学（20c，结构语言学）语言是一个符号系统，提出语言的线条性、任意性、“能指”（符号可感知）与“所指”（符号所代表的内容）、“组合关系”（两个同一性质的结构单位按照线性顺序组合的关系）与“聚合关系”（某一位置能够互相替代）（区分历时）更强调共时研究，重视排除历史干扰而对语言现状进行现实的描写区分“内部语言学”和“外部语言学”，认为语言学首先要进行语言系统和系统内部各个要素的研究。

E当代语言学三个主要流派的基本思想：生成语言学派：语言是人类内在化的能力，人类语言虽然差别很大但遵循的原则相同。

强调语法的天赋性、自主性，着重探索人类语言的机制、共性，同时探究各个语言的参数差异，即在探索人类语言共性的基础上探究各个语言的特点。

天赋假设：语言是天赋，儿童生下了就有普遍语法，婴儿言语获得过程是先天的“语言习得机制”。

语言学概论复习资料（全）语言学概论复习资料（全）语言学概论一、知识题（填空与选择）：1、语言的客观存在形式，首先表现为人与人之间的口头交际行为。

2、口语是第一性的，书面语是第二性的。

3、瑞典、挪威、丹麦三个国家使用同一个语言。

4、口语和书面语包括物理现象和心理现象。

5、口头交际活动有两个因素：语言和言语。

6、瑞士语言学家索绪尔的《普通语言学教程》开创了20世纪现代语言学的新局面。

7、语言系统是由语音系统、语汇系统、语法系统、语义系统组成。

8、在任何语言中，音调变化都是语调的主要构成因素。

9、音强变化在许多语言中有区别意义的作用。

10、音质是由声波的形式决定的。

11、音质是声音四要素中最重要的。

12、人体的发音器官包括发音的动力源、发音体、共鸣腔。

13、口腔、鼻腔和咽腔是人类共鸣腔。

14、语音的物理属性和生理属性是语音的自然属性。

15、[e][ ε][a][ u ][o ][ ][ ɑ]八个音被称作定位元音或标准元音。

16、辅音的音质决定于发音部位和发音方法。

17、音位变体分条件变体和自由变体。

18、音素之间存在着对立关系和互补关系。

19、韵母分成韵头、韵腹、韵尾。

20、常见的语流音变现象有同化、异化、脱落、弱化、增音。

21、同化又可分顺同化和逆同化。

22、从音位理论的角度看，最小的音段是音位。

音位的组合又可进一步划分为音节、音节组合、语句。

23、汉藏语系包括汉语、藏语、苗语。

印欧语系一般都是非声调语言，包括英语、法语、俄语等。

24、声调可从调值和调位两方面来分析。

25、重音可分为词重音和句重音。

26、语汇学包括语汇的类聚系统和语汇的构造形式。

27、根据音节的数量将词分成单音节词、双音节词和多音节词。

根据包含语素的数量将词分成单纯词和合成词。

28、古语词包括历史词语和文言词语。

根据词的不同来源分成新造词、古语词、方言词和外来词。

29、语法分为词法部分和句法部分。

30、语法单位通常分成语素、词、词组和句子。

语⾔学概论资料（按⼤纲整理）第⼀章语⾔和语⾔学第⼀节认识⼈类的语⾔⼀、语⾔的性质和类型1.只有⼈类才有语⾔【领会】语⾔是⼈类所独有的。

⼈类的语⾔跟动物的“语⾔”相⽐较，有⼏个显著和重要的特点：⼀是“内容更多”。

多种场合、多种⽅式、多种内容。

⼆是“⽤处更⼤”。

主要：交际功能。

其它：标志、记录、思维、认知，等等。

三是“能够创造”。

具有离散性，能⽤有限的声⾳和意义按照⼀定规则组配成⽆限的话语。

2.语⾔和民族、国家的关系【领会】⼤多数情况：⼀个民族使⽤⼀种语⾔。

但不能把“相互能够听懂”作为确定语⾔的标准，并进⼀步作为确定民族和国家的标准。

这种理解只适合于欧洲的“新兴民族国家”，对⼀个历史悠久、幅员辽阔的国家是不适应的。

尽管“语⾔”是最直观、最容易识别的民族标志，但事实上还不是最可靠的标志。

从⽬前了解到的情况来看，“共同的历史⽂化传统和由此产⽣的民族认同感”也许是维系⼀个民族的最根本的因素，因⽽也是确定⼀个民族的最根本的标准。

3.语⾔的谱系分类和语⾔的形态分类【领会】语⾔的谱系分类就是从“历时”演变⾓度划分不同的语⾔，是根据各种语⾔在语⾳、语汇、语法等⽅⾯是否有共同来源和相似性的⼤⼩对语⾔进⾏的分类。

也叫“语⾔的亲属关系分类”。

从语⾔的“共时”⾓度来划分不同的语⾔，可以建⽴“语⾔的形态分类”，也叫“语⾔的结构类型分类”。

可分为“形态语”和“孤⽴语”，或者分成“综合性语⾔”和“分析性语⾔”。

4.语系、语族；屈折语、孤⽴语；综合性语⾔、分析性语⾔【识记】谱系分类层级：语系、语族、（语⽀）、语⾔、⽅⾔、次⽅⾔（⼟语）。

语系是根据语⾔有⽆历史同源关系划分出来的语⾔类别，是语⾔谱系中最⼤的类。

语系的下⼀级叫作“语族”，同⼀语族的语⾔不但有相同的来源，相似点也更多。

形态语（综合性语⾔）指通过词的形态变化来体现各种结构意义的语⾔。

包括“屈折语、黏着语”等⼩类。

如俄语、维吾尔语。

孤⽴语（分析性语⾔）指没有形态变化的语⾔。

现代语言学复习资料教材购买：第一章绪论?. , .. (普通语言学), , . （语音学）. （音系学）. （形态学）. （句法学）. （语义学）. （语用学）. （社会语言学）. （心理语言学）( ) . （应用语言学）, , ., （人类语言学） , （神经语言学） , （数字语言学） . （计算机语言学）, , , ..., “” .; . , .., .:. ;. ;. , , .[ə'ə]. ., .. , .语言能力和语言运用. ’.’ , . .?“”“”“” ., , ., ...)., . ., . , . .), .), , , . , , . . ), , . . , .), , .**********************************音系学., . . “” ., .(语言的声音媒介) .（语音）.． ?；’ .（发音语音学）, ’ . .（听觉语音学），’ . .（声学语音学）， . ..咽腔口腔鼻腔语音解剖图发音器官图. (字母符号) , (宽式音标). (变音符号), (窄式音标). 音的比较[]是不送气音，在宽式音标中不作标示，写作：[]音的比较在元音前，叫清晰音，在宽式音标中不作标示，写作：[][][][]，在窄式音标中加变音符号[])塞音或爆破音: [] [] [] [] [] []擦音：[] [] [] [] [] [] [] [] []塞擦音：[][][] [][] [] [][] [])[] [] [] [][] [][] [][] [] [] [] [] [] [][][][][][] [] [][])前元音：[:] [] [] [] []中元音：[[:] [[] []后元音：[:] [] [:] [] [:])分：闭元音：[:] [] [:] []半闭元音：[] [[:]开元音：[] []半开元音：[[] [:] [] [] [:])圆唇元音：[:] [] [:] [])长元音[:] [[:][:] [:] [:]短元音[] [] [] [] [[] [] [] []音系学., ;, . ., ,. . .义。

全国2011年1月自学考试现代语言学试题课程代码：00830I . Directions: Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completesthe statement and put the letter A, B, C, or D in the brackets. (2% × 10=20% )1.There is a difference between what we know, which is our linguistic competence, and how we use this knowledge in actual speech production and______, which is our linguistic performance. ( )A. creationB. communicationC. comprehensionD. perception2.The sounds that begin and end the words church and judge are voiceless and voiced ______,respectively. ( )A. affricatesB. stopsC. velarsD. palatals3.Morphemes which represent such grammatical categories as number, tense, gender, and case are called _______ morphemes. ( )A. freeB. boundC. derivationalD. inflectional4.XP may contain more than just X. Phrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain head, ______and complement. ( )A. modifierB. determinerC. qualifierD. specifier5. ______ is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form while _______ deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and non-linguistic world of experience. ( )A. Reference, senseB. Sense, referentC. Sense, referenceD. Referent, sense6. According to John Austin’s theory of speech act, a(n) ______ act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention. ( )A. prelocutionaryB. locutionaryC. illocutionaryD. perlocutionary7. Sound changes may include the loss of a sound or sounds. The so-called apocope refers to the omission of a vowel segment________. ( )A. in word-initialB. in word-middleC. in word-finalD. in syllable-initial8. In contrast to Standard American English, Black English is the distinct variety of English native to black populations in第 1 页the USA. We regard Black English as________. ( )A. a regional dialectB. a social dialectC. a situational dialectD. an ethnic dialect9. Among the language centers, ______is responsible for physical articulation of utterances. ( )A. the motor areaB. Broca’s areaC. Wernicke’s areaD. the angular gyrus10. The language at ________ stage begins to reflect the distinction between sentence-types, such as negative sentences, imperatives, and questions. ( )A. prelinguisticB. one-wordC. two-wordD. multiwordII. Directions: Fill in the blank in each of the following statements with one word, the first letter of which is already given as a clue. Note that you are to fill in ONE word only, and you are not allowed to change the letter given.( 1%×10=10% )11. A is one of the defining properties of human language, which means there is in general no natural relation between meanings and sounds.12. Among the three branches of phonetics, the study of the physical properties of the streams of sounds produced in speech is known as a phonetics.13. In using the morphological rules, we must guard against o in that different words may require different affixes to create the same meaning change.14. Universal Grammar is a set of principles and p of grammar which, according to Chomsky, is inherited genetically by all human beings.15. The synonyms such as economical, thrifty, and stingy are different in their e meaning.16. Most of the violations of the four maxims under the Cooperative Principle give rise to conversational i .17. When there is a need to reduce ambiguity and increase communicative clarity or expressiveness, then rule e occurs.18. A pidgin is a m language developed as a medium of trade, or through other extended but limited contact, between groups of speakers who have no other language in common.19. The localization of cognitive and perceptual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain is called 1 .20. Language acquisition is concerned with language development in humans. Generally speaking, it refers to children’s development of their f language.III. Directions: Judge whether each of the following statements is true or false. Put a T for true or F for false in the brackets in front of each statement. If you think a statement is false, you must explain why you think so. ( 2% ×10=20% )21. ( ) “There’s a motorcycle coming" is seen as, out of context, a statement that a motorcycle is coming. But in a第 2 页particular context, it might be a warning to a pedestrian not to step onto a road. When the study of meaning is considered in the context of use, it becomes a branch of linguistics called pragmatics.22．( )To distinguish between phonemes and phones，linguists use slashes／／for phonetic segments and square brackets [ ] for phonemic segments．23．( )Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem and also change the part of speech of the original word．24．( )In addition to sentences and clauses，a syntactic category usually refers to a 1exical category or a phrasal category that performs a particular grammatical function．25．( )The word“flower”and “flour”，which are identical in sound，but different in spelling and meaning，are homophones．26．( )As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying meaning in a certain context，pragmatics can be regarded as a kind of meaning study.27．( )The meaning representation of words may change，becoming broader, narrower, or shifted．The word knight once meant “youth”，but was elevated in meaning in the age of chivalry；When Juliet tells Romeo，“I’m too fond.”She is not claiming she likes Romeo too much．She means “I am too foolish．”These are two examples of semantic broadening．28．( ) In sociolinguistics，speech community refers to a group of speakers who constitute a community and share the same language or a particular variety of language．Speakers of English in general might be treated as such a community.29．( )Generally speaking，the left hemisphere of the brain controls voluntary movements of, and responds to signals from，the right side of the body．30．( )The optimum age for SLA always accords with the maxim of’“the younger the better”．IV. Directions: Explanin the following terms and give examples for illustration where appropriate. (3% × 10=30% )31.displacement32.voicing33.morpheme34.finite clauseponential analysis36.declarations37.epenthesis38.speech variety39.linguistic relativism40.the nativist view of language acquisitionV. Directions: Answer the following questions.(10% × 2=20% )41. What is the distinction between langue and parole? Why did Saussure make such a distinction?第 3 页42. What are the differences between sentence meaning and utterance meaning? And give examples to illustrate them.第 4 页。

2）The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics.teaching and learning，especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. In a broad sense，it refers to the application of linguistic findings to the solution of practical problems such as the recovery of speech ability。

The study of a language at some point in time. e。

g. A study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time is a synchronic study.5)。

A diachronic study of language is a historical study，which studies the historical development of language over a period of time。

e.g. a study of the changes English has undergone since Shakespeare’s time is a diachronic study。

deal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language。

A transformational—generative grammar（转化生成语法）is a model of language competence.7）performance is the actual realization of the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules in linguistic communication.：Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow; Langue is relatively stable，it does not change frequently。

现代语言学复习资料教材购买：第一章绪论?. , .. (普通语言学), , . （语音学）. （音系学）. （形态学）. （句法学）. （语义学）. （语用学）. （社会语言学）. （心理语言学）( ) . （应用语言学）, , ., （人类语言学） , （神经语言学） , （数字语言学） . （计算机语言学）, , , ..., “” .; . , ., .:. ;. ;. , , .[ə'ə]. ., .. , .语言能力和语言运用. ’.’ , . .?.“”“”“” ., , ., .甄别性特征..)., . ., . , . .), .), , , . , , . . ), , . . , .), , .**********************************音系学., . . “” ., .(语言的声音媒介) .（语音）.． ?；’ .（发音语音学）, ’ . .（听觉语音学），’ . .（声学语音学）， . ..咽腔口腔鼻腔语音解剖图发音器官图–. (字母符号) , (宽式音标). (变音符号), (窄式音标). 音的比较[][]音的比较在元音前，叫清晰音，在宽式音标中不作标示，写作：[][][][]，在窄式音标中加变音符号[])发音方式分塞音或爆破音: [] [] [] [] [] []擦音：[] [] [] [] [] [] [] [] []塞擦音：[][][] [][] [] [][] [])[] [] [] [][] [][] [][] [] [] [] [] [] [][][][][][] [] [][])前元音：[:] [] [] [] []中元音：[[:] [[] []后元音：[:] [] [:] [] [:])闭元音：[:] [] [:] []半闭元音：[] [[:]开元音：[] []半开元音：[[] [:] [] [] [:])不圆唇元音：[:] [] [] [] [] [[:] [[] [] [:] 圆唇元音：[:] [] [:] [])长元音[:] [[:][:] [:] [:]短元音[] [] [] [] [[] [] [] []音系学., ;, . ., ,. . .定能区分意义。

现代语言学知识点第一章、绪论Introduction1、语言学的主要分支是什么。

每个分支的研究对象是什么？Linguistics mainly involves the following branches:General linguistics, which is the study of language as a whole and which deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study Phonetics, which studies the sounds that are used in linguistic communicationPhonology, which studies how sounds are put together and used in communicationMorphology, which studies the way in which morphemes are arranged to form wordsSyntax, which studies how morphemes and words are combined to form sentencesSemantics, which is the study of meaning in language.Pragmatics, which is the study of meaning not in isolation, but in context of useSociolinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to societyPsycholinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to the workings of mind.Applied linguistics, which is concerned about the application of linguistic findings in linguistic studies; In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Other related branches are anthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics, mathematical linguistics, andcomputational linguistics.2、现代语言学与传统语法有什么区别？Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) written language . It sets models for language users to follow. But Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic, and mainly spoken language data. It is supposed to be scientific and objective and the task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is "correct" or not.3、什么叫共时研究？什么叫历时研究？The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A synchronic study of language describes a language as it is at some particular point in rime, while a diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.4、人类语言的甄别性特征是什么？1) Arbitrariness 。

现代语言学教程整理笔记第一章绪论1/ What is linguistics?什么是语言学？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.2/ The scope of linguistics语言学的研究范畴The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics. （语音学）The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音系学）The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. （形态学）The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. （句法学）The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学）The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （语用学）The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics. （社会语言学）The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. （心理语言学）The study of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known as applied linguistics. （应用语言学）But in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language.Other related branches include anthropological linguistics, （人类语言学）neurological linguistics, （神经语言学）mathematical linguistics, （数字语言学）and computational linguistics. （计算机语言学）3/ Some important distinctions in linguistics语言学研究中的几对基本概念Prescriptive and descriptive 规定与描写If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “correct” or not.Synchronic and diachronic 共时和历时The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important.Speech and writing 口头语与书面语Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form. Reasons are: 1. Speech precedes writing; 2. There are still many languages that have only the spoken form; 3. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than the written.Langue and parole 语言和言语The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction between langue and parole early 20th century.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Competence and performance 语言能力和语言运用Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.He defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules.4/ What is language?语言的定义Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Sapir uses “ideas”“emotions” and “desires” in his definition. Hall, like Sapir, treats language as a purely human institution. Chomsky’s definition is quite different, it focus on the purely structural properties of languages and to suggest that these properties can be investigated from a mathematically precise point of view.5/ Design features语言的甄别性特征Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. American linguist Charles Hockett specified twelve design features, five of which will be discussed here.Arbitrariness 语言的随意性Arbitrariness means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. It is not entirely arbitrary.Example: different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages. Productivity 语言的创造性Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.Duality 语言的二重性The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meaning.Displacement 语言的移位性Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places.Cultural transmission 语言的文化传递性While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned anew. This indicates that language is culturally transmitted. It is passed down from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.Chapter 2 Phonology 音系学1.The phonic medium of language语言的声音媒介Speech and writing are the two media used by natural languages as vehicles for communication. Of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing. Speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises.For linguists, the study of sounds is of greater importance than that of writing.The limited ranges of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language (语言的声音媒介) . The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds （语音）. 2．What is phonetics?什么是语音学？Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language；It is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.语音学研究的对象是语言的声音媒介，即人类语言中使用的全部语音。

Chapter 1 Introduction 绪论1 什么是语言学what is linguistics?1.1 定义definitionLinguistics is generally defined as scientific study of language.1.2 语言学的研究范畴the scope of linguisticsa. The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.把语言作为一个整体而进行的全面的语言学研究一般称为普通语言学。

b. The study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of a branch of linguistics calledphonetics.语音学How speech sounds are produced and classified.c. how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.how sounds form systems and function to convey meaning. phonology音位学/ 音系学交际中语音的组合规律及传达意义的方式d. The study of the way in which these symbols are arranged to form words has constituted the branch of studycalled morphology.形态学how morphemes are combined to form words.这些符号通过排列组合而成构成语词，对于这种排列组合方式的研究构成了语言学研究的另一个分支如对形态学的研究。