A2 Centre of gravity of a body(TG)

Aabc classificiation abc分类法Accomplish a Bill of Lading to 付单提货Act of God 天灾activity cost pool 作业成本集activity-based costing 作业基准成本法Ad valorem freight 从价运费Address commission Addcomm 回扣佣金advanced shipping notice asn 预先发货通知A fixed day sailing 定日航班A fortnight sailing 双周班A FridayTuesday / Thursdaysailing 周五班agile manufacturing 敏捷制造Air Express 航空快递Air Waybill 航空运单Alliance 联盟All in rate 总运费率All purposes A.P 全部装卸时间All time saved a.t.s 节省的全部时间allocation―――中转AMT Advanced Manufacturing Technology 先进制造技术Annual survey 年度检验anticipation inventory 预期储备Arbitrator 仲裁员Area differential 地区差价AS/RS automated storage/retrieval system 自动化仓储系统Article reserves物品储备ATP available to promise 可供销售量automatic replenishment ar 自动补货系统automatic warehouse 自动化仓库Automatic guided vehicle AGV自动导引车automated high-rise warehouse 自动立体仓库BBackfreight 回程运费back-hauls―――回程空载Back return load 回程货backlog 拖欠定单back order 脱期定单, 延期交货成本back order costs;bar code 条形吗Bill of Lading 提单bill of materials 物料清单Blank Endorsement 空白备书body车身engine body机体Bonded Area 保税区Bonded Goods Goods in Bond 保税货物bonded warehouse 保税仓库BOR bill of resource 资源清单Bottom 船体box 盒子BP Base Port 基本港Breakbulk 零担Breakbulk cargo 零担货物Breakage-proof 防破损Bulk cargo 散装货Bulk carrier 散货船Bulk container 散货集装箱bundle Bd 捆包装单位Bunker Adjustment Factor Surcharge BAS or BS 燃油附加费Bunker escalation clause 燃料涨价条款business logistics 企业物流business plan 经营规划CCAD computer-aided design 计算机辅助设计CAM computer-aided manufacturing 计算机辅助制造can/tin 罐装,听装CAO Computer assisted ordering 计算机辅助订货系统capacity level 能力利用水平capacity management 能力管理capacity requirements planning 能力需求计划capital payoff 投资回收CAPP computer-aided process planning 计算机辅助工艺设计Car container 汽车集装箱Cargo availability at destination in 货物运抵目的地Cargo Canvassing 揽货Cargo tank 货箱Cargo tracer 短少货物查询单carrying cost 保管费Carryings 运输量carton 纸板箱,纸箱cask 桶casket 小箱case 箱CASE computer-aided software engineering 计算机辅助软件工程centre of gravity 重心点centre of gtavity of-set 重心偏斜CFS/CFS S/S This CFS to CFS service means : 站到站CFS/CY S/Y This CFS to CY service means : 站到场Channel of Distribution 分销渠道Chargeable Weight 计费重量Chartered Carrier 包机运输Chassis 集装箱拖车, 底盘chest 箱Chill space冷藏区CIMS computer integrated manufacturing system 计算机集成制造系统Claims adjuster 理赔人closed-loop MRP 闭环MRPClosing date 截至日clutch离合器Coastal Transport 沿海运输coil 捆,盘装Cold chain冷链Combined transport联合运输COMMS Customer Oriented Manufacturing Management System 面向客户制造管理系统Competitors 竞争对手computer assisted ordingcao 计算机辅助订货系统Congestion 拥挤Congestion surcharge 拥挤费Con-ro ship 集装箱/滚装两用船Consign 托运Consignee 收货人Consignment 托运；托运的货物Consignor 发货人Consolidation 集中托运Consolidation groupage 拼箱Construction Rate 比例运价container 集装箱Container Freight Station CFS 集装箱货运站Container leasing 集装箱租赁Container Load Plan 集装箱装箱单Container terminal集装箱码头Container transport集装箱运输Containerised 已装箱的,已集装箱化的Containerization集装化Contamination of cargo 货物污染continuous process 连续流程continuous replenishment program CRP 连续补充库存计划contract logistics 合同物流Contract of Affreightment COA 包运合同Contributory value 分摊价值Controlled Carrier 受控承运人Conventional Container Ship 集装箱两用船Conveyor输送机Conveyor belt 传送带corrosive 腐蚀性物品cost driver 作业成本发生因素cost driver rate 作业成本发生因素单位费用costed BOM 成本物料单cost of stockout 短缺损失cost roll-up 成本滚动计算法Couriers UPS/TNT/HDS/EMS 快递Crane 起重机critical path method 关键路线法critical ratio 紧迫系数critical work center 关键工作中心Currency Adjustment Factor CAF 货币贬值附加费current standart cost 现行标准成本customer deliver leadtime 客户交货提前期customized logistics 定制物流customization logistics 定制物流Customs declaration报关cycle counting 循环盘点cycle stock 订货处理周期DDaily running cost 日常营运成本Damage for Detention 延期损失Deadweight weight cargo 重量货Deadweight cargo carryingcapacity 载货量demand cycle 需求周期demand management 需求管理demonstrated capacity 纪实能力Demurrage 滞期费discrete manufacturing 离散型生产Distribution配送distribution centredc 配送分拨中心distribution logistics 销售物流,生产企业、流通企业出售商品时,物品在供方之间的实体流动distribution processing 流通加工distribution requirement planningdrp i 配送需求计划distribution resource planning drp ii 配送资源计划DMRP distributed MRP 分布式MRPDoor to door 门到门运输Downtime 设备故障时间drop shipment 直运DRP distribution resource planning 分销资源计划drum 圆桶Dry cargo 干货Eearliest due date 最早定单完成日期ECO engineering change order/notice 设计变更通知ECR Efficient customer response有效客户反应EDI electronic datainterchange 电子数据交换engineering BOM 工程物料清单ETO engineer-to-order 专项生产economic order quantityeoq 经济订货批量efficient customer response ecr 有效客户反应electronic data interchange EDI 电子数据交换electronic order system EOS 电子订货系统Elevator 卸货机enterprise resource planning erp 企业资源计划Entrepot 保税货environmental logistics 绿色物流ergonomics 工效学EOQ economic order quantity 经济定货量法EOS Electronic order system电子订货系统Equipment 设备常指集装箱Equipment handover charge 设备使用费Equipment utilization设备利用率Europallet 欧式托盘Exception 异议Exceptions clause 免责条款Expiry of laytime 装卸欺瞒explosive 爆炸品external logistics 社会物流, 企业外部的物流活动的总称Extreme breadth 最大宽度FFAS final assembly schedule 总装进度Fairway 航道favorable variance 有利差异FCS finite capacity scheduling 有限能力计划feature 特征件Feeder service 支线运输服务financial accounting 财务会计financial entity 财务实体fixed-interval system fis 定期订货方式fixed period requirements 定期用量法fixed-quantity systemfqs 定量订货方式flatbed拖车Flatcar平板车floor stock,bulk item 作业现场库存flow of exchange商流flow of material物流flow of cash 资金流FMS flexible manufacturing system 柔性制造系统Fork lift truck叉车Force majeure 不可抗力forklift叉车,叉式升降装卸车Fork-lift truck 铲车formal system 规范化管理系统form utility形状效应forward scheduling 顺排计划FOQ fixed order quantity 固定批量法fragile 易碎品frame车架Freeboard 干Freeze space冷冻区Freight collect freight payable at destination 运费到付Freight prepaid 运费预付Freight quotation 运费报价Freight rate rate of freight 运费率Freight tariff 运费费率表Freighter 货船fuel supply system供给系full-load满载full-service distribution company fsdc 全方位物流服务公司Ggross requirements 毛需求Gross weightGW 毛重Hhandle with care 小心轻放Handling/carrying搬运hedge inventory 囤积库存High density cargo 重货Hire statement 租金单Iintegrated logistics 综合物流internal logistics企业物流international logistics 国际物流In-transit inventory在途库存inventory 库存inventory control 存货控制inventory cycle time 库存周期inventory turnover/turns 库存资金周转次数item,material,part 物料item master,material master 物料主文件. Kkeep upright 勿倒置keep in a dry place 在干燥处保管keep in a cool place 在冷处保管keep away from boilers 远离锅炉keep away from heat 请勿受热keep away from cold 请勿受冷keep dry 防湿kecp away fom moisture 怕湿keep away form cold 怕冷Llogistics activity 物流活动logistics alliance 物流联盟logistics centre 物流中心logistics cost 物流成本Logistics cost control物流成本管理logistics documents 物流单证logistics enterprise 物流企业logistics industry 物流产业logistics modulus 物流模数logistics network 物流网络logistics operation 物流作业Logistics resource planning LRP物流资源计划Logistics strategy物流战略Loglstics strategy management物流战略管理losgistics resource planning lrp 物流资源计划lot size inventory 批量库存lot sizing 批量规则Mmanufacturing BOM 制造物料清单Manufacturing resource planning MRPⅡ制造资源计划Material requirements planning MRP物料需求计划 marginal cost边际成本master scheduler 主生产计划员material available 物料可用量material management 物料管理material manager 物料经理material requirement planning mrp i 物料需求计划MIS management information system 管理信息系统MPS master production schedule 主生产计划OOrder B/L 指示提单Order cycle――订货周期Order cycle time定货处理周期ordering cost 定货费order picking 拣选Outturn 卸货Outturn report 卸货报告Over weight surcharge 超重附加费PPackage/packaging包装place utility空间效应planned order releases 计划投入量planned capacity 计划能力planned order 计划定单planned order receipts 计划产出量planning BOM 计划物料单projected available balance 预计可用库存量Promotional rate 促销费率production activity control 生产作业控制production cycle 生产周期proposed cost 建议成本Prospects 预期QQuantity Gross 毛需求量Quick response QR快速反应Quote 报价Rradioactive 放射性物品radio frequency rf 无线射频Railcar有轨车Ramp 跳板Rate 费率Rated capacity 额定能力Rate of demurrage 滞期费率Rate of discharge discharging 卸货率Rate of freight 运费率Rate of loading 装货Registration 登记,报到SSafety stock安全库存Salve 救助Salvor 救助人sorting 分拣standard cost system 标准成本体系stereoscopic warehouse 立体仓库Stocktaking――盘点Storage保管storage duration n.存储期Storehouse库房Storing储存supply chain 供应链supply chain managementscm 供应链管理supply chian integration 供应链整合synchronous manufacturing 同步制造Tthird-party logistics TPL 第三方物流time fence 时界time zone 时区time utility――时间效应TOC Theory of Constraints 约束理论Total deadweight TDW 总载重量transit time 传送时间transportation inventory,pipeline stock 在途库存UUnload 卸货Unmoor 解揽Upward 向上,由下往上VValue-added logistics service 增值物流服务Value-added network 增值网Value-added chain 增值链Value chain 价值链Vendor managed inventory vmi 供应商管理库存Virtual logistics 虚拟物流Virtual organization 虚拟企业Virtual warehouse 虚拟仓库Volume variance 产量差异Wwait time 等待时间Warehouse仓库warning mark 警告性标志warehouse 仓库warehouse layout 仓库布局warehouse management system wms 仓库管理系统Waybill 货运单Weather working day 晴天工作日Weather working days W.W.D 良好天气工作日Weather-bound 天气阻挠Weight cargo 重量货Weight or measure measurement W/M 重量/体积Wharf 码头Working day 工作日Working time saved w.t.s. 节省的装卸时间work-in-process inventory—在制品库存work center 工作中心work flow 工作流work order 车间定单Zzero inventory 零库存。

Lesson planA LGODOO L ESSON SC REATE S CENES WITH A LGODOO C ENTEROFG RAVITYT IPPING T RUCK T HE S EESAW F RICTIONOF AS LIDING O BJECTG ALILEO ’ S I NCLINED P LANES T WO T RACK P ROBLEM F REE F ALL P ARACHUTING M OTION R OLLING D OWN A R AMP F LOATANDS INKR EFLECTION AND R EFRACTION T ANGRAM M IRRORS M ARBLE P YRAMID R AINBOW M ODEL S WING W HY ARE W HEELS C IRCULAR IN S HAPE ? G AS S PRINGS A RCH C ONSTRUCTION W ATER T OWER G EARS AND C HAINS , R OPES AND P ULLEYSTHEP LAYGROUNDMore lessons at Lesson planC REATE S CENESTarget Description Learning objectives Time frame In classWITHA LGODOOTeachers, students Getting familiar with the Algodoo environment, the tools and menus by creating a scene and interacting with it. Getting familiar with the Algodoo environment 30 – 60 min Let the students explore the possibilities of Algodoo. Browse through the menus to see what is in there. By choosing File:Load scene you can load different scenes. The simulation can be started and stopped at any time. The accelerometer can be turned off and on. While the simulation is running you can pull objects by using the hand tool. You can add new objects any time. Your simulation is saved by choosing File:Save scene.C REATE1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12YOUR SCENECreate planes, one on each wall/floor/ceiling. Use at least two boxes Use at least two circles. Use at least one spring. Make at least one free form. Tilt the device to make use of the accelerometer. Use the CSG-tool to create an object. Use the knife to cut objects into pieces Change properties (color, material) of one of the objects. Take a snapshot with the camera and add the object to your scene Add a hinge and assign a motor to it. Create something that moves by using hinges, motor, or by constructing own driving arrangements. Add a pen to an object in order to follow its trajectory14 15 16 17 18 19 20Turn on force and velocity visualization Interact with the objects by pulling them. Add new objects. Turn one of the objects into water. Turn off and on gravity. Turn off and on air drag. Save your scene.13More lessons at Lesson planC ENTRETargetOF GRAVITYTeacher: Key Stage 3 (ages 11-14) This lesson plan is not intended to be handed out to students but to be use as a teacher preparation and tutorial. The centre of gravity of a body is the point in which the mass of the body can be concentrated. Gravity acts as if all the mass of the body is concentrated in that point. This lesson allows the student to explore the concept of gravity and to find the centre of gravity of an irregular body. Understand and explain the concept of centre of gravity. Discuss methods of finding centre of gravity of an irregular body. Model a situation for centre of gravity and create an interactive simulation. 30-60 min centre of gravity, mass Discuss the centre of gravity. What does it mean and what effect does this phenomenon have in real life? How can the centre of gravity of a body be found? Discuss possible ways of doing this with the class and put up suggestions on the board. Discuss how this can be visualized and explored in Algodoo using the Classmate PC. Let the students create scenes in Algodoo using the suggestions you came up with together or let them use their own ideas. Help the students make decisions and ask guiding questions. Encourage the students to follow the procedure Create – Predict – Interact – Evaluate. Allow the students to follow-up and share their experiences in class after the simulation.DescriptionLearning objectives Time frame Keywords In classCreate a scene Create an irregular body, using for example the brush and the CGS-tool, or use the camera to take a picture of your friend and use her shape. Cleancut the picture and suspend the body using a hinge. Make a prediction Estimate the center of gravity. Run/Interact Start the simulation. The body will probably start oscillating so it might be necessary to help stopping it using the hand tool. When still, glue a massless, vertical, straight line from the hinge. Choose another spot for the hinge and glue another massless, vertical line. Repeat a couple of times to get 3-4 lines through centre of gravity. Evaluate Where do the lines intersect? Compare with the gravity vector.More lessons at Lesson planT IPPINGTargetTRUCKTeacher: Key Stage 3 (ages 11-14) This lesson plan is not intended to be handed out to students but to be use as a teacher preparation and tutorial. Investigate the critical point when a truck is tipping over. The position of centre of gravity is crucial for the balance of a body. This lesson allows the student to explore the concept of gravity and to find consequences rising from the position of centre of gravity. The example explores what causes a loaded truck to tip over, when does a book fall off a table and when does a person loose balance. Understand and explain the concept of centre of gravity. Understanding consequences of the position of the centre of gravity of an object. Understand and explain why an objects tips over/looses balance. Model a situation which demonstrates tipping over and create an interactive simulation. 30-60 min centre of gravity, mass Discuss the centre of gravity. What makes an object tip over? What does it mean and what consequences does this phenomenon have in real life? Discuss possible situations of “tipping over” in class and put up suggestions on the board. Discuss how this can be visualized and explored in Algodoo using the Classmate PC. Let the students create scenes in Algodoo using the suggestions you came up with together or let them use their own ideas. Help the students make decisions and ask guiding questions. Encourage the students to follow the procedure Create – Predict – Interact – Evaluate. Allow the students to follow-up and share their experiences in class after the simulation.DescriptionLearning objectivesTime frame Keywords In classCreate a scene Create a plane and make sure friction is high enough to prevent sliding. Create a number of “trucks” by using boxes with different density modeling different ways of loading a truck. The truck should be seen from the rear. Make a prediction Which truck will tip over first when the plane is tilted? Run/Interact Start the simulation. Tilt the Classmate PC and watch the trucks tip over. Evaluate Why do the trucks tip over? How should the truck be loaded in order to prevent tipping over? Where is the centre of gravity? Note: Observe the position of the gravity vector. Revise scene Rearrange the loading in the trucks in order to make them more stable. Make a prediction How much can the plane be tilted before a truck will tip over? Which truck will tip over first?Run/Interact Start the simulation. Tilt the Classmate PC and watch the trucks tip over. Evaluate Why do the trucks tip over? How should the truck be loaded in order to prevent tipping over? What consequences may this have in real life situations?More lessons at Lesson planT HESEESAWTeacher: Key Stage 3 (ages 11-14) This lesson plan is not intended to be handed out to students but to be use as a teacher preparation and tutorial. This lesson allows the student to explore the balance of a seesaw. By adding weights to both sides the seesaw can be kept in balance when using different fulcrums. The relation between mass and distance from the fulcrum can be investigated and give an understanding about lever arms and moment of forces (torques). The example also opens for creating and working with balance scales. Understand the relation between mass and distance to maintain balance of a seesaw. Understand the basic principles for a weight scale. Understand what a lever arm is and its relation to moment of force. Model a situation for balance and create an interactive simulation. 30-60 min centre of gravity, moment of force (torque), lever arm Discuss balance of a seesaw. How is it constructed and how does is look when no one is playing with it? What happens when kids of different sizes start playing it? Does it depend where they sit, how tall they are, what mass they have? Discuss different aspects of playing with a seesaw in class and put up suggestions on the board. How can the centre of gravity of a seesaw be found? Discuss how this can be visualized and explored in Algodoo using the Classmate PC. Let the students create scenes in Algodoo using the suggestions you came up with together or let them use their own ideas. Help the students make decisions and ask guiding questions. Encourage the students to follow the procedure Create – Predict – Interact – Evaluate. Allow the students to follow-up and share their experiences in class after the simulation.. Evaluate What happens when an object is moved towards or from the fulcrum respectively? What is the relation between mass of the object and distance from the fulcrum? Relate the mass of the object to the normal force and gravity. Suggestions for additional scenes modeling center of gravity, moment of force and lever arm Balancing book: When does the book fall off the table? Create a book sticking out from a table and find the critical point when the book falls to the floor. Falling friend: What makes your friend fall with respect to centre of gravity? Take a picture of you friend, clean-cut and stand her on the floor. Tilt the device until she falls. Weight scales: How is a simple scale constructed? Create a scale and use if for weighing different objects.TargetDescriptionLearning objectivesTime frame Keywords In classCreate a scene Create a plane. Create a seesaw with a fulcrum and a long rectangular box. Create objects with different sizes and densities and spread them on the seesaw. Or use the camera and take pictures of your friends and yourself. Make a prediction When is the seesaw in balance? How does the seesaw’s own mass influence balance? Run/Interact Start the simulation. Move the objects on the seesaw to make it balanced. Tilt the Classmate PC and observe what happens.More lessons at Lesson planF RICTIONTargetOF AS LIDING O BJECTDescriptionLearning objectivesTime frame Keywords In classTeacher: Key Stage 3 (ages 11-14) This lesson plan is not intended to be handed out to students but to be use as a teacher preparation and tutorial. Friction is an important concept in understanding motion. This lesson allows the student to explore friction between different types of materials. How does an object behave when it lies on a surface? What happens when the surface is inclined? What influence does the material of the surface have on the motion? Distinguish between high friction and low friction. Understand friction as a force. Know about the influence of mass on friction. Know about the influence of contact area on friction. 30-60 min friction, force, velocity Discuss the properties of different surfaces. What does high and low friction means? Discuss everyday situations when high friction is useful (tires on cars and bicycles, shoes, gloves) and when low friction is useful (skating, skiing, playground slides). What happens in a slope with high and low friction respectively? Discuss how this can be visualized and explored in Algodoo using the Classmate PC. Let the students create scenes in Algodoo using the suggestions you came up with together or let them use their own ideas. Help the students make decisions and ask guiding questions. Encourage the students to follow the procedure Create – Predict – Interact – Evaluate. Allow the students to follow-up and share their experiences in class after the simulation. Create several parallel planes using rectangular boxes of different materials. Add a stopper on each end to prevent the box from falling off the track. Use identical boxes on each track to watch the simultaneous sliding down the planes with different friction properties. Investigate the influence on contact area on friction by using boxes of different sizes. Make sure the boxes have the same mass. Investigate the influence of mass on friction by assigning different mass to the boxes.Create a scene Use four planes to create a room with floor, ceiling and walls. Assign different frictions/materials to the planes. Turn on force and velocity vector visualization. Use a small box to investigate friction by letting it slide on the surfaces.Make a prediction Are there differences in how the box is picking up speed when sliding down the different surfaces? Why? Run/Interact Start the simulation and watch the box slide down the different planes. Tilt the Classmate PC and make the box slide down all planes. Evaluate What happens when the angle of the plane is increased? Decreased? Is it the same for all planes? Develop sceneNote: Use velocity vectors to estimate sliding speed. Stopping the simulation freezes the motion with the vector representations still present. The simulation can also be run in slow motion by decreasing simulation speed.More lessons at Lesson planG ALILEO ’ S I NCLINED P LANESTarget Teacher: Key Stage 3 (ages 11-14) This lesson plan is not intended to be handed out to students but to be use as a teacher preparation and tutorial. Galileo used rolling balls on inclined planes to develop his understanding of acceleration. He did not have proper timing devices to measure the high speeds of free fall and used different angles of inclined planes to model different accelerations. The greater the slope of the incline, the greater the acceleration of the ball. Galileo found a ball rolling down a certain incline picked up same amount of speed for each second. That gain is acceleration. Model the acceleration of a falling object using Galileo’s inclined planes. Understand the influence of gravity on an object. 30-60 min gravity, free fall, acceleration, velocity, force Discuss how something on a plane can be set into motion. Discuss the experiment that Galileo performed in order to understand the motion of free fall. Why did he do this experiment? Discuss how this can be visualized and explored in Algodoo using the Classmate PC. Let the students create scenes in Algodoo using the suggestions you came up with together or let them use their own ideas. Help the students make decisions and ask guiding questions. Encourage the students to follow the procedure Create – Predict – Interact – Evaluate. Allow the students to follow-up and share their experiences in class after the simulation. Evaluate Which plane is faster? Which ball is picking up the most speed for each second? Is it possible to check how much speed the balls are picking up? Run the simulation again and check for velocities. Observe which forces that are involved in the motion. What is the acceleration of the vertical plane? Is there a pattern in how speed is picked up for each plane? Run/Interact Run the simulation as an experiment. Make sure that velocity representation and values are turned on. Use a timer and pause the simulation every second. Write down the velocity for each box in a table. Plot velocity as a function of time and study the graphs. Evaluate What does the slope of the graph mean?DescriptionLearning objectives Time frame Keywords In classCreate a scence Create five rectangular boxes as planes and rotate them to the different angles between 0° and 90°. Make the planes frictionless. Use identical boxes to slide down the planes. A rectangular box, fixed to the background, can be used as a starting device. Remove the shelf at the start to make the boxes start simultaneously.Make a prediction Which box reaches the end of its plane first? Run/Interact Start the simulation and watch the boxes slide down the planes.More lessons at Lesson planT WOTRACK PROBLEMTeacher: Key Stage 3 (ages 11-14) This lesson plan is not intended to be handed out to students but to be use as a teacher preparation and tutorial. This problem explores the behaviour of two objects rolling on different tracks. How does the shape of the track influence the motion of the balls? The slope causes a gain in speed which will give a higher average speed through the track. The example illustrates how a change in direction means acceleration. It is also possible to discuss how speed and acceleration can be broken up into components parallel and vertical to the ground. Understanding how speed can be gained by a slope Acceleration means change in direction or speed. 30-60 min acceleration, velocity, gravity, force Draw the problem on the whiteboard and ask the students which one of the balls reaches the end of the track first. Discuss different aspects of what might influence the motion. Discuss how this can be visualized and explored in Algodoo using the Classmate PC. Let the students create scenes in Algodoo using the suggestions you came up with together or let them use their own ideas. Help the students make decisions and ask guiding questions. Encourage the students to follow the procedure Create – Predict – Interact – Evaluate. Allow the students to follow-up and share their experiences in class after the simulation.TargetDescriptionLearning objectives Time frame Keywords In classCreate a scene Make the two tracks using rectangular boxes. Try to make smooth transitions in order to prevent bouncing. Assign steel to the balls and set the restitution to zero in order to prevent bouncing of the balls. Make a prediction Which boll reaches the end of its track first? Run/Interact Collect the bets and start the simulation and watch the ball roll on the two tracks. Note: Run the simulation without velocity representation first. Evaluate How can we explain that the ball that roll the longest way reaches the finish first? Discuss changes in velocity. In which places do we have acceleration and how does that affect the motion? Run/Interact Run the simulation again and use velocity vector representation to discuss how the box is gaining speed in the slope. Evaluate Which type of track is fastest? Is a straight track always slower than an up-and-down-track? Make different tracks to check different hypothesis. Measure the speed of the ball at different places on both tracks and calculate the average speeds.More lessons at Lesson planF REE F ALLTarget Teacher: Key Stage 3 (ages 11-14) This lesson plan is not intended to be handed out to students but to be use as a teacher preparation and tutorial. What variables influence free fall? This lesson treats motion when there are no forces in contact with the object. Free fall – falling under the influence of gravitational acceleration only. Air drag – the influence of air drag of a falling object 30-60 min free fall, gravity, air drag, force Drop an object. Discuss what aspects that might influence the motion (mass, shape, falling height). Discuss everyday experiences such as falling leaves, feathers, rocks, parachutists. Collect suggestion from the students and list them on the whiteboard. Discuss possible causes of the falling motion, gravity, air drag. Discuss how this can be visualized and explored in Algodoo using the Classmate PC. Let the students create scenes in Algodoo using the suggestions you came up with together or let them use their own ideas. Help the students make decisions and ask guiding questions. Encourage the students to follow the procedure Create – Predict – Interact – Evaluate. Allow the students to follow-up and share their experiences in class after the simulation.Description Learning objectives Time frame Keywords In classF REE F ALLCreate a scene Create planes to work as ground in all directions. Create a number of objects with different shapes and masses for comparison. Make a small light ball, a large heavy ball, assign different materials to the same shape. Make a large featherlight object likely to fall slowly. Tilt the Classmate PC and let all the objects starts from one of the planes. Make sure that Air drag is turned off.F ALL WITH A IR D RAGRevise the scene Turn on Air drag. Use the same objects as with the previous scene.Make a prediction Which object should come down first? Run/Interact Tilt the Classmate PC and watch the objects fall under the influence of gravity only. Evaluate Which object fell to the ground first? Why? Compare velocities of the falling objects.Make a prediction Which object will now come down first? Run/Interact Tilt the Classmate PC and watch the objects fall under the influence of air drag and gravity. Evaluate Are there differences in how the objects fall? Compare velocities of the falling objects.More lessons at Lesson planP ARACHUTINGTarget Teacher: Key Stage 3 (ages 11-14) This lesson plan is not intended to be handed out to students but to be use as a teacher preparation and tutorial. This lesson discusses what makes parachutists fall at different speeds, with and without parachute. By manipulating the body to different shapes the parachutist can control his falling velocity. Air drag due to the body only is a lot smaller than when after the parachute is open. Free fall – falling under the influence of gravitational acceleration only. Air drag – the influence of air drag of a falling object 30-60 min free fall, gravity, air drag, force, terminal velocity Draw the problem on the whiteboard and ask the students which one of the balls reaches the end of the track first. Discuss different aspects of what might influence the motion. Collect aspects from the students and list them on the whiteboard (gravity, mass, size, shape, air drag, falling height, etc) Discuss how this can be visualized and explored in Algodoo using the Classmate PC. Let the students create scenes in Algodoo using the suggestions you came up with together or let them use their own ideas. Help the students make decisions and ask guiding questions. Encourage the students to follow the procedure Create – Predict – Interact – Evaluate. Allow the students to follow-up and share their experiences in class after the simulation. Run/Interact Tilt the Classmate PC and watch the parachutists falling.DescriptionLearning objectives Time frame Keywords In classCreate a scene Draw two parachutists or use the camera to take pictures of your friends. Make one of them twice as heavy as the other. Create planes on each side of the screen in order to have “ground” in all directions. Make a prediction Which parachutist will hit the ground first if there is no air drag? Run/Interact Tilt the Classmate PC and watch the parachutists falling.Make a prediction With air drag, which parachutist will now hit the ground first? Evaluate Compare the velocities. How does air drag affect the motion? What is the influence of mass on the motion?Evaluate Compare the velocities of the two parachutists. How do the shape and mass affect the motion? Revise scene Turn on air drag.More lessons at Lesson planM OTIONTarget Teacher: Key Stage 2 (ages 7-11) This lesson plan is not intended to be handed out to students but to be use as a teacher preparation and tutorial. Motion is a fundamental concept in science. This lesson explores different causes of motion, such as pull, push, drop (gravity), and also introduces the term force. Knowing different ways of setting an object into motion. Knowing a cause of motion (push, pull, drop, slide) in terms of influence of a force. Knowing about the relation between speed, distance and time. 30-60 min motion, force, push, pull, gravity Discuss what causes an object to move. Let the students suggest different ways of setting an object into motion and list them on the whiteboard. For example pushing, pulling, throwing, dropping, sliding, adding a motor. Discuss that the cause of motion is called force. Discuss how the size of the force influences the motion. Discuss relation between speed, distance and time. Discuss how this can be visualized and explored in Algodoo using the Classmate PC. Let the students create scenes in Algodoo using the suggestions you came up with together or let them use their own ideas. Help the students make decisions and ask guiding questions. Encourage the students to follow the procedure Create – Predict – Interact – Evaluate. Allow the students to follow-up and share their experiences in class after the simulation.Description Learning objectives Time frame Keywords In classCreate a scene Create a plane with objects resting on it. Make objets that roll, slide, driven by a motor, fall. Make a prediction How can the object be set into motion? What makes the object stop? Run/Interact Explore different ways of moving the object. Tilt the Classmate PC and watch the object slide down the plane or fall through the air. Turn off an on gravity and explore its influence on the motion. Grab the object by using the hand tool. Push and pull and make the objects move in different ways. Evaluate What are the different causes of motion in the cases? What is needed in order to set an object into motion?More lessons at Lesson planR OLLINGTargetDOWN A RAMPTeacher: Key Stage 2 (ages 7-11) This lesson plan is not intended to be handed out to students but to be use as a teacher preparation and tutorial. Letting objects roll or slide down a ramp opens possibilities to explore causes and effects of motion. The students can make suggestions of what to investigate and how to test Explore the aspects of how far up on the ramp the object starts, the material of the ramp, the amount of slope and how that affects the motion. Asking questions to the situation. Plan an experiment. Predict what might happen. Evaluate the result. Explore the cause of the motion. 30-60 min motion, force, push, pull, speed, distance Discuss what happens when an object rolls or slides down a ramp. Discuss what questions that are interesting to ask in order to explain the motion. Discuss how the height, the slope and the material influence the motion. What happens at the end of the ramp when the plane is flat? When the plane is going upwards again? What makes the object stop? What makes it continue its motion? How should the ramp look like in order to get an object to move as far as possible. Discuss how this can be visualized and explored in Algodoo using the Classmate PC. Let the students create scenes in Algodoo using the suggestions you came up with together or let them use their own ideas. Help the students make decisions and ask guiding questions. Encourage the students to follow the procedure Create – Predict – Interact – Evaluate. Allow the students to follow-up and share their experiences in class after the simulation. Make a prediction How can the object be set into motion? What makes the object stop? Run/Interact Let the object slide or roll down the ramp. Tilt the Classmate PC to model different slopes. Let the object slide or roll down to a flat surface and see how far it goes. Let the object roll or slide down to an uphill and see how high up it goes. Change the material of the ramp to give it more or less friction and explore the motion. Evaluate When does the object roll really far? When does it roll high? How does the material influence the motion?DescriptionLearning objectivesTime frame Keywords In classCreate a scene Use a plane as a ramp. Create an object (a box, a car with wheels, take a picture of an object). Add one or two planes to create a track with downhill, flat ground and uphill.More lessons at Lesson planF LOATTargetANDS INKTeacher: Key Stage 2 (ages 7-11) This lesson plan is not intended to be handed out to students but to be used as a teacher preparation and tutorial. The students will create objects of different shapes and materials and investigate whether they sink and float. Investigate properties of different shapes of the same material. How can steel float? Besides assigning material properties to objects, the students can also be introduced to density and investigate how numerical values of density relates to density of water. What is the density of water, when does an object neither float or sink? Predict and observe the buoyancy of objects of different materials. Investigate how the density of an object affects its buoyancy. 30-60 min float, sink, density, buoyancy Discuss what objects sink and what objects float. Discuss what make objects float. Why does a boat made of steel float? How does an iceberg float? Put up suggestions on the board. Discuss how this can be visualized and explored in Algodoo using the Classmate PC. Let the students create scenes in Algodoo using the suggestions you came up with together or let them use their own ideas. Help the students make decisions and ask guiding questions. Encourage the students to follow the procedure Create – Predict – Interact – Evaluate. Allow the students to follow-up and share their experiences in class after the simulation.DescriptionLearning objectives Time frame Keywords In classCreate a scene Create a container, about 2 m wide by using for example the brush tool. Drawing a large body inside the container and select Liquify under Geometry actions. Run the simulation to fill the container. Create an object and clone it to make a number of objects of equal size. Assign different material to the objects. Make a prediction Which objects will float and which will sink? Run/Interact Run the simulation and watch objects float and sink. Revise scene Create an iceberg. Remove items from the container if it gets too crowded. Make a prediction How do you expect the iceberg to float? What happens when the iceberg melts or pieces fall off? What happens if you turn the iceberg into water? Run/Interact Run the simulation. Use the knife and cut pieces of the iceberg to change its shape. You may have to remove the pieces. Evaluate How does the iceberg float? What happens when its shape is changed? How does the water level change when the iceberg melts?Evaluate What properties are different between the objects? Why do some float and why do some sink? What happens with the water when the objects are put in?More lessons at 。

船舶原理英文词汇汇总c1船舶形状1．型表面Moulded surface2．型尺度Moulded dimensions3．型线图Lines drawing4．首垂线Forward perpendicular5．尾垂线After perpendicular6．船长Length7．首尾柱间长Lpp: Length between perpendiculars8．船宽Moulded breadth9．型深Moulded depth10．型吃水Moulded draught11．设计夏季载重吃水(Designed summer draft)12．总长Length overall13．最大高度Maximum Height14．最大宽度Maximum breadth15．中线面Center line plane16．中站面Midships plane17．基平面Base plane18．基线Base line19．设计水线面Designed waterline20．中横剖面Midship section21．中纵剖面Centreline22．横剖线图(Body plans), 横剖线(Sections)23．半宽水线图(Half-breadth waterline plans), 水线（Waterlines）24．纵剖线图(Sheer plan), 纵剖线Buttocks）25．型值表Table of offsets26．舷弧Sheer27．梁拱Camber28．平行中体Parallel middle body29．船型系数(Coefficients of form)30．方形系数Block coefficient31．中横剖面系数Midship section coefficient32．水线面系数Waterplane coefficient33．菱形系数Prismatic coefficient34．垂向菱形系数Vertical prismatic coefficientC2 近似计算法35．梯形法（Trapezoidal method）36．辛氏第一法(Simpson’s first rule)37．辛浦生第二法(Simpson’s second rule)c3 浮性38．浮性floatation or Buoancy39．浮力Buoancy40．重力Gravity41．排水量Displacement42．浮心Centre of buoancy43．漂心Center of floatation44．重心Center of gravity45．空船重量Light weight46．总载重量Dead weight/DW47．净载重量Net weight/NDW∆Light ship displacement48．空载排水量∆Full loaded displacement49．满载排水量F50．装载排水量∆loaded displacement51．浮态Floating condition）52．正浮状态Upright condition53．单纯横倾List54．单纯纵倾Trim55．任意浮态Any inclination floatation56．合力矩定理the law of the resultant moment 57．平行力移动原理Theorem of translation of a force 58．平行沉浮Parallel rise or sinkage59．TPC Tonnes per centimeter immersion60．干舷Sheer61．储备浮力Reserve buoyancy62．重物移动Weight shiftsA Area of waterplane63．水线面面积w64．邦戎曲线Bonjean curves65．费尔索夫图谱Firsov s diagram66．船舶静水力曲线Hydrostatic curve67．静水力性能参数表Hydrostatic data68．载重线标志Load line mark69．甲板线Deck line70．载重线圈（Load line ring）TF——热带淡水载重线Tropical fresh water load lineF——夏季淡水载重线Fresh water load lineT——热带载重线Tropical load lineS——夏季载重线Summer load lineW——冬季载重线Winter load lineWNA——冬季北大西洋载重线Winter North Atlantic load line；C4稳性71．稳性Stability72．静稳性Static stability73．动稳性Dynamical stability74．横稳性Transverse stability75．纵稳性Longitudinal stability76．初稳性Initial stability77．大倾角稳性Stability at large angle78．完整稳性Intact stability79．破损稳性Damage stability80．稳定平衡Stable equilibrium81．不稳定平衡Unstable equilibrium82．随遇平衡Neutral equilibrium83．初稳性方程84．初稳性高度限界面85．初稳性高度Transverse metacentric height86．稳性力臂Righting Arm/GZ87．自由液面Free surfaces88．稳心Metacenter89．初稳心Initial metacenter90．稳心半径Metacentric radius91．静稳性图Statical stability curveAngle of vanishing stability92．稳性消失角v93．静平衡Static equilibrium94．动平衡Dynamic equilibrium95．最小倾覆力矩Capsizing moment96．动稳性图Curve of dynamical stability97．极限重心高度Minimum operational metacentric height (GM C)98．许用初稳性高度Maximum centre of gravity (KG C) C5吃水差99．吃水差Trim100．每厘米纵倾力矩Moment to change trim one cm 101．MTC Moment to change trim one cm102．纵稳性半径Longitudinal metacentric radiusc6抗沉性103．重量增加法Adding weight method104．浮力损失法Loss buoyancy method105．固定排水量法Constant displacement method 106．稳性系数Stability coefficient107．船舶分舱Subdivision of ships108．分舱载重线Subdivision load line109．可浸长度Floodable length110．渗透率Permeability111．分舱因数Factor of subdivision112．限界线Margin line113．舱壁甲板Bulkhead deckC7强度114．总纵强度Longitudinal strength 115．横向强度Transverse strength 116．局部强度Local strength117．扭转强度T orsional strength118．中拱Hogging119．中垂Sagging120．剖面模数Hull section modulus 121．弯曲应力Bending stress122．剪切应力Sheering stress123．剪力Shearing force124．弯矩Bending momentc8阻力125．快速性Speedability126．摩擦阻力Frictional Resistance 127．兴波阻力Wave-Making Resistance 128．涡流阻力Eddy-making Resistance 129．推进系数C.P: Propulsive coefficient 130．基本阻力Naked hull resistance 131．附加阻力Added resistance132．污底阻力fouling resistance133．附体阻力Appendage resistances134．汹涛阻力Rough sea resistance135．相似现象Similar phenomena136．船舶模型试验Model tests137．雷诺相似定律Reynolds law of comparison 138．傅汝德相似定律Froude’s law of comparison 139．傅汝德假设Froude hypothesis140．基本阻力全相似Similarity laws141．剩余阻力Residual resistance142．浅水效应Shallow-water effects143．船模试验Model experimentsC9推力144．双桨船twin-screwed ship145．盘面比Blade area ratio146．螺距Pitch147．螺距比Pich ratio148．攻角 Angle of attack149．升力Lift, 升力系数Lift coefficient150．阻力Drag, 阻力系数Drag coefficient 151．左旋桨Left hand propeller152．右旋桨Right hand propeller153．翼剖面/叶剖面Blade section。

[Note: This is an extract from an Academic Reading passage on the development of rockets. The text preceding this extract explored the slow development of the rocket and explained the principle of propulsion.]The invention of rockets is linked inextricably with the invention of 'black powder'. Most historians of technology credit the Chinese with its discovery. They base their belief on studies of Chinese writings or on the notebooks of early Europeans who settled in or made long visits to China to study its history and civilisation. It is probable that, some time in the tenth century, black powder was first compounded from its basic ingredients of saltpetre, charcoal and sulphur. But this does not mean that it was immediately used to propel rockets. By the thirteenth century, powder-propelled fire arrows had become rather common. The Chinese relied on this type of technological development to produce incendiary projectiles of many sorts, explosive grenades and possibly cannons to repel their enemies. One such weapon was the'basket of fire' or, as directly translated from Chinese, the 'arrows like flying leopards'. The 0.7 metre-long arrows, each with a long tube of gunpowder attached near the point of each arrow, could be fired from a long, octagonal-shaped basket at the same time and had a range of 400 paces. Another weapon was the 'arrow as a flying sabre', which could be fired from crossbows. The rocket, placed in a similar position to other rocket-propelled arrows, was designed to increase the range. A small iron weight was attached to the 1.5m bamboo shaft, just below the feathers, to increase the arrow's stability by moving the centre of gravity to a position below the rocket. At a similar time, the Arabs had developed the 'egg which moves and burns'. This 'egg' was apparently full of gunpowder and stabilised by a 1.5m tail. It was fired using two rockets attached to either side of this tail.It was not until the eighteenth century that Europe became seriously interested in the possibilities of using the rocket itself as a weapon of war and not just to propel other weapons. Prior to this, rockets were used only in pyrotechnic displays. The incentive for the more aggressive use of rockets came not from within the European continent but from far-away India, whose leaders had built up a corps of rocketeers and used rockets successfully against the British in the late eighteenth century. The Indian rockets used against the British were described by a British Captain serving in India as ‘an iron envelope about 200 millimetres long and 40 millimetres in diameter with sharp points at the top and a 3m-long bamboo guiding stick’. In the early nineteenth century the British began to experiment with incendiary barrage rockets. The British rocket differed from the Indian version in that it was completely encased in a stout, iron cylinder, terminating in a conical head, measuring one metre in diameter and having a stick almost five metres long and constructed in such a way that it could be firmly attached to the body of the rocket. The Americans developed a rocket, complete with its own launcher, to use against the Mexicans in the mid-nineteenth century. A long cylindrical tube was propped up by two sticks and fastened to the top of the launcher, thereby allowing the rockets to be inserted and lit from the other end. However, the results were sometimes not that impressive as the behaviour of the rockets in flight was less than predictable.Questions 7 – 10Look at the following items (Questions 7-10) and the list of groups below. Match each item with the group which first invented or used them.Write the correct letter A-E in boxes 7-10on your answer sheet.NB You may use any letter more than once.7 blackpowder8rocket-propelled arrows for fighting9rockets as war weapons10the rocket launcherFirst invented or used byA the ChineseB the IndiansBritishC theArabsD theAmericansE theAnswers:7 A8 A9 B10 E。

物理：absolute acceleration 绝对加速度absolute error 绝对误差absolute motion 绝对运动absolute temperature 绝对温度absolute velocity 绝对速度absolute zero 绝对零度absorption 吸收absorptivity 吸收率accelerated motion 加速运动acceleration of gravity 重力加速度acceleration 加速度accidental error 偶然误差acoustics 声学acting force 作用力adjustment 调节aether 以太air pump 抽气机air table 气垫桌air track 气垫导轨alternating current circuit 交流电路alternating current generator 交流发电机alternating current 交流电altimeter 测高仪ammeter 安培计amperemeter 电流计ampere 安培Ampere's experiment 安培实验Ampere's force 安培力Ampere's law 安培定律amperemeter 安培计amplitude 振幅angle of rotation 自转角，转动角angular acceleration 角加速度angular displacement 角位移angular velocity 角速度anion 负离子anisotropy 各向异性annihilation 湮没anode 阳极antenna 天线applied physics 应用物理学Archimedes principle 阿基米德原理area 面积argumentation 论证argument 辐角astigmatoscope 散光镜atomic nucleus 原子核atomic physics 原子物理学atomic spectrum 原子光谱atomic structure 原子结构atom 原子Atwood ' s machine 阿特伍德机average power 平均功率average velocity 平均速度Avogadro constant 阿伏加德罗常数Avogadro law 阿伏加德罗定律balance 天平ballistic galvanometer 冲击电流计band spectrum 带状谱barometer 气压计basic quantity 基本量basic units 基本单位battery charger 电池充电器battery,accumulator 蓄电池battery 电池组beam 光束betatron 电子感应加速器Bohr atom model 玻尔原子模型boiling point 沸点boiling 沸腾bounce 反弹bound charge 束缚电荷bound electron 束缚电子branch circuit 支路breakdown 击穿brightness 亮度buoyancy force 浮力calorifics 热学camera 照相机capacitance 电容capacitor 电容器capillarity 毛细现象cathode ray 阴极射线cathode-ray tube 阴极射线管cathode 阴极cation 正离子cell 电池Celsius scale 摄氏温标centre of gravity 重心centre of mass 质心centrifugal force 离心力centripetal acceleration 向心加速度centripetal force 向心力chain reaction 链式反应chaos 混沌characteristic spectrum 特征光谱charged body 带电体charged particle 带电粒子charge 充电circular hole diffraction 圆孔衍射circular motion 圆周运动classical mechanics 经典力学classical physics 经典物理学cloud chamber 云室coefficient of maximum staticfriction 最大静摩摩系数coefficient of restitution 恢复系数coefficient of sliding friction 滑动摩擦系数coefficient 系数coherent light 相干光源coil 线圈collision 碰撞component force 分力component velocity 分速度composition of forces 力的合成composition of velocities 速度的合成compression 压缩concave lens 凹透镜concave mirror 凹面镜concurrent force 共点力condensation 凝结condenser 电容器conducting medium 导电介质conductor 导体conservative force field 保守力场conservative force 保守力constant force 恒力constant 常量continuous spectrum 连续谱convergent lens 会聚透镜convex lens 凸透镜convex mirror 凸面镜coordinate system 坐标系coplanar force 共面力Corolis force 科里奥利力corpuscular property 粒子性corpuscular theory 微粒说Coulomb force 库仑力coulomb 库仑Coulomb's law 库仑定律counter 计数器creation 产生creepage 漏电crest 波峰critical angle 临界角critical resistance 临界电阻critical temperature 临界温度crystal 晶体current density 电流密度current element 电流元current source 电流源current strength 电流强度curvilinear motion 曲线运动cyclotron 回旋加速器damped vibration 阻尼振动damping 阻尼Daniell cell 丹聂耳电池data processing 数据处理data 数据decay 衰变definition of ampere 安培的定义defocusing 散集density 密度derived quantity 导出量derived unit 导出单位dielectric 电介质diffraction pattern 衍射图样diffraction 衍射diffuse reflection 漫反射digital timer 数字计时器dimensional exponent 量纲指数dimension 量纲diode 二级管diopter 屈光度direct current, DC 直流direct impact 正碰direct measurement 直接测量discharge 放电disorder 无序dispersion 色散displacement 位移divergent lens 发散透镜Doppler effect 多普勒效应double slit diffraction 双缝衍射driving force 驱动力dry cell 干电池echo 回声eddy current 涡流effective value 有效值elastic body 弹性体elastic force 弹［性］力elasticity 弹性electric charge 电荷electric circuit 电路electric corona 电晕electric energy 电能electric field 电场electric field intensity 电场强度electric field line 电场线electric flux 电通量electric leakage 漏电electric neutrality 电中性electric potential 电位，电势electric potential difference 电位差，电势差electric potential energy 电位能electric power 电功率electric quantity 电量electrification 起电electrification by friction 摩擦起电electrified body 带电体electrode 电极electrolysis 电解electrolyte 电解质electromagnetic damping 电磁阻尼electromagnetic induction 电磁感应electromagnetic radiation 电磁辐射electromagnetic wave 电磁波electromagnetic wave spectrum 电磁波谱electromagnetism induction phenomenon 电磁感应现象electromagnet 电磁体electrometer 静电计electromotive force 电动势electron 电子electron beam 电子束electron cloud 电子云electron microscope 电子显微镜electron volt 电子伏特electroscope 验电器electrostatic equilibrium 静电平衡electrostatic induction 静电感应electrostatic screening 静电屏蔽elementary charge 基本电荷，元电荷energy 能量energy level 能级equilibrium 平衡equilibrium condition 平衡条件equilibrium of forces 力的平衡equilibrium position 平衡位置equilibrium state 平衡态equivalent source theorem 等效电源定理erect image 正像error 误差ether 以太evaporation 蒸发excitation 激发excitation state 激发态experiment 实验experimental physics 实验物理学external force 外力eyepiece 目镜far sight 远视Faraday cylinder 法拉第圆筒Faraday law ofelectromagnetic induction 法拉第电磁感应定律Faraday's law ofelectromagnetic induct 法拉第电磁感应定律farad 法拉(电容的单位)film interference 薄膜干涉final velocity 末速度first cosmic velocity 第一宇宙速度fission 裂变fixed-axis rotation 定轴转动flotation balance 浮力秤fluid 流体focal length 焦距focusing 调焦，聚焦focus 焦点force 力forced vibration 受迫振动fractal 分形free charge 自由电荷free electron 自由电子free period 自由周期freezing point 凝固点frequency 频率friction force 摩擦力fusion 聚变galvanometer 电流计gas 气体general physics 普通物理学generator 发电机good conductor 良导体gravitation 引力gravity 重力gravitational potential energy重力势能gravity field 重力场ground earth 接地ground state 基态ground wire 地线hadron 强子half life period 半衰期heat 热heat transfer 传热henry 亨利hertz 赫兹(频率的单位)Hooke law 胡克定律humidity 湿度hydrogen 氢原子hypothesis 假设ice point 冰点ideal gas 理想气体image 像image distance 像距image height 像高imaging 成像imperfect inelastic collision 非完全弹性碰撞impulse 冲量incident angle 入射角incident ray 入射线indirect measurement 间接测量induced electric current 感应电流induced electric field 感应电场induction current 感应电流induction electromotive force感应电动势induction motor 感应电动机inertia 惯性inertial force 惯性力inertial system 惯性系infrared ray 红外线infrasonic wave 次声波initial phase 初位相initial velocity 初速度input 输入instantaneous power 瞬时功率instantaneous velocity 瞬时速度instrument 仪器insulated conductor 绝缘导体insulating medium 绝缘介质insulator 绝缘体intensity of sound 声强interference 干涉interference fringe 干涉条纹interference pattern 干涉图样interferometer 干涉仪internal energy 内能internal force 内力internal resistance 内阻intonation 声调inverted image 倒像invisible light 不可见光ion beam 离子束ionization 电离irreversible process 不可逆过程isobaric process 等压过程isobar 等压线isochoric process 等体积过程isothermal 等温线isothermal process 等温过程isotope 同位素isotropy 各向同性joule 焦耳（功的单位）Joule heat 焦耳热Joule law 焦耳定律Joule' law 焦耳定律Kepler law 开普勒定律kinematics 运动学kinetic energy 动能Laplace's equation 拉普拉斯方程laser 激光，激光器law 定律law of conservation of angular momentum 角动量守恒定律law of conservation of energy 能量守恒定律law of conservation of mass 质量守恒定律law of conservation of mechanical energy 机械能守恒定律law of conservation of momentum 动量守恒定律law of electric charge conservation 电荷守恒定律Le Système International d ` Unit è s 国际单位制(SI)lead 导线length 长度lens 透镜lens formula 透镜公式Lenz's law 楞次定律lepton 轻子Light ray 光线light source 光源light wave 光波lightning rod 避雷针light 光line spectrum 线状谱lines of current 电流线lines of force of electric field 电力线liquefaction 液化liquefaction point 液化点liquid 液体longitudinal wave 纵波loop 回路Lorentz force 洛仑兹力luminous intensity 发光强度magnetic field 磁场magnetic field intensity 磁场强度magnetic field line 磁场线magnetic induction flux 磁感应通量magnetic induction 磁感应强度magnetic induction line 磁感应线magnetic material 磁性材料magnetic needle 磁针magnetic pole 磁极magnetics 磁学magnetism 磁学magnetization 磁化magnet 磁体magnification 放大率magnifier 放大镜，放大器manometer 流体压强计mass 质量mass defect 质量亏损mass-energy equation 质能方程matter 物质matter wave 物质波Maxwell's equations 麦克斯韦方程组mean speed 平均速率mean velocity 平均速度measurement 测量mechanical energy 机械能mechanical motion 机械运动mechanical vibration 机械振动mechanics 力学medium 介质melting fusion 熔化melting point 熔点metre rule 米尺microdetector 灵敏电流计micrometer caliper 螺旋测微器microscope 显微镜microscopic particle 微观粒子mirror reflection 镜面反射mirror 镜mixed unit system 混合单位制modern physics 现代物理学molar volume 摩尔体积molecular spectrum 分子光谱molecular structure 分子结构moment of force 力矩momentum of electromagneticfield 电磁场的动量momentum 动量motor 电动机multimeter 多用［电］表musical quality 音色N pole 北极natural frequency 固有频率natural light 自然光negative charge 负电荷negative crystal 负晶体negative ion 负离子negative plate 负极板network 网络neutralization 中和neutron 中子newton 牛顿（力的单位）Newton first law 牛顿第一定律Newton second law 牛顿第二定律Newton third law 牛顿第三定律nonequilibrium state 非平衡态north pole 北极nucleus force 核力nucleus of condensation 凝结核object 物object distance 物距object height 物高objective 物镜observation 观察Oersted's experiment 奥斯特实验ohm 欧姆Ohm law 欧姆定律ohmmeter 欧姆计Ohm's law 欧姆定律open circuit 开路optical bench 光具座optical centre of lens 透镜光心optical fiber 光导纤维optical glass 光学玻璃optical instrument 光学仪器optical lever 光杠杆optical path difference 光程差optical path 光程(路)optically denser medium 光密介质optically thinner medium 光疏介质optics 光学orbit 轨道order 有序oscillograph 示波器output 输出overweight 超重parallel connection ofcondensers 电容器的并联parallelogram rule 平行四边形定律parallel-resonance circuit 并联谐振电路parameter 参量particle 质点，粒子Pascal law 帕斯卡定律path 路程peak 峰值pendulum 摆penumbra 半影perfect conductor 理想导体perfect elastic collision 完全弹性碰撞perfect inelastic collision 完全非弹性碰撞periodicity 周期性period 周期periscope 潜望镜permanent magnet 永磁体permittivity of vacuum 真空介电常数permittivity 电容率phase 位相phenomenon 现象photocurrent 光电流photoelectric cell 光电管photoelectric effect 光电效应photoelectron 光电子photography 照相术photon 光子physical balance 物理天平physical quantity 物理量physics 物理学piezometer 压强计pitch 音调Planck constant 普朗克常量plasma 等离子体point charge 点电荷polarization 偏振polarized light 偏振光polycrystal 多晶体poor conductor 不良导体positive charge 正电荷positive crystal 正晶体positive ion 正离子positive plate 正极板positron 正电子potential energy 势能potentiometer 电位差计power 功率pressure 压强，压力primary coil 原线圈principle of constancy of light velocity 光速不变原理prism 棱镜projectile 抛体projectile motion 抛体运动projector 投影仪proton 质子pulley 滑轮pulley block 滑轮组quantity of heat 热量quantization 量子化quantum 量子quantum mechanics 量子力学quantum number 量子数radar 雷达radioactive source 放射源radius of gyration 回旋半径random motion 无规则运动range 量程rated voltage 额定电压reacting force 反作用力real image 实像real object 实物reasoning 推理recoil 反冲rectilinear motion 直线运动reference frame 参考系，坐标系reference system 参考系reflected angle 反射角reflected ray 反射线reflection coefficient 反射系数reflection law 反射定律reflectivity 反射率refracted angle 折射角refracted ray 折射线refraction law 折射定律refraction coefficient 折射系数refractive index 折射率relative acceleration 相对加速度relative error 相对误差relative motion 相对运动relative velocity 相对速度relativity 相对论resistance 电阻resistance box 电阻箱resistivity 电阻率resistor 电阻［器］resolution of force 力的分解resolution of velocity 速度的分解resonance 共振，共鸣resonant frequency 共振频率resultant force 合力resultant velocity 合速度reversibility of optical path 光路可逆性reversible process 可逆过程rheostat 变阻器right-hand screw rule 右手螺旋定则rocker 火箭rotating magnetic field 旋转磁场rotation 自转，转动Rutherford scattering 卢瑟福散射Rutherford ［α-particlescattering］experiment 卢瑟福［α散射］实验S pole 南极saturation 饱和scalar 标量scalar field 标量场scanner 扫描器second cosmic velocity 第二宇宙速度selective absorption 选择吸收self-induced electromotiveforce 自感电动势self-inductance 自感self-induction phenomenon 自感系数semiconductor 半导体semi-transparent film 半透膜sensitive galvanometer 灵敏电流计sensitivity 灵敏度sensitometer 感光计sensor 传感器series connection ofcondensers 电容器的串联series-resonance circuit 串联谐振电路short circuit 短路short sight 近视shunt resistor 分流电阻significant figure 有效数字simple harmonic motion (SHM)简谐运动simple harmonic wave 简谐波simple pendulum 单摆single crystal（monocrystal）单晶体single slit diffraction 单缝衍射sinusoidal alternating current简谐交流电sinusoidal current 正弦式电流sliding friction 滑动摩擦slit 狭缝solar cell 太阳能电池solenoid 螺线管solidification 凝固solidifying point 凝固点solid 固体solution 溶液solvation 溶解sonar 声纳sound source 声源sound velocity 声速sound wave 声波sound 声［音］source 电源south pole 南极space 空间spark discharge 火花放电special relativity 狭义相对论specific heat capacity 比热容spectacles 眼镜spectral analysis 光谱分析spectral line ［光］谱线spectrograph 摄谱仪spectrography 摄谱学spectroscopy 光谱学spectrum 光谱speed 速率spherical mirror 球面镜spontaneous radiation 自发辐射spring balance 弹簧秤stability 稳定性stabilized current supply 稳流电源stabilized voltage supply 稳压电源standard atmosphericpressure 标准大气压standard cell 标准电池standing wave 驻波static friction 静摩擦stationary state 定态steady current 恒定电流steady current source 恒流源steady voltage source 恒压源steam point 汽点stiffness 劲度［系数］stimulated radiation 受激辐射stop watch 停表sublimation 升华superconductivity 超导［电］性superconductor 超导体superposition principle ofelectric field 电场强度叠加原理superposition theorem 叠加定律supersaturation 过度饱和supersonic speed 超声速supersonic wave 超声波supply transformer 电源变压器surface resistance 表面电阻switch 开关system of concurrent forces 共点力系system of particles 质点系system of units 单位制systematic error 系统误差telescope 望远镜temperature 温度tension 张力the law of gravity 万有引力定律theorem 原理theorem of kinetic energy 动能定理theorem of momentum 动量定理theoretical physics 理论物理学theory 理论thermal capacity 热容［量］thermal equilibrium 热平衡thermal motion 热运动thermal transmission 传热thermodynamic scale ［of temperature］热力学温标thermodynamic temperature 热力学温度thermometer 温度计thermometric scale 温标thermonuclear reaction 热核反应thick lens 厚透镜thin lens 薄透镜third cosmic velocity 第三宇宙速度three-phase alternating current 三相［交变］电流time 时间timer 定时器，计时器torsion balance 扭秤total reflection 全反射trajectory 轨道transformer 变压器transistor 晶体管transition 跃迁translation 平移transmission line 传输线transmissivity 透射率transverse wave 横波triboelectrification 摩擦起电triode 三极管trough 波谷tuning fork 音叉turbulent flow 湍流ultrasound wave 超声波ultraviolet ray 紫外线umbra 本影undulatory property 波动性uniform dielectric 均匀电介质uniform motion 匀速运动unit 单位unit system 单位制universal constant 普适常量universal gravitation 万有引力universal meter 多用［电］表vacuum tube 真空管vacuum 真空value of amplitude 幅值vaporization 汽化variable 变量vector 矢量velocity of light 光速velocity 速度verification 验证vernier 游标vernier caliper 游标卡尺vibration 振动viewing angle 视角viewing field 视场virtual image 虚像virtual object 虚物virtual value 有效值visibility 可见度visible light 可见光voltage 电压voltage division circuit 分压电路voltaic cell 伏打电池voltmeter 伏特计voltmeter-ammeter method伏安法volt 伏特volume 体积vortex electric field 涡旋电场watt 瓦特wave equation 波动方程wave theory 波动说wavelength 波长wave-particle dualism 波粒二象性wave 波weight 重量weightlessness 失重white light 白光work 功work function 逸出功X-ray X射线Young experiment 杨氏实验zero line 零线α -decay α衰变α -particle α粒子α -ray α射线β -decay β衰变β -ray β射线γ -decay γ衰变γ -ray γ射线。

【导语】为了⽅便同学们的学习，⽆忧考为您精⼼整理了“新概念第四册课⽂翻译及学习笔记Lesson31~33”，希望有了这些内容的帮助，可以为⼤家学习新概念英语提供帮助！如果您想要了解更多新概念英语的相关内容，就请关注⽆忧考吧！新概念第四册课⽂翻译及学习笔记Lesson31 【课⽂】 First listen and then answer the following question. 听录⾳，然后回答以下问题。

What do you have to be able to do to appreciate sculpture? Appreciation of sculpture depends upon the ability to respond to form in three dimension. That is perhaps why sculpture has been desc ribed as the most difficult of all arts; certainly it is more difficult than the arts which involve appreciation of flat forms, shape in only two dimensions. Many more people are 'form-blind' than colour-blind. The child learning to see, first distinguishes only two-dimensional shape; it cannot judge distances, depths. Later, for its personal safety and practical needs, it has to develop (partly by means of touch) the ability to judge roughly three-dimensonal distances. But having satisfied the requirements of practical necessity, most people go no further. Though they may attain considerable accuracy in the perception of flat form, they do not make the further intellectual and emotional effort needed to comprehend form in its full spatial existence. This is what the sculptor must do. He must strive continually to think of, and use, form in its full spatial completeness. He gets the solid shape, as it were, inside his head-he thinks of it, whatever its size, as if he were holding it completely enclosed in the hollow of his hand. He mentally visualizes a complex form from all round itself; he knows while he looks at one side what the other side is like, he identifies himself with its centre of gravity, its mass, its weight; he realizes its volume, as the space that the shape displaces in the air. And the sensitive observer of sculpture must also learn to feel shape simply as shape, not as des cription or reminiscence. He must, for example, perceive an egg as a simple single solid shape, quite apart from its significance as food, or from the literary idea that it will become a bird. And so with solids such as a shell, a nut, a plum, a pear, a tadpole, a mushroom, a mountain peak, a kidney, a carrot, a tree-trunk, a bird, a bud, a lark, a ladybird, a bulrush, a bone. From these he can go on to appreciate more complex forms or combinations of several forms. HENRY MOORE The Sculptor Speaks from The Listener 【New words and expressions ⽣词和短语】 auditory adj. 听觉的 colour-blind adj. ⾊盲的 perception n. 知觉 comprehend v. 理解 spatial adj. 空间 visualize v. 使具形象，设想 reminiscence n. 回忆，联想 tadpole n. 蝌蚪 mushroom n. 蘑菇 carrot n. 胡萝⼘ bud n. 花蕾 lark n. 云雀 ladybird n. 瓢⾍ bulrush n. 芦苇 【课⽂注释】 1.respond to 响应，对 … 起反应 例句：He resolved to respond to the call of the Party. 他决⼼响应党的号召。

Chapter 3 ForcesSection A Multiple Choice1 A cylindrical block of wood has a cross-sectional area A and weightW. It is totally immersed in water with its axis vertical. The blockexperiences pressures p t and p b at its top and bottom surfacesrespectively.Which of the following expressions is equal to the upthrust on theblock?(02s)A (p b - p t)A + WB (p b - p t)C (p b - p t)AD (p b - p t)A - W2 The vector diagram shows three coplanar forces acting on an object atP.(02s)The magnitude of the resultant of these three forces is 1 N.What is the direction of this resultant?A ↓B ↘C ↙D ↗3 A submarine descends vertically at constant velocity. The three forcesacting on the submarine are viscous drag, upthrust and weight.(02s)Which relationship between their magnitudes is correct?A weight < dragB weight = dragC weight < upthrustD weight > upthrust4 A ruler of length 0.30mis pivoted at its centre. Equal and oppositeforces of magnitude 2.0N are applied to the ends of the ruler, creatinga couple as shown.What is the magnitude of the torque of the couple on the ruler whenit is in the position shown?(02s)A 0.23NmB 0.39NmC 0.46NmD 0.60Nm5 The diagram shows two vectors X and Y.(02s)In which vector triangle does the vector Z show the magnitude anddirection of vector X – Y?6 uniform metre rule of mass 100 g is supported by a knife-edge at the40 cm mark and a string at the 100 cm mark. The string passes rounda frictionless pulley and carries a mass of 20 g as shown in thediagram. (02w)At which mark on the rule must a 50 g mass be suspended so that therule balances?A 4 cmB 36 cmC 44 cmD 96 cm7 The diagrams represent systems of coplanar forces acting at a point.The lengths of the force vectors represent the magnitudes of the forces.(02w)Which system of forces is in equilibrium?8 What is meant by the weight of an object?(02w)A the gravitational field acting on the objectB the gravitational force acting on the objectC the mass of the object multiplied by gravityD the object’s mass multiplied by its acceleration9 Which of the following pairs of forces, acting on a circular object,constitutes a couple?(02w)10 A pendulum bob is held stationary by a horizontal force H. The threeforces acting on the bob are shown in the diagram.(02w)The tension in the string of the pendulum is T. The weight of thependulum bob is W.Which statement is correct?A H = T cos30B T= H sin30C W = T cos30D W = T sin3011 Two forces, each of 10 N, act at a point P as shown in the diagram.The angle between the directions of the forces is 120°.(03s)What is the magnitude of the resultant force?A 5NB 10NC 17ND 20N12 The diagram shows four forces applied to a circular object.(03s)Which of the following describes the resultant force and resultanttorque on the object?13and sidewaysforce due to the wind, as shown in the diagram. (03s)What is the vertical component of the resultant force on the balloon?A 500 NB 1000 NC 10 000 ND 10 500N14 A force of 5N may be represented by two perpendicular components OYand OX as shown in the diagram, which is not drawn to scale. (03w)OY is of magnitude 3N.What is the magnitude of OX?A 2NB 3NC 4ND 5N15 A hinged door is held closed in the horizontal position by a cable.Three forces act on the door: the weight W of the door, the tensionT in the cable, and the force H at the hinge. (03w)Which list gives the three forces in increasing order of magnitude?A H,T,WB T,H,WC W,H,TD W,T,H16 A spanner is used to tighten a nut as shown. (03w)A force F is applied at right-angles to the spanner at a distance of0.25 m from the centre of the nut. When the nut is fully tightened,the applied force is 200 N.What is the resistive torque, in an anticlockwise direction,preventing further tightening?A 8NmB 25NmC 50NmD 800Nm17 Two parallel forces, each of magnitude F, act on a body as shown. (03w)What is the magnitude of the torque on the body produced by these forces?A FdB FsC 2FdD 2Fs18 The diagram shows a sign of weight 20 N suspended from a pole, attachedto a wall. The pole is kept in equilibrium by a wire attached at pointX of the pole.(04s)The force exerted by the pole at point X is F, and the tension in thewire is 40 N.Which diagram represents the three forces acting at point X?19 A uniform beam of weight 50 N is 3.0 m long and is supported on a pivotsituated 1.0 m from one end. When a load of weight W is hung from thatend, the beam is in equilibrium, as shown in the diagram.(04s)What is the value of W ?A 25 NB 50 NC 75 ND 100 N20 Which two vector diagrams represent forces in equilibrium?(04w)A P and QB Q and RC R and SD S and P21 A long uniform beam is pivoted at one end. A force of 300 N is appliedto hold the beam horizontally.(04w)What is the weight of the beam?A 300 NB 480 NC 600 ND 960 N22The vector diagram shows three coplanar forces acting on an objectatP.(5s)The magnitude of the resultant of these three forces is 1 N.What is the direction of this resultant?A↓ B ↘C↙ D↗23An L-shaped rigid lever arm is pivoted at point P.(05s)Three forces act on the lever arm, as shown in the diagram.What is the magnitude of the resultant moment of these forces aboutpoint P?A 30 NmB 35 NmC 50 NmD 90 Nm24What is the centre of gravity of an object?(05s)A the geometrical centre of the objectB the point about which the total torque is zeroC the point at which the weight of the object may be considered toactD the point through which gravity acts25 A stone is projected horizontally in a vacuum and moves along a pathas shown. X is a point on this path. XV and XH are vertical andhorizontal lines respectively through X. XT is the tangent to the pathat X. (05w)Along which direction or directions do forces act on the stone at X?A XVB XHC XV and XHD XT26 A uniform beam of weight 100 N is pivoted at P as shown. Weights of10 N and 20 N are attached to its ends.(05w)The length of the beam is marked off at 0.1 m intervals.At which point should a further weight of 20 N be attached to achieveequilibrium?27 The diagram shows four forces applied to a circular object.(05w)Which of the following describes the resultant force and resultanttorque on the object?28tenth of that on the surface of planet Q. (05w)On the surface of P, a body has its mass measured to be 1.0 kg andits weight measured to be 1.0 N.What results are obtained for measurements of the mass and weight ofthe same body on the surface of planet Q?29 d from a pivot. The forceacts at an angle θ to a line perpendicular to the beam. (06s)Which combination will cause the largest turning effect about thepivot?30m i d -p o int.(6s)Weights are hung from two points of the bar as shown in the diagram.To maintain horizontal equilibrium, a couple is applied to the bar.What is the torque and direction of this couple?A 40 Nm clockwiseB 40 Nm anticlockwiseC 80 Nm clockwiseD 80 Nm anticlockwise31The diagrams show three forces acting on a body.(06s)In which diagram is the body in equilibrium?32 A rigid circular disc of radius r has its centre at X. A number offorces of equal magnitude F act at the edge of the disc. All the forcesare in the plane of the disc.(06w)Which arrangement of forces provides a moment of magnitude 2Fr aboutX?33Three coplanar forces, each of magnitude 10 N, act through the same point of a body in the directions shown.(06w)What is the magnitude of the resultant force?A 0 NB 1.3 NC 7.3 ND 10 N34 Which force is caused by a pressure difference?(06w)A frictionB upthrustC viscous forceD weight35 Two 8.0 N forces act at each end of a beam of length 0.60m. The forcesare parallel and act in opposite directions. The angle between theforces and the beam is 60°.(07s)What is the torque of the couple exerted on the beam?A 2.4NmB 4.2NmC 4.8NmD 9.6Nm36 What is meant by the weight of an object?(07s)A the gravitational field acting on the objectB the gravitational force acting on the objectC the mass of the object multiplied by gravityD the object’s mass multiplied by its acceleration37 The diagram shows a plan view of a door which requires a moment of12Nm to open it.(07w)What is the minimum force that must be applied at the door’s midpointto ensure it opens?A 4.8NB 9.6NC 15ND 30N38 The symbol represents the acceleration of free fall.(07w)Which of these statements is correct?A is gravity.B is reduced by air resistance.C is the ratio weight / mass.D is the weight of an object.39 Which two vector diagrams represent forces in equilibrium?(07w)A P and QB Q and RC R and SD S and P40 The diagram shows a diving-board held in position by two rods X andY.(01s)Which additional forces do these rods exert on the board when a diverof weight 600N stands on the right-hand end?41 A thread. A strong windblows horizontally. exerting a constant force F on the ball. Thethread makes an angle θ to the vertical as shown. (01s)Which equation correctly relates θ, F and W?A cos θ = FIWB sin θ = FIWC tan θ = FIWD tan θ = WIF42 Two co-planar forces act on the rim of a wheel. The forces are equali nmagnitude.(1s) Which arrangement of forces is a couple?43 Two forces act on a circular disc as shown.(01s)Which diagram shows the line of action of the resultant force?44 What is the definition of force?(01w)A the mass of a body multiplied by its accelerationB the power input to a body divided by its velocityC the rate of change of momentum of a bodyD the work done on a body divided by its displacement45 A street lamp is fixed to a wall by a metal rod and a cable. (01w)Which vector triangle represents the forces acting t point P?46 A wheel of radius 0.70m has a couple applied to it as shown. (01w)What is the torque on the wheel?A 0B 28NmC 56NmD 112Nm47 Two forces X and Y act at a point P as shown. The lengths of the linesrepresent the magnitudes of the forces.(01w)Which vector diagram shows the resultant R of these two forces?48 A trailer of weight 30 KN is hitched to a cab at the point X as shownin the diagram below.(01w)What upward force is exerted by the cab on the trailer at the pointX?A 3KnB 15kNC 30kND 60kN49 A ball of weight W slides along a smooth horizontal surface until itfalls off the edge at time T.(01w)Which graph represents how the resultant vertical downwards force F, acting on the ball, varies with time t as the ball moves from positionX to position Y?Section B Structured Questions1 (a) State the conditions necessary for the equilibrium of a body whichis acted up on by a number of forces.(01w)1 ............................................................................................................................................2........................................... .............................................................. (2)(b) Three identical springs S1, S2and S3are attached to a point A suchthat the angle between any two of the spring is 120°, as shown in Fig.3.1.Fig.3.1The springs have extended elastically and the extensions of S1andS 2 are x. Determine, in terms of x, the extension of S3such thatthe system of springs is in equilibrium. Explain your working.extension of S3= (3)(c) The lid of a box is hinged along one edge E, as shown in Fig.3.2.The lid is held open by means of a horizontal cord attached to the edge F of the lid. The centre of gravity of the lid is at pointC.On Fig.3.2 draw(i) an arrow, labelled W, to represent the weight of the lid,(ii) an arrow, labelled T, to represent the tension in the cord acting on the lid,(iii) an arrow, labelled R, to represet the force of the hinge on the lid.[3]2 (a)Explain what is meant by the centre of gravity of an object. (02s)............................................................................................................................................................................................................ (2)(b)A non-uniform plank of wood XY is 2.50 m long and weighs 950 N.Force-meters (spring balances) A and B are attached to the plankat a distance of 0.40 m from each end, as illustrated in Fig. 3.1.When the plank is horizontal, force-meter A records 570 N.(i) Calculate the reading on force-meter B.reading= ................ N(ii) On Fig. 3.1, mark a likely position for the centre of gravity ofthe plank.(iii)Determine the distance of the centre of gravity from the end Xof the plank.distance= ............. m[6]3 (a) Define the moment of a force.(03w)............................................................................................................................ (2)(b) State the two conditions necessry for a body to be in equilibrium.1. ...........................................................................................................................................2. ......................................................................................................................... (2)(c) Two parallel atrings S1 and S2are attached to a disc of diameter12cm, as shown in Fig.3.1.The disc is free to rotate about an axis normal to its plane. The axis passesthrough the centre C of the disc.A lever of length 30cm is attached to the disc. When a force F isapplied at right angles to the lever at its end, equal forces areproduced in S1 and S2. The disc remains in equilibrium.(i) On Fig.3.1, show the firection of the force in each string thatacts on the disc.[1](ii) For a force F of magnitude 150N, determine1. the moment of force F about the centre of the disc.moment= .....................Nm2. the torque of the couple produced by the forces in thestrings,torque= ...................Nm.3. the force in S1force= ...................N[4]4 (a) Explain what is meant by the centre of gravity of a body. (05w)............................................................................................................................................................................................................ .. (2)(b) An irregularly-shaped piece of cardboard is hung freely from onepoint near its edge, as shown in Fig. 2.1.Explain why the cardboard will come to rest with its centre ofgravity vertically below the pivot. You may draw on Fig. 2.1 ifyou wish............................................................................................................................................................................................................. (2)5 A rod AB is hinged to a wall at A. The rod is held horizontally by meansof a cord BD, attached to the rod at end B and to the wall at D, asshown in Fig. 2.1.(06s)The rod has weight W and the centre of gravity of the rod is at C. Therod is held in equilibrium by a force T in the cord and a force F producedat the hinge.(a) Explain what is meant by(i) the centre of gravity of a body,................................................................................................................................................................................. (2)(ii) the equilibrium of a body.................................................................................................................................................................................................... (2)(b) The line of action of the weight W of the rod passes through thecord at point P.Explain why, for the rod to be in equilibrium, the force F produced at the hinge must also pass through point P............................................................................................................................................... (2)(c) The forces F and T make angles α and β respectively with the rod and AC = 32AB, as shown in Fig. 2.1. Write down equations, in terms of F , W , T , α and β, to represent (i) the resolution of forces horizontally,........................................................... (1)(ii) the resolution of forces vertically,........................................................... (1)(iii) the taking of moments about A............................................................ (1)我从来就不是一个独立的人，也从没有独立生活过，直到来了加国。

外贸常用包装中英文对照纸箱Carton 瓦椤纸箱 Corrugated Carton 旧瓦椤纸箱 Old Corrugated Carton (O．C．C．) 木箱 Wooden Case 板条箱 Crate 木条箱 Wooden Crate 竹条箱 Bamboo Crate胶合板箱 Plywood Case 三层夹板箱 3--Ply Plywood Case镀锡铁皮胎木箱Tin Lined Wooden Case 盒Box 木盒Wooden Box 铁盒Iron Box塑料透明盒 Plastic Transparency Box 苯乙烯盒 Styrol Box 袋Bag(Sack) 布袋 Cloth Bag 草袋 Straw Bag 麻袋 Gunny Bag／Jute Bag 旧麻袋 Used Gunny Bag／Old Gunny Bag新麻袋 New Gunny Bag 尼龙袋 Nylon Bag 聚丙烯袋 Polypropylene Bag聚乙烯袋 Polythene Bag 塑料袋 Poly Bag 塑料编织袋 Polywoven Bag 纤维袋 Fibre Bag玻璃纤维袋 Glass Fibre Bag 玻璃纸袋 Callophane Bag防潮纸袋 Moisture Proof Pager Bag 乳胶袋子Emulsion Bag锡箔袋 Fresco Bag 特大袋 Jumbo Bag 单层完整袋子Single Sound Bag 桶 Drum木桶 Wooden Cask 大木桶 Hogshead 小木桶 Keg 粗腰桶(琵琶桶) Barrel胶木桶 Bakelite Drum 塑料桶 Plastic Drum 铁桶 Iron Drum 镀锌铁桶 Galvanized Iron Drum 镀锌闭口钢桶 Galvanized Mouth Closed Steel Drum镀锌开口钢桶 Galvanized Mouth Opened Steel Drum铝桶 Aluminum Drum 麻布包 Gunny Bale (Hessian Cloth Bag) 蒲包 Mat Bale 草包 Straw Bale 紧压包 Press Packed Bale 铝箔包 Aluminium Foil Package 铁机包 Hard-pressed Bale木机包Half-pressed Bale 覃（缸）Jar 陶缸 Earthen Jar 瓷缸 Porcelain Jar壶 Pot 铅壶 Lead Pot 铜壶Copper Pot 施 Bottle 铝瓶 Aluminum Bottle 陶瓶 Earthen Bottle 瓷瓶 Porcelain bottle 罐 Can 听 Tin 绕线筒 Bobbin 笼（篓、篮、筐）Basket竹笼（篓、篮、筐）Bamboo Basket 柳条筐（笼、篮、筐）Wicker Basket 集装箱 Container集装包/集装袋 Flexible Container 托盘 Pallet 件(支、把、个)Piece 架(台、套)Set(Kit)安瓿 Amp(o)ule(药针支) 双 Pair 打 Dozen 令 Ream 匹 Bolt(Piece)码Yard卷（Roll(reel) 块Block 捆 Bundle 瓣 Braid 度 Degree 辆 Unit(Cart)套（罩） Casing 包装形状 Shapes of Packing 圆形 Round 方形Square三角形 Triangular(Delta Type) 长方形(矩形) Rectangular菱形(斜方形) Rhombus(Diamond) 椭圆形 Oval 圆锥形 Conical 圆柱形 Cylindrical蛋形 Egg-Shaped 葫芦形 Pear-Shaped 五边形 Pentagon 六边形 Hexagon七边形 Heptagon 八边形 Octagon 长 Long 宽 Wide 高 High 深 Deep 厚 Thick 长度 Length 宽度 Width 高度 Height 深度 Depth 厚度 Thickness 包装外表标志 Marks On Packing下端，底部 Bottom 顶部(上部) Top(Upper) 小心 Care 勿掷Don’t Cast易碎 Fragile 小心轻放,小心装运 Handle With Care 起吊点(此处起吊) Heave Here易燃物，避火 Inflammable 保持干燥，防泾 Keep Dry 防潮 keep Away from Moisture储存阴冷处 Keep in a Cool Place 储存干燥处 Keep in a Dry Place请勿倒置 Keep Upright 请勿倾倒 Not to Be Tipped 避冷 To be Protected from Cold避热 To be Protected from Heat 在滚子上移动 Use Rollers 此方向上 This Side Up由此开启 Open from This Side 爆炸品Explosive 易燃品 Inflammable遇水燃烧品 Dangerous When Wet 有毒品 Poison 无毒品 No Poison不可触摩 Hand off 适合海运包装 Seaworthy Packing 毛重 Gross Weight (Gr.Wt.)净重 Net Weight (Nt.Wt) 皮重 Tare Weight 包装唛头 Packing Mark包装容积 Packing Capacity 包袋件数 Packing Number 小心玻璃 Glass 易碎物品 Fragile 易腐货物 Perishable 液体货物 Liquid 切勿受潮 Keep Dry／Caution Against Wet怕冷 To Be Protected from Cold 怕热 To Be Protected from Heat 怕火 Inflammable上部，向上 Top 此端向上 This Side Up 勿用手钩 Use No Hooks 切勿投掷 No Dumping切勿倒置 Keep Upright 切勿倾倒 No Turning Over 切勿坠落Do Not Drop／No Dropping 切勿平放 Not to Be Laid Flat 切勿压挤 Do Not Crush 勿放顶上 Do Not Stake on Top 放于凉处Keep Cool／Stow Cool 干处保管Keep in Dry Place勿放湿处 Do Not Stow in Damp Place 甲板装运 Keep on Deck装于舱内 Keep in Hold 勿近锅炉 Stow Away from Boiler必须平放 Keep Flat/Stow Level 怕光 Keep in Dark Place怕压 Not to Be Stow Below Other Cargo 由此吊起 Lift Here挂绳位置 Sling Here 重心 Centre of Balance 着力点Point of Strength 用滚子搬运 Use Rollers 此处打开 Opon Here 暗室开启 Open in Dark Room先开顶部 Romove Top First 怕火，易燃物 Inflammable氧化物 Oxidizing Material 腐蚀品 Corrosive压缩气体Compressed Gas 易燃压缩气体Inflammable Compressed Gas毒品 Poison 爆炸物 Explosive危险品 Hazardous Article 放射性物质Material Radioactive立菱形 Upright Diamond 菱形 Diamond Phombus双菱形 Double Diamond 内十字菱形 Gross in Diamond四等分菱形 Divided Diamond 突角菱形Diamond with Projecting Ends斜井形 Projecting Diamond 内直线菱形 Line in Diamond内三线突角菱形 Three Line in Projecting Diamond 三菱形 Three Diamond附耳菱形 Diamond with Looped Ends 正方形 Square Box包装英文全集防水布,粗帆布 canvas cloth,canvas sheet,tarpaulin(货物/行李)一件case(-s),package 包装件packing case 物件号码number of a packing 物件顺序号码ordinal number of a package 件数number of cases 物件总数total number of cases细绳cord 包装用的细绳packing cord 粗麻布cloth,canvas包装用的粗麻布packing cloth,packing canvas重心centre of gravity用垂直红线标明重心mark the centre of gravity with a red vertical line绳子,绳索cord 箱子case,box 用过的箱子second-hand case包装箱packing case 箱子的数量number of cases,number of boxes箱子的大小size of a case 箱子的一面side of a case 薄膜,胶片film箱子的正面face plane side of a case 信封,信套envelope防水信封waterproof envelope聚乙烯薄膜polyethylene film工程项目的识别标志indentification mark of object 商标,牌子,牌号,标志mark,sign,brand 识别标志distinction mark 热带货物标志tropical loadline(产品)出厂牌子,出厂商标trade-mark,trademark 涂刷标志mark刷红色垂直线作标志mark with a red vertical line 运输标志,涂刷运输标志marking附加标志additional marking 专用(警告)标志,特殊标志special marking清晰的标志(唛头)clear marking发货人标志consignor`s marking 收货人标志consignee`s marking刷唛规定instructions concerning marking 涂刷相应的标志with appropriate marking 涂刷唛头mark,grade 在货运单上指出标志specify marking in a waybill在说明书上指出标志point out marking in a specification 运输标志marking(此端)向上up 毛重,总重gross weight净重,实重net weight 分数fraction分数形式in the form of a fraction 分母denominator分子numerator 保持干燥,切勿受潮keep dry请勿倒置do not turn over请勿翻转do not turn over此断底部bottom 小心轻放handle with care 玻璃glass编号,号码numeration 买方编号numeration of the buyer,numeration of the purchaser 卖方编号numberation of the seller 纸paper 包装纸packing paper颜料,油漆,涂料paint 防水油漆water-repellent paint不褪色的涂料,耐洗涂料indelible paint 图案板patter,template,templet,stencil按图安板by pattern,by stencil 包装,包装材料packing,package防水包装(材料)water proof packing 硬纸盒包装card board package海运包装seaworthy packing合适的包装suitable packing 未损坏的包装sound packing,undamaged packing普通包装customary packing 破损的包装damaged packing适应热带气候的包装tropical packing 散装without packing,unpacked包装重量,皮重tare 包装种类kind of packing纸包装paper packing 外部包装packing exterior内部包装packing interior 塑料包装plastic packing包装损坏damage to packing 有关包装的规定instructions concerning packing包装费用packing charges 包装性能properties of packing内在包装性能latent properties of packing 遵守包装要求observance of instructions concerning packing包装情况condition of packing 包装有缺陷defective condition of packing包装费cost of packing出口商品(货物)的包装packing for export goods 包装性质nature of packing不含包装费的价格packing not included 包括包装费的价格packing inclusive附加包装费extra packing 保障商品包装provide the packing of goods装运有包装的(散货)货物ship goods in packing (without packing)装箱单,打包单,包装单packing 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******物理： area 面积 centre of mass 质心 convex mirror 凸面镜absolute acceleration绝对加速argumentation 论证centrifugal force离心力coordinate system 坐标系度argument辐角centripetal acceleration 向心加coplanar force 共面力 absolute error 绝对误差 astigmatoscope 散光镜 Corolis force科里奥利力速度absolute motion绝对运动atomic nucleus 原子核 centripetal force 向心力 corpuscular property 粒子性 absolute temperature 绝对温度 atomic physics 原子物理学 chain reaction 链式反应corpuscular theory 微粒说 absolute velocity 绝对速度 atomic spectrum 原子光谱 chaos 混沌Coulomb force库仑力absolute zero 绝对零度 atomic structure 原子结构 characteristic spectrum 特征光coulomb库仑absorption 吸收 atom 原子 Coulomb's law 库仑定律谱absorptivity吸收率Atwood ' s machine 阿特伍德机charged body 带电体counter 计数器 accelerated motion 加速运动average power 平均功率 charged particle 带电粒子creation 产生 acceleration of gravity重力加average velocity 平均速度charge 充电 creepage漏电速度 Avogadroconstant 阿伏加德罗circular hole diffraction圆孔衍crest 波峰 acceleration 加速度critical angle临界角常数 射accidental error 偶然误差 Avogadro law 阿伏加德罗定律circular motion 圆周运动critical resistance 临界电阻 acoustics 声学 balance 天平 classical mechanics 经典力学 critical temperature 临界温度acting force 作用力 ballistic galvanometer冲击电classical physics 经典物理学 crystal晶体adjustment 调节 cloud chamber 云室current density 电流密度 流计aether 以太 band spectrum 带状谱coefficient of maximumstaticcurrent element 电流元 air pump 抽气机 barometer气压计friction最大静摩摩系数current source电流源 air table 气垫桌 basic quantity 基本量 coefficient of restitution 恢复系current strength 电流强度 air track气垫导轨 basic units基本单位curvilinear motion曲线运动数alternating current circuit 交流battery charger 电池充电器coefficient of sliding friction 滑cyclotron回旋加速器电路 battery,accumulator蓄电池damped vibration阻尼振动动摩擦系数alternating currentgenerator battery 电池组coefficient系数damping 阻尼交流发电机 beam 光束 coherent light 相干光源Daniell cell丹聂耳电池alternating current 交流电betatron电子感应加速器coil 线圈 data processing 数据处理altimeter 测高仪 Bohr atom model 玻尔原子模型collision碰撞data 数据ammeter安培计boiling point 沸点component force 分力decay 衰变 amperemeter 电流计boiling沸腾component velocity 分速度 definition of ampere 安培的定ampere安培bounce 反弹composition of forces力的合成义 Ampere's experiment 安培实验bound charge 束缚电荷 composition of velocities速度defocusing 散集Ampere's force 安培力bound electron 束缚电子 density密度的合成 Ampere's law 安培定律 branch circuit 支路 compression 压缩 derived quantity 导出量amperemeter 安培计breakdown 击穿 concave lens 凹透镜 derived unit 导出单位 amplitude振幅brightness亮度concave mirror凹面镜 dielectric电介质angle of rotation 自转角，转动buoyancy force 浮力concurrent force 共点力 diffraction pattern 衍射图样角calorifics热学 condensation 凝结 diffraction衍射angular acceleration 角加速度 camera 照相机condenser电容器diffuse reflection 漫反射angular displacement 角位移capacitance 电容 conducting medium 导电介质digital timer 数字计时器 angular velocity 角速度 capacitor 电容器 conductor导体dimensionalexponent量纲指anion 负离子 capillarity 毛细现象 conservative force field保守力数 anisotropy 各向异性 cathode ray阴极射线dimension量纲场annihilation 湮没cathode-ray tube 阴极射线管conservative force 保守力diode 二级管 anode 阳极cathode阴极constant force恒力diopter屈光度***antenna 天线cation 正离子constant 常量direct current, DC 直流applied physics 应用物理学cell 电池continuous spectrum 连续谱direct impact 正碰Archimedes principle 阿基米德Celsius scale 摄氏温标convergent lens 会聚透镜direct measurement 直接测量centre of gravity 重心convex lens 凸透镜discharge 放电原理*********disorder 无序 electromagnet 电磁体 first cosmic velocity 第一宇宙速完全弹性碰撞 dispersion色散electrometer静电计impulse冲量度displacement 位移 electromotive force 电动势fission 裂变 incident angle 入射角 divergent lens 发散透镜 electron电子fixed-axis rotation定轴转动 incident ray 入射线Doppler effect多普勒效应electron beam 电子束 flotation balance 浮力秤indirect measurement间接测double slit diffraction 双缝衍射electron cloud 电子云fluid 流体 量driving force 驱动力electron microscope 电子显 微focal length 焦距induced electric current 感应电dry cell干电池 focusing调焦，聚焦镜流echo 回声 electron volt电子伏特 focus 焦点 induced electric field 感应电场 eddy current 涡流 electroscope 验电器 force 力 induction current感应电流effective value 有效值 electrostatic equilibrium静 电forced vibration 受迫振动induction electromotiveforceelastic body 弹性体 fractal 分形平衡 感应电动势elastic force 弹［性］力electrostatic induction 静电感 free charge 自由电荷 induction motor 感应电动机elasticity弹性free electron自由电子 inertia惯性应electric charge 电荷 electrostatic screening 静电屏 free period 自由周期inertial force 惯性力 electric circuit 电路 freezing point凝固点inertial system 惯性系 蔽 electric corona 电晕 elementary charge 基本电荷， frequency 频率infrared ray红外线electric energy 电能 friction force摩擦力infrasonic wave 次声波 元电荷 electric field电场energy 能量 fusion 聚变initial phase初位相 electric field intensity 电场强度energy level 能级galvanometer 电流计initial velocity 初速度electric field line 电场线 equilibrium平衡gas 气体input输入electric flux电通量equilibrium condition 平衡条件 general physics 普通物理学 instantaneous power 瞬时功率 electric leakage 漏电 equilibrium of forces 力的平衡 generator发电机instantaneous velocity瞬时速electric neutrality 电中性 equilibrium position 平衡位置 good conductor 良导体度 electric potential电位，电势equilibrium state 平衡态gravitation 引力instrument仪器electric potential difference 电equivalent source theorem 等gravity重力insulated conductor 绝缘导体 位差，电势差 效电源定理gravitationalpotentialenergyinsulating medium 绝缘介质electricpotentialenergy电位 erect image 正像 insulator绝缘体重力势能error 误差 gravity field重力场intensity of sound 声强 能electric power 电功率 ether 以太 ground earth接地 interference干涉 electric quantity 电量 evaporation 蒸发 ground state 基态 interference fringe 干涉条纹 electrification 起电 excitation激发ground wire 地线interference pattern 干涉图样electrification by friction摩擦excitation state 激发态hadron 强子 interferometer干涉仪 起电experiment 实验 half life period半衰期 internal energy 内能 electrified body 带电体 experimental physics实验物理heat 热 internal force内力electrode 电极 heat transfer传热 internal resistance 内阻学electrolysis 电解 external force 外力 henry 亨利intonation声调electrolyte电解质eyepiece 目镜 hertz 赫兹( 频率的单位 ) inverted image 倒像 electromagnetic damping 电磁far sight远视Hooke law胡克定律 invisible light 不可见光阻尼Faraday cylinder法拉第圆筒 humidity 湿度 ion beam 离子束 electromagnetic induction电Faraday law of hydrogen 氢原子 ionization电离磁感应electromagneticinduction法hypothesis 假设 irreversible process 不可逆过程 electromagnetic radiation 电磁ice point冰点 isobaric process 等压过程拉第电磁感应定律 辐射Faraday'slaw of ideal gas理想气体isobar 等压线******electromagnetic wave 电磁波 electromagnetic induct 法拉第 image 像 isochoric process 等体积过程electromagnetic waveimage distance 像距 isothermal等温线电磁感应定律spectrum电磁波谱farad 法拉( 电容的单位 )image height 像高isothermal process 等温过程electromagnetism inductionfilm interference 薄膜干涉 imaging 成像 isotope 同位素 phenomenon电磁感应现象final velocity末速度imperfectinelasticcollision非isotropy各向同性******joule 焦耳（功的单位） magnetic field intensity 磁场强 momentum of electromagnetic 介质 Joule heat 焦耳热 field 电磁场的动量optics 光学 度Joule law 焦耳定律 magnetic field line 磁场线momentum 动量orbit 轨道 Joule' law 焦耳定律 magnetic induction flux 磁感应motor 电动机 order 有序 Kepler law 开普勒定律 multimeter多用［电］表oscillograph 示波器通量kinematics 运动学magnetic induction 磁感应强度musical quality 音色output输出kinetic energy 动能magnetic induction line 磁感应 N pole 北极 overweight超重 Laplace's equation拉普拉斯方natural frequency 固有频率parallel connection of线程magnetic material 磁性材料 natural light自然光condensers 电容器的并联 laser 激光，激光器 magnetic needle 磁针 negative charge 负电荷 parallelogram rule 平行四边形law 定律 magnetic pole 磁极 negative crystal 负晶体 定律magnetics 磁学negative ion 负离子 parallel-resonance circuit并联 law of conservation of angularmomentum角动量守恒定律 magnetism 磁学negative plate 负极板谐振电路 law of conservation of energy magnetization 磁化network网络parameter参量能量守恒定律magnet磁体neutralization 中和 particle 质点，粒子law of conservation of mass 质magnification 放大率neutron 中子Pascal law 帕斯卡定律量守恒定律 magnifier 放大镜，放大器 newton牛顿（力的单位）path 路程 lawofconservation ofmanometer 流体压强计Newton first law 牛顿第一定律peak 峰值 mechanical energy机械能守恒 mass 质量 Newton second law牛顿第二定pendulum 摆 定律 mass defect质量亏损penumbra半影律lawofconservation of mass-energy equation质能方Newton third law 牛顿第三定律perfect conductor 理想导体momentum 动量守恒定律 nonequilibrium state非平衡态perfectelastic collision完全弹程 lawofelectriccharge matter物质north pole北极性碰撞 conservation 电荷守恒定律matter wave 物质波nucleus force核力perfectinelasticcollision完全Le Syst ème International d `Maxwell'sequations 麦克 斯韦nucleusof condensation凝结非弹性碰撞Unitès 国际单位制 (SI)periodicity周期性方程组 核 lead 导线 mean speed 平均速率 object 物 period 周期 length长度mean velocity 平均速度 object distance 物距 periscope潜望镜lens 透镜 measurement测量object height 物高permanent magnet 永磁体lens formula 透镜公式 mechanical energy 机械能 objective 物镜 permittivity of vacuum真空介Lenz's law楞次定律mechanical motion 机械运动 observation观察电常数lepton 轻子 mechanical vibration 机械振动Oersted's experiment 奥斯特实permittivity 电容率Light ray光线mechanics 力学phase 位相 验 light source 光源 medium介质ohm 欧姆phenomenon 现象 light wave 光波 melting fusion 熔化 Ohm law 欧姆定律 photocurrent 光电流lightning rod 避雷针melting point 熔点 ohmmeter 欧姆计 photoelectric cell 光电管 light 光 metre rule米尺Ohm's law欧姆定律 photoelectric effect 光电效应line spectrum 线状谱 microdetector 灵敏电流计open circuit 开路 photoelectron 光电子 lines of current电流线micrometer caliper 螺旋测微器optical bench光具座photography照相术lines of force of electric field 电microscope显微镜optical centre of lens透镜光心photon光子力线 microscopic particle 微观粒子optical fiber 光导纤维 physical balance 物理天平 liquefaction液化mirror reflection 镜面反射optical glass光学玻璃physical quantity 物理量liquefaction point液化点mirror镜optical instrument 光学仪器physics 物理学******liquid 液体 mixed unit system 混合单位制 optical lever 光杠杆piezometer 压强计longitudinal wave 纵波modern physics 现代物理学optical path difference 光程差pitch 音调loop 回路 molar volume摩尔体积optical path 光程( 路)Planck constant普朗克常量Lorentz force洛仑兹力molecular spectrum 分子光谱 optically denser medium光密plasma 等离子体 luminous intensity 发光强度 molecular structure 分子结构 point charge点电荷 介质 magnetic field磁场moment of force力矩opticallythinnermedium 光疏 polarization偏振******polarized light 偏振光 refraction coefficient 折射系数 sensitive galvanometer 灵敏电 spectrum 光谱polycrystal多晶体refractive index 折射率speed 速率流计 poor conductor 不良导体 relative acceleration相对加速sensitivity灵敏度spherical mirror 球面镜 positive charge 正电荷 sensitometer感光计spontaneousradiation自发辐度positive crystal 正晶体 relative error 相对误差 sensor 传感器 射positive ion 正离子 relative motion 相对运动 series connection ofspring balance 弹簧秤positive plate 正极板relative velocity 相对速度condensers电容器的串联stability稳定性 positron正电子relativity相对论 series-resonance circuit 串联谐stabilized currentsupply稳流potential energy 势能 resistance电阻振电路 电源potentiometer 电位差计resistance box 电阻箱 short circuit 短路 stabilized voltage supply 稳压power 功率 resistivity 电阻率 short sight 近视电源 pressure压强，压力resistor电阻［器］shunt resistor分流电阻standardatmosphericprimary coil 原线圈resolution of force 力的分解significant figure有效数字 pressure标准大气压principle of constancy of lightresolution of velocity 速度的分simple harmonic motion (SHM) standard cell 标准电池 velocity光速不变原理standing wave驻波 解 简谐运动prism 棱镜 resonance共振，共鸣simple harmonic wave 简谐波 static friction 静摩擦projectile抛体resonant frequency 共振频率simple pendulum单摆stationary state定态 projectile motion 抛体运动resultant force 合力single crystal （monocrystal ）单 steady current恒定电流projector投影仪resultant velocity 合速度steady current source恒流源 晶体proton 质子 reversibility of opticalpath 光single slit diffraction 单缝衍射 steady voltage source 恒压源pulley 滑轮 sinusoidalalternatingcurrentsteam point 汽点路可逆性pulley block滑轮组reversible process 可逆过程stiffness劲度［系数］简谐交流电 quantity of heat 热量 rheostat变阻器sinusoidal current正弦式电流 stimulated radiation 受激辐射quantization 量子化right-hand screw rule 右手螺旋 sliding friction 滑动摩擦stop watch 停表 quantum量子slit 狭缝 sublimation升华定则quantum mechanics 量子力学rocker 火箭 solar cell太阳能电池 superconductivity 超导［电］性 quantum number 量子数 rotating magneticfield 旋转磁 solenoid螺线管superconductor 超导体 radar 雷达 solidification凝固superposition principleof场radioactive source 放射源 rotation 自转，转动solidifying point 凝固点electric field 电场强度叠加原理 radius of gyration 回旋半径 Rutherford scattering 卢瑟福散solid 固体 superposition theorem叠加定random motion 无规则运动solution溶液射 律range 量程 Rutherford［α-particlesolvation溶解 supersaturation 过度饱和 rated voltage 额定电压 scattering ］experiment 卢瑟福sonar 声纳 supersonic speed超声速 reacting force 反作用力 sound source 声源 supersonic wave 超声波 ［α散射］实验 real image 实像 S pole 南极 sound velocity 声速 supply transformer 电源变压器 real object 实物saturation饱和sound wave声波surface resistance 表面电阻reasoning推理 scalar 标量 sound 声［音］ switch 开关recoil 反冲 scalar field标量场source 电源 system of concurrent forces 共rectilinear motion 直线运动 scanner扫描器south pole南极点力系reference frame 参考系，坐标系 second cosmic velocity 第二宇space 空间 system of particles 质点系 reference system 参考系 spark discharge火花放电 system of units 单位制 宙速度reflected angle反射角selective absorption选择吸收special relativity狭义相对论systematic error系统误差******reflected ray 反射线self-induced electromotive specific heat capacity 比热容 telescope 望远镜reflection coefficient 反射系数force 自感电动势 spectacles眼镜temperature温度reflection law 反射定律 self-inductance 自感 spectral analysis 光谱分析 tension 张力reflectivity反射率self-induction phenomenon自spectral line ［光］谱线 the law of gravity 万有引力定律refracted angle 折射角 spectrograph摄谱仪 theorem原理感系数 refracted ray 折射线 semiconductor半导体spectrography 摄谱学 theorem of kinetic energy 动能refraction law折射定律semi-transparent film半透膜spectroscopy光谱学定理******theorem of momentum 动量定 universal meter 多用［电］表 β- ray β射线vacuum tube真空管γ- decay γ衰变 理 theoretical physics 理论物理学vacuum真空γ- ray γ射线theory理论value of amplitude幅值thermal capacity 热容［量］vaporization 汽化thermal equilibrium 热平衡 variable变量thermal motion热运动vector 矢量 thermal transmission 传热 velocity of light 光速thermodynamic scale［ ofvelocity速度temperature］热力学温标verification 验证thermodynamic temperature vernier游标vernier caliper 游标卡尺 热力学温度 thermometer温度计vibration 振动thermometric scale 温标viewing angle 视角 thermonuclear reaction 热核反viewing field 视场 应 virtual image 虚像 thick lens 厚透镜 virtual object 虚物 thin lens薄透镜virtual value有效值third cosmic velocity 第三宇宙 visibility 可见度速度 visible light可见光three-phase alternatingvoltage 电压 current三相［交变］电流voltage divisioncircuit分压电time 时间路 timer 定时器，计时器 voltaic cell 伏打电池 torsion balance 扭秤 voltmeter伏特计total reflection 全反射voltmeter-ammeter methodtrajectory 轨道 伏安法 transformer 变压器 volt 伏特 transistor 晶体管 volume体积transition 跃迁 vortex electric field 涡旋电场translation平移watt 瓦特 transmission line 传输线 wave equation 波动方程 transmissivity 透射率 wave theory 波动说 transverse wave 横波 wavelength 波长 triboelectrification 摩擦起电 wave-particle dualism波粒二triode 三极管 象性 trough波谷wave 波 tuning fork 音叉weight重量turbulent flow湍流 weightlessness 失重ultrasound wave 超声波 white light 白光ultraviolet ray 紫外线work 功 umbra 本影 work function逸出功undulatory property 波动性X-ray X 射线 uniform dielectric 均匀电介质 Young experiment 杨氏实验uniform motion 匀速运动zero line零线unit 单位 α- decay α衰变unit system单位制α-particle粒α子universal constant普适常量α- ray α射线*** universal gravitation 万有引力β- decay β衰变***。

BRITISH PHYSICS OLYMPIAD 2014-15BPhO Round 1Section 114th November 2014InstructionsTime: 1 hour 20 minutes.Questions: Students may attempt any parts of Section 1. Students are not expected to complete all parts.Marks: A maximum of 40 marks can be awarded for Section 1. There are a total of 67 marks allocated to the problems of Question 1 which makes up the whole of Section 1.Solutions: Answers and calculations are to be written on loose paper or examination booklets. Graph paper and formula sheets should also be made available. Students should ensure their name and school is clearly written on all answer sheets.Setting the paper: There are two options for setting BPhO Round 1:•Section 1 and Section 2 may be sat in one session of 2 hours 40 minutes.•Section 1 and Section 2 may be sat in two sessions on separate occasions; with1 hour 20 minutes allocated for each section. If the paper is taken in two sessions onseparate occasions, Section 1 must be collected in after the first session andSection 2 handed out at the beginning of the second session.Important ConstantsSpeed of light c 3.00 x 108ms-1 Planck constant h 6.63 x 10-34Js Electronic charge e 1.60 x 10-19 C Mass of electron m e9.11 x 10-31kg Gravitational constant G 6.67 x 10-11Nm2kg-2 Acceleration of free fall g9.81 ms-2Q1.(a)The circuit in Figure 1.(a) contains a cell of emf E , a known variable resistance R0 ,an unknown resistance R and an ammeter. When X and Y are short circuited E = I0R0When R is inserted the current is αI0 , where α is a constant.Figure 1.(a)(i)Express R in terms of R0 and α, giving the range of validity of R and α.(ii)In order to extend the range of α, modify the circuit by putting R in parallel with R0. Determine the ranges of R and α for the modified circuit.[4](b) A man, on an open wagon of a train travelling along a straight horizontal track at aconstant speed of 10 ms-1 , throws a ball into the air in line with the track, that hejudges to be at 60o to the horizontal. A woman standing on the ground observes the ball rise vertically.How high does the ball rise relative to(i)the man and;(ii)the woman?[5](c)A glass block of refractive index μ = 1.5 has an ‘L’ cross-section, Figure 1.(c), and is ofconstant width and thickness.Figure 1.(c)(i) A laser beam enters the block from the left, as indicated in Figure 1.(c), at anincident angle of θ = 45o. If the block was absent the beam would passthrough the point P. Determine the angle at which the beam will emergefrom the bottom face after refraction through the block.(ii) If this beam enters the block below the horizontal through P, determine itspossible subsequent path(s).[6](d)The largest moon of Jupiter, Ganymede, revolves around the planet in a circular orbitof radius 1.07 x 106 km and period 7.16 days. Determine the mass of Jupiter, M J, in terms of the mass of the Earth, M E.The radius of the Earth R E = 6.38 x 106 m[5](e)Two 1.00 m lengths of wire, one copper and one tungsten, are joined vertically endto end. The copper wire has a diameter of 0.500 mm. When a 100 kg block issuspended from one end, the combined length of wire stretches by 6.00 cm. What is the diameter, d, of the tungsten wire if the Young’s modulus for copper is 12.4 x 1010 Pa, and that for tungsten is 35.5 x 1010 Pa?[6](f)Wood from the coffin of an Egyptian mummy showed a specific activity of 1.2 x 102parable living wood has a value of 2.0 x 102 s-1kg-1. The half life ofcarbon-14 is 5.70 x 103 years. What is the time interval, T B , in years, since the burial?[5](g)Explain why the centre of gravity of a triangular plate lies along a median; the linejoining a vertex to the midpoint of the opposite side. An equilateral triangular plate, sides of length b, has a triangle, formed by two corners and the centre of gravity of the original plate, removed. Determine the centre of gravity of the remaining plate.The centre of gravity of a triangular plate is at a point two thirds along the length ofa median measured from the vertex.[7](h)A vertical U-tube, partially filled with liquid, is accelerated vertically upwards in a lift,acceleration α. What is the effective value of 'g', g v? If the U-tube is mounted in a vehicle accelerating in a horizontal straight line, acceleration a, Figure 1.(h), what is the effective 'g', g h ? Express a in terms of the distance between the arms of the U-tube, L ,and the difference in heights, h, of the liquid in the arms.[7]Figure 1.(h)(i)In Figure 1.(i) a fixed mirror, a light source and a light receiver are all 0.30 km from arotating mirror, with angular frequency ω. The distance between the light source and the receiver is 0.60 m. What is the lowest value of ω required for detection of the reflected light?[4]Figure 1.(i)(j) A car travelling at 90 km/hr in a straight line sounds its horn continuously, frequency 400 Hz, as it passes a stationary observer. At the closest point, A, to the observer the car is at a distance D = 100 m from the observer. Determine the frequency heard by the observer when the car is:(i)at A;(ii)at a distance x from A, after passing AThe velocity of sound is v S = 343 ms-1.[8](k)A ball of mass m and velocity u collides elastically with a larger ball of mass M, initially at rest. The ball of mass m rebounds along its original line of motion with speed v1 and the ball of mass M has velocity v2 in the direction of u.(i)Write down the conservation equations for the system.(ii)Deduce the result that u – v1 = v2.[5](l) A velocity selector, Figure 1.(l) , consists of two slotted discs mounted on a common axis a distance d apart. The slots are displaced relative to each other by an angle θ .The axis is driven at an angular velocity ω . Particles in a horizontal beam, with all possible velocities, will get through the first slit, in the first disc, for a short timeinterval. To subsequently get through the second slit, particles must travel a distanced in the times it takes the second slot to line up with the beam. This will occur, forrotations of the second slit of θ, 2π+θ, 4π+θ ,.. etc.If d =1.00 m, ω = 24,000 rpm and θ = 60o, what are the speeds of those particles that pass through the velocity selector?[5]Figure 1.(l)End of Questions。

物理：absolute acceleration 绝对加速度absolute error 绝对误差absolute motion 绝对运动absolute temperature 绝对温度absolute velocity 绝对速度absolute zero 绝对零度absorption 吸收absorptivity 吸收率accelerated motion 加速运动acceleration of gravity 重力加速度acceleration 加速度accidental error 偶然误差acoustics 声学acting force 作用力adjustment 调节aether 以太air pump 抽气机air table 气垫桌air track 气垫导轨alternating current circuit交流电路alternating currentgenerator 交流发电机alternating current 交流电altimeter 测高仪ammeter 安培计amperemeter 电流计ampere 安培Ampere's experiment 安培实验Ampere's force 安培力Ampere's law 安培定律amperemeter 安培计amplitude 振幅angle of rotation 自转角，转动角angular acceleration 角加速度angular displacement 角位移angular velocity 角速度anion 负离子anisotropy 各向异性annihilation 湮没anode 阳极antenna 天线applied physics 应用物理学Archimedes principle 阿基米德原理area 面积argumentation 论证argument 辐角astigmatoscope 散光镜atomic nucleus 原子核atomic physics 原子物理学atomic spectrum 原子光谱atomic structure 原子结构atom 原子Atwood ' s machine 阿特伍德机average power 平均功率average velocity 平均速度Avogadro constant 阿伏加德罗常数Avogadro law 阿伏加德罗定律balance 天平ballistic galvanometer 冲击电流计band spectrum 带状谱barometer 气压计basic quantity 基本量basic units 基本单位battery charger 电池充电器battery,accumulator 蓄电池battery 电池组beam 光束betatron 电子感应加速器Bohr atom model 玻尔原子模型boiling point 沸点boiling 沸腾bounce 反弹bound charge 束缚电荷bound electron 束缚电子branch circuit 支路breakdown 击穿brightness 亮度buoyancy force 浮力calorifics 热学camera 照相机capacitance 电容capacitor 电容器capillarity 毛细现象cathode ray 阴极射线cathode-ray tube 阴极射线管cathode 阴极cation 正离子cell 电池Celsius scale 摄氏温标centre of gravity 重心centre of mass 质心centrifugal force 离心力centripetal acceleration 向心加速度centripetal force 向心力chain reaction 链式反应chaos 混沌characteristic spectrum 特征光谱charged body 带电体charged particle 带电粒子charge 充电circular hole diffraction 圆孔衍射circular motion 圆周运动classical mechanics 经典力学classical physics 经典物理学cloud chamber 云室coefficient of maximumstatic friction 最大静摩摩系数coefficient of restitution 恢复系数coefficient of slidingfriction 滑动摩擦系数coefficient 系数coherent light 相干光源coil 线圈collision 碰撞component force 分力component velocity 分速度composition of forces 力的合成composition of velocities 速度的合成compression 压缩concave lens 凹透镜concave mirror 凹面镜concurrent force 共点力condensation 凝结condenser 电容器conducting medium 导电介质conductor 导体conservative force field 保守力场conservative force 保守力constant force 恒力constant 常量continuous spectrum 连续谱convergent lens 会聚透镜convex lens 凸透镜convex mirror 凸面镜coordinate system 坐标系coplanar force 共面力Corolis force 科里奥利力corpuscular property 粒子性corpuscular theory 微粒说Coulomb force 库仑力coulomb 库仑Coulomb's law 库仑定律counter 计数器creation 产生creepage 漏电crest 波峰critical angle 临界角critical resistance 临界电阻critical temperature 临界温度crystal 晶体current density 电流密度current element 电流元current source 电流源current strength 电流强度curvilinear motion 曲线运动cyclotron 回旋加速器damped vibration 阻尼振动damping 阻尼Daniell cell 丹聂耳电池data processing 数据处理data 数据decay 衰变definition of ampere 安培的定义defocusing 散集density 密度derived quantity 导出量derived unit 导出单位dielectric 电介质diffraction pattern 衍射图样diffraction 衍射diffuse reflection 漫反射digital timer 数字计时器dimensional exponent 量纲指数dimension 量纲diode 二级管diopter 屈光度direct current, DC 直流direct impact 正碰direct measurement 直接测量discharge 放电disorder 无序dispersion 色散displacement 位移divergent lens 发散透镜Doppler effect 多普勒效应double slit diffraction 双缝衍射driving force 驱动力dry cell 干电池echo 回声eddy current 涡流effective value 有效值elastic body 弹性体elastic force 弹［性］力elasticity 弹性electric charge 电荷electric circuit 电路electric corona 电晕electric energy 电能electric field 电场electric field intensity 电场强度electric field line 电场线electric flux 电通量electric leakage 漏电electric neutrality 电中性electric potential 电位，电势electric potentialdifference 电位差，电势差electric potential energy 电位能electric power 电功率electric quantity 电量electrification 起电electrification by friction 摩擦起电electrified body 带电体electrode 电极electrolysis 电解electrolyte 电解质electromagnetic damping电磁阻尼electromagnetic induction电磁感应electromagnetic radiation电磁辐射electromagnetic wave 电磁波electromagnetic wavespectrum 电磁波谱electromagnetisminduction phenomenon 电磁感应现象electromagnet 电磁体electrometer 静电计electromotive force 电动势electron 电子electron beam 电子束electron cloud 电子云electron microscope 电子显微镜electron volt 电子伏特electroscope 验电器electrostatic equilibrium 静电平衡electrostatic induction 静电感应electrostatic screening 静电屏蔽elementary charge 基本电荷，元电荷energy 能量energy level 能级equilibrium 平衡equilibrium condition 平衡条件equilibrium of forces 力的平衡equilibrium position 平衡位置equilibrium state 平衡态equivalent source theorem等效电源定理erect image 正像error 误差ether 以太evaporation 蒸发excitation 激发excitation state 激发态experiment 实验experimental physics 实验物理学external force 外力eyepiece 目镜far sight 远视Faraday cylinder 法拉第圆筒Faraday law ofelectromagnetic induction法拉第电磁感应定律Faraday's law ofelectromagnetic induct 法拉第电磁感应定律farad 法拉(电容的单位)film interference 薄膜干涉final velocity 末速度first cosmic velocity 第一宇宙速度fission 裂变fixed-axis rotation 定轴转动flotation balance 浮力秤fluid 流体focal length 焦距focusing 调焦，聚焦focus 焦点force 力forced vibration 受迫振动fractal 分形free charge 自由电荷free electron 自由电子free period 自由周期freezing point 凝固点frequency 频率friction force 摩擦力fusion 聚变galvanometer 电流计gas 气体general physics 普通物理学generator 发电机good conductor 良导体gravitation 引力gravity 重力gravitational potential energy 重力势能gravity field 重力场ground earth 接地ground state 基态ground wire 地线hadron 强子half life period 半衰期heat 热heat transfer 传热henry 亨利hertz 赫兹(频率的单位)Hooke law 胡克定律humidity 湿度hydrogen 氢原子hypothesis 假设ice point 冰点ideal gas 理想气体image 像image distance 像距image height 像高imaging 成像imperfect inelastic collision非完全弹性碰撞impulse 冲量incident angle 入射角incident ray 入射线indirect measurement 间接测量induced electric current 感应电流induced electric field 感应电场induction current 感应电流induction electromotiveforce 感应电动势induction motor 感应电动机inertia 惯性inertial force 惯性力inertial system 惯性系infrared ray 红外线infrasonic wave 次声波initial phase 初位相initial velocity 初速度input 输入instantaneous power 瞬时功率instantaneous velocity 瞬时速度instrument 仪器insulated conductor 绝缘导体insulating medium 绝缘介质insulator 绝缘体intensity of sound 声强interference 干涉interference fringe 干涉条纹interference pattern 干涉图样interferometer 干涉仪internal energy 内能internal force 内力internal resistance 内阻intonation 声调inverted image 倒像invisible light 不可见光ion beam 离子束ionization 电离irreversible process 不可逆过程isobaric process 等压过程isobar 等压线isochoric process 等体积过程isothermal 等温线isothermal process 等温过程isotope 同位素isotropy 各向同性joule 焦耳（功的单位）Joule heat 焦耳热Joule law 焦耳定律Joule' law 焦耳定律Kepler law 开普勒定律kinematics 运动学kinetic energy 动能Laplace's equation 拉普拉斯方程laser 激光，激光器law 定律law of conservation ofangular momentum 角动量守恒定律law of conservation ofenergy 能量守恒定律law of conservation ofmass 质量守恒定律law of conservation ofmechanical energy 机械能守恒定律law of conservation ofmomentum 动量守恒定律law of electric chargeconservation 电荷守恒定律Le Système International d` Unit è s 国际单位制(SI)lead 导线length 长度lens 透镜lens formula 透镜公式Lenz's law 楞次定律lepton 轻子Light ray 光线light source 光源light wave 光波lightning rod 避雷针light 光line spectrum 线状谱lines of current 电流线lines of force of electricfield 电力线liquefaction 液化liquefaction point 液化点liquid 液体longitudinal wave 纵波loop 回路Lorentz force 洛仑兹力luminous intensity 发光强度magnetic field 磁场magnetic field intensity 磁场强度magnetic field line 磁场线magnetic induction flux 磁感应通量magnetic induction 磁感应强度magnetic induction line 磁感应线magnetic material 磁性材料magnetic needle 磁针magnetic pole 磁极magnetics 磁学magnetism 磁学magnetization 磁化magnet 磁体magnification 放大率magnifier 放大镜，放大器manometer 流体压强计mass 质量mass defect 质量亏损mass-energy equation 质能方程matter 物质matter wave 物质波Maxwell's equations 麦克斯韦方程组mean speed 平均速率mean velocity 平均速度measurement 测量mechanical energy 机械能mechanical motion 机械运动mechanical vibration 机械振动mechanics 力学medium 介质melting fusion 熔化melting point 熔点metre rule 米尺microdetector 灵敏电流计micrometer caliper 螺旋测微器microscope 显微镜microscopic particle 微观粒子mirror reflection 镜面反射mirror 镜mixed unit system 混合单位制modern physics 现代物理学molar volume 摩尔体积molecular spectrum 分子光谱molecular structure 分子结构moment of force 力矩momentum ofelectromagnetic field 电磁场的动量momentum 动量motor 电动机multimeter 多用［电］表musical quality 音色N pole 北极natural frequency 固有频率natural light 自然光negative charge 负电荷negative crystal 负晶体negative ion 负离子negative plate 负极板network 网络neutralization 中和neutron 中子newton 牛顿（力的单位）Newton first law 牛顿第一定律Newton second law 牛顿第二定律Newton third law 牛顿第三定律nonequilibrium state 非平衡态north pole 北极nucleus force 核力nucleus of condensation 凝结核object 物object distance 物距object height 物高objective 物镜observation 观察Oersted's experiment 奥斯特实验ohm 欧姆Ohm law 欧姆定律ohmmeter 欧姆计Ohm's law 欧姆定律open circuit 开路optical bench 光具座optical centre of lens 透镜光心optical fiber 光导纤维optical glass 光学玻璃optical instrument 光学仪器optical lever 光杠杆optical path difference 光程差optical path 光程(路)optically denser medium光密介质optically thinner medium光疏介质optics 光学orbit 轨道order 有序oscillograph 示波器output 输出overweight 超重parallel connection ofcondensers 电容器的并联parallelogram rule 平行四边形定律parallel-resonance circuit并联谐振电路parameter 参量particle 质点，粒子Pascal law 帕斯卡定律path 路程peak 峰值pendulum 摆penumbra 半影perfect conductor 理想导体perfect elastic collision 完全弹性碰撞perfect inelastic collision 完全非弹性碰撞periodicity 周期性period 周期periscope 潜望镜permanent magnet 永磁体permittivity of vacuum 真空介电常数permittivity 电容率phase 位相phenomenon 现象photocurrent 光电流photoelectric cell 光电管photoelectric effect 光电效应photoelectron 光电子photography 照相术photon 光子physical balance 物理天平physical quantity 物理量physics 物理学piezometer 压强计pitch 音调Planck constant 普朗克常量plasma 等离子体point charge 点电荷polarization 偏振polarized light 偏振光polycrystal 多晶体poor conductor 不良导体positive charge 正电荷positive crystal 正晶体positive ion 正离子positive plate 正极板positron 正电子potential energy 势能potentiometer 电位差计power 功率pressure 压强，压力primary coil 原线圈principle of constancy oflight velocity 光速不变原理prism 棱镜projectile 抛体projectile motion 抛体运动projector 投影仪proton 质子pulley 滑轮pulley block 滑轮组quantity of heat 热量quantization 量子化quantum 量子quantum mechanics 量子力学quantum number 量子数radar 雷达radioactive source 放射源radius of gyration 回旋半径random motion 无规则运动range 量程rated voltage 额定电压reacting force 反作用力real image 实像real object 实物reasoning 推理recoil 反冲rectilinear motion 直线运动reference frame 参考系，坐标系reference system 参考系reflected angle 反射角reflected ray 反射线reflection coefficient 反射系数reflection law 反射定律reflectivity 反射率refracted angle 折射角refracted ray 折射线refraction law 折射定律refraction coefficient 折射系数refractive index 折射率relative acceleration 相对加速度relative error 相对误差relative motion 相对运动relative velocity 相对速度relativity 相对论resistance 电阻resistance box 电阻箱resistivity 电阻率resistor 电阻［器］resolution of force 力的分解resolution of velocity 速度的分解resonance 共振，共鸣resonant frequency 共振频率resultant force 合力resultant velocity 合速度reversibility of optical path光路可逆性reversible process 可逆过程rheostat 变阻器right-hand screw rule 右手螺旋定则rocker 火箭rotating magnetic field 旋转磁场rotation 自转，转动Rutherford scattering 卢瑟福散射Rutherford ［α-particlescattering］experiment 卢瑟福［α散射］实验S pole 南极saturation 饱和scalar 标量scalar field 标量场scanner 扫描器second cosmic velocity 第二宇宙速度selective absorption 选择吸收self-induced electromotiveforce 自感电动势self-inductance 自感self-inductionphenomenon 自感系数semiconductor 半导体semi-transparent film 半透膜sensitive galvanometer 灵敏电流计sensitivity 灵敏度sensitometer 感光计sensor 传感器series connection of condensers 电容器的串联series-resonance circuit 串联谐振电路short circuit 短路short sight 近视shunt resistor 分流电阻significant figure 有效数字simple harmonic motion (SHM) 简谐运动simple harmonic wave 简谐波simple pendulum 单摆single crystal （monocrystal）单晶体single slit diffraction 单缝衍射sinusoidal alternatingcurrent 简谐交流电sinusoidal current 正弦式电流sliding friction 滑动摩擦slit 狭缝solar cell 太阳能电池solenoid 螺线管solidification 凝固solidifying point 凝固点solid 固体solution 溶液solvation 溶解sonar 声纳sound source 声源sound velocity 声速sound wave 声波sound 声［音］source 电源south pole 南极space 空间spark discharge 火花放电special relativity 狭义相对论specific heat capacity 比热容spectacles 眼镜spectral analysis 光谱分析spectral line ［光］谱线spectrograph 摄谱仪spectrography 摄谱学spectroscopy 光谱学spectrum 光谱speed 速率spherical mirror 球面镜spontaneous radiation 自发辐射spring balance 弹簧秤stability 稳定性stabilized current supply稳流电源stabilized voltage supply稳压电源standard atmosphericpressure 标准大气压standard cell 标准电池standing wave 驻波static friction 静摩擦stationary state 定态steady current 恒定电流steady current source 恒流源steady voltage source 恒压源steam point 汽点stiffness 劲度［系数］stimulated radiation 受激辐射stop watch 停表sublimation 升华superconductivity 超导［电］性superconductor 超导体superposition principle of electric field 电场强度叠加原理superposition theorem 叠加定律supersaturation 过度饱和supersonic speed 超声速supersonic wave 超声波supply transformer 电源变压器surface resistance 表面电阻switch 开关system of concurrentforces 共点力系system of particles 质点系system of units 单位制systematic error 系统误差telescope 望远镜temperature 温度tension 张力the law of gravity 万有引力定律theorem 原理theorem of kinetic energy动能定理theorem of momentum 动量定理theoretical physics 理论物理学theory 理论thermal capacity 热容［量］thermal equilibrium 热平衡thermal motion 热运动thermal transmission 传热thermodynamic scale ［oftemperature］热力学温标thermodynamictemperature 热力学温度thermometer 温度计thermometric scale 温标thermonuclear reaction 热核反应thick lens 厚透镜thin lens 薄透镜third cosmic velocity 第三宇宙速度three-phase alternatingcurrent 三相［交变］电流time 时间timer 定时器，计时器torsion balance 扭秤total reflection 全反射trajectory 轨道transformer 变压器transistor 晶体管transition 跃迁translation 平移transmission line 传输线transmissivity 透射率transverse wave 横波triboelectrification 摩擦起电triode 三极管trough 波谷tuning fork 音叉turbulent flow 湍流ultrasound wave 超声波ultraviolet ray 紫外线umbra 本影undulatory property 波动性uniform dielectric 均匀电介质uniform motion 匀速运动unit 单位unit system 单位制universal constant 普适常量universal gravitation 万有引力universal meter 多用［电］表vacuum tube 真空管vacuum 真空value of amplitude 幅值vaporization 汽化variable 变量vector 矢量velocity of light 光速velocity 速度verification 验证vernier 游标vernier caliper 游标卡尺vibration 振动viewing angle 视角viewing field 视场virtual image 虚像virtual object 虚物virtual value 有效值visibility 可见度visible light 可见光voltage 电压voltage division circuit 分压电路voltaic cell 伏打电池voltmeter 伏特计voltmeter-ammetermethod 伏安法volt 伏特volume 体积vortex electric field 涡旋电场watt 瓦特wave equation 波动方程wave theory 波动说wavelength 波长wave-particle dualism 波粒二象性wave 波weight 重量weightlessness 失重white light 白光work 功work function 逸出功X-ray X射线Young experiment 杨氏实验zero line 零线α -decay α衰变α -particle α粒子α -ray α射线β -decay β衰变β -ray β射线γ -decay γ衰变γ -ray γ射线。

物理：absolute acceleration 绝对加速度absolute error 绝对误差absolute motion 绝对运动absolute temperature 绝对温度absolute velocity 绝对速度absolute zero 绝对零度absorption 吸收absorptivity 吸收率accelerated motion 加速运动acceleration of gravity 重力加速度acceleration 加速度accidental error 偶然误差acoustics 声学acting force 作用力adjustment 调节aether 以太air pump 抽气机air table 气垫桌air track 气垫导轨alternating current circuit 交流电路alternating current generator交流发电机alternating current 交流电altimeter 测高仪ammeter 安培计amperemeter 电流计ampere 安培Ampere's experiment 安培实验Ampere's force 安培力Ampere's law 安培定律amperemeter 安培计amplitude 振幅angle of rotation 自转角，转动角angular acceleration 角加速度angular displacement 角位移angular velocity 角速度anion 负离子anisotropy 各向异性annihilation 湮没anode 阳极antenna 天线applied physics 应用物理学Archimedes principle 阿基米德原理area 面积argumentation 论证argument 辐角astigmatoscope 散光镜atomic nucleus 原子核atomic physics 原子物理学atomic spectrum 原子光谱atomic structure 原子结构atom 原子Atwood ' s machine 阿特伍德机average power 平均功率average velocity 平均速度Avogadro constant 阿伏加德罗常数Avogadro law 阿伏加德罗定律balance 天平ballistic galvanometer 冲击电流计band spectrum 带状谱barometer 气压计basic quantity 基本量basic units 基本单位battery charger 电池充电器battery,accumulator 蓄电池battery 电池组beam 光束betatron 电子感应加速器Bohr atom model 玻尔原子模型boiling point 沸点boiling 沸腾bounce 反弹bound charge 束缚电荷bound electron 束缚电子branch circuit 支路breakdown 击穿brightness 亮度buoyancy force 浮力calorifics 热学camera 照相机capacitance 电容capacitor 电容器capillarity 毛细现象cathode ray 阴极射线cathode-ray tube 阴极射线管cathode 阴极cation 正离子cell 电池Celsius scale 摄氏温标centre of gravity 重心centre of mass 质心centrifugal force 离心力centripetal acceleration 向心加速度centripetal force 向心力chain reaction 链式反应chaos 混沌characteristic spectrum 特征光谱charged body 带电体charged particle 带电粒子charge 充电circular hole diffraction 圆孔衍射circular motion 圆周运动classical mechanics 经典力学classical physics 经典物理学cloud chamber 云室coefficient of maximum staticfriction 最大静摩摩系数coefficient of restitution 恢复系数coefficient of sliding friction滑动摩擦系数coefficient 系数coherent light 相干光源coil 线圈collision 碰撞component force 分力component velocity 分速度composition of forces 力的合成composition of velocities 速度的合成compression 压缩concave lens 凹透镜concave mirror 凹面镜concurrent force 共点力condensation 凝结condenser 电容器conducting medium 导电介质conductor 导体conservative force field 保守力场conservative force 保守力constant force 恒力constant 常量continuous spectrum 连续谱convergent lens 会聚透镜convex lens 凸透镜convex mirror 凸面镜coordinate system 坐标系coplanar force 共面力Corolis force 科里奥利力corpuscular property 粒子性corpuscular theory 微粒说Coulomb force 库仑力coulomb 库仑Coulomb's law 库仑定律counter 计数器creation 产生creepage 漏电crest 波峰critical angle 临界角critical resistance 临界电阻critical temperature 临界温度crystal 晶体current density 电流密度current element 电流元current source 电流源current strength 电流强度curvilinear motion 曲线运动cyclotron 回旋加速器damped vibration 阻尼振动damping 阻尼Daniell cell 丹聂耳电池data processing 数据处理data 数据decay 衰变definition of ampere 安培的定义defocusing 散集density 密度derived quantity 导出量derived unit 导出单位dielectric 电介质diffraction pattern 衍射图样diffraction 衍射diffuse reflection 漫反射digital timer 数字计时器dimensional exponent 量纲指数dimension 量纲diode 二级管diopter 屈光度direct current, DC 直流direct impact 正碰direct measurement 直接测量discharge 放电disorder 无序dispersion 色散displacement 位移divergent lens 发散透镜Doppler effect 多普勒效应double slit diffraction 双缝衍射driving force 驱动力dry cell 干电池echo 回声eddy current 涡流effective value 有效值elastic body 弹性体elastic force 弹［性］力elasticity 弹性electric charge 电荷electric circuit 电路electric corona 电晕electric energy 电能electric field 电场electric field intensity 电场强度electric field line 电场线electric flux 电通量electric leakage 漏电electric neutrality 电中性electric potential 电位，电势electric potential difference电位差，电势差electric potential energy 电位能electric power 电功率electric quantity 电量electrification 起电electrification by friction 摩擦起电electrified body 带电体electrode 电极electrolysis 电解electrolyte 电解质electromagnetic damping 电磁阻尼electromagnetic induction 电磁感应electromagnetic radiation 电磁辐射electromagnetic wave 电磁波electromagnetic wave spectrum电磁波谱electromagnetism inductionphenomenon 电磁感应现象electromagnet 电磁体electrometer 静电计electromotive force 电动势electron 电子electron beam 电子束electron cloud 电子云electron microscope 电子显微镜electron volt 电子伏特electroscope 验电器electrostatic equilibrium 静电平衡electrostatic induction 静电感应electrostatic screening 静电屏蔽elementary charge 基本电荷，元电荷energy 能量energy level 能级equilibrium 平衡equilibrium condition 平衡条件equilibrium of forces 力的平衡equilibrium position 平衡位置equilibrium state 平衡态equivalent source theorem 等效电源定理erect image 正像error 误差ether 以太evaporation 蒸发excitation 激发excitation state 激发态experiment 实验experimental physics 实验物理学external force 外力eyepiece 目镜far sight 远视Faraday cylinder 法拉第圆筒Faraday law of electromagnetic induction 法拉第电磁感应定律Faraday's law of electromagnetic induct 法拉第电磁感应定律farad 法拉(电容的单位)film interference 薄膜干涉final velocity 末速度first cosmic velocity 第一宇宙速度fission 裂变fixed-axis rotation 定轴转动flotation balance 浮力秤fluid 流体focal length 焦距focusing 调焦，聚焦focus 焦点force 力forced vibration 受迫振动fractal 分形free charge 自由电荷free electron 自由电子free period 自由周期freezing point 凝固点frequency 频率friction force 摩擦力fusion 聚变galvanometer 电流计gas 气体general physics 普通物理学generator 发电机good conductor 良导体gravitation 引力gravity 重力gravitational potential energy重力势能gravity field 重力场ground earth 接地ground state 基态ground wire 地线hadron 强子half life period 半衰期heat 热heat transfer 传热henry 亨利hertz 赫兹(频率的单位)Hooke law 胡克定律humidity 湿度hydrogen 氢原子hypothesis 假设ice point 冰点ideal gas 理想气体image 像image distance 像距image height 像高imaging 成像imperfect inelastic collision非完全弹性碰撞impulse 冲量incident angle 入射角incident ray 入射线indirect measurement 间接测量induced electric current 感应电流induced electric field 感应电场induction current 感应电流induction electromotive force感应电动势induction motor 感应电动机inertia 惯性inertial force 惯性力inertial system 惯性系infrared ray 红外线infrasonic wave 次声波initial phase 初位相initial velocity 初速度input 输入instantaneous power 瞬时功率instantaneous velocity 瞬时速度instrument 仪器insulated conductor 绝缘导体insulating medium 绝缘介质insulator 绝缘体intensity of sound 声强interference 干涉interference fringe 干涉条纹interference pattern 干涉图样interferometer 干涉仪internal energy 内能internal force 内力internal resistance 内阻intonation 声调inverted image 倒像invisible light 不可见光ion beam 离子束ionization 电离irreversible process 不可逆过程isobaric process 等压过程isobar 等压线isochoric process 等体积过程isothermal 等温线isothermal process 等温过程isotope 同位素isotropy 各向同性joule 焦耳（功的单位）Joule heat 焦耳热Joule law 焦耳定律Joule' law 焦耳定律Kepler law 开普勒定律kinematics 运动学kinetic energy 动能Laplace's equation 拉普拉斯方程laser 激光，激光器law 定律law of conservation of angularmomentum 角动量守恒定律law of conservation of energy 能量守恒定律law of conservation of mass 质量守恒定律law of conservation ofmechanical energy 机械能守恒定律law of conservation of momentum动量守恒定律law of electric chargeconservation 电荷守恒定律Le Systèm e International d ` Unitè s 国际单位制(SI)lead 导线length 长度lens 透镜lens formula 透镜公式Lenz's law 楞次定律lepton 轻子Light ray 光线light source 光源light wave 光波lightning rod 避雷针light 光line spectrum 线状谱lines of current 电流线lines of force of electric field电力线liquefaction 液化liquefaction point 液化点liquid 液体longitudinal wave 纵波loop 回路Lorentz force 洛仑兹力luminous intensity 发光强度magnetic field 磁场magnetic field intensity 磁场强度magnetic field line 磁场线magnetic induction flux 磁感应通量magnetic induction 磁感应强度magnetic induction line 磁感应线magnetic material 磁性材料magnetic needle 磁针magnetic pole 磁极magnetics 磁学magnetism 磁学magnetization 磁化magnet 磁体magnification 放大率magnifier 放大镜，放大器manometer 流体压强计mass 质量mass defect 质量亏损mass-energy equation 质能方程matter 物质matter wave 物质波Maxwell's equations 麦克斯韦方程组mean speed 平均速率mean velocity 平均速度measurement 测量mechanical energy 机械能mechanical motion 机械运动mechanical vibration 机械振动mechanics 力学medium 介质melting fusion 熔化melting point 熔点metre rule 米尺microdetector 灵敏电流计micrometer caliper 螺旋测微器microscope 显微镜microscopic particle 微观粒子mirror reflection 镜面反射mirror 镜mixed unit system 混合单位制modern physics 现代物理学molar volume 摩尔体积molecular spectrum 分子光谱molecular structure 分子结构moment of force 力矩momentum of electromagneticfield 电磁场的动量momentum 动量motor 电动机multimeter 多用［电］表musical quality 音色N pole 北极natural frequency 固有频率natural light 自然光negative charge 负电荷negative crystal 负晶体negative ion 负离子negative plate 负极板network 网络neutralization 中和neutron 中子newton 牛顿（力的单位）Newton first law 牛顿第一定律Newton second law 牛顿第二定律Newton third law 牛顿第三定律nonequilibrium state 非平衡态north pole 北极nucleus force 核力nucleus of condensation 凝结核object 物object distance 物距object height 物高objective 物镜observation 观察Oersted's experiment 奥斯特实验ohm 欧姆Ohm law 欧姆定律ohmmeter 欧姆计Ohm's law 欧姆定律open circuit 开路optical bench 光具座optical centre of lens 透镜光心optical fiber 光导纤维optical glass 光学玻璃optical instrument 光学仪器optical lever 光杠杆optical path difference 光程差optical path 光程(路)optically denser medium 光密介质optically thinner medium 光疏介质optics 光学orbit 轨道order 有序oscillograph 示波器output 输出overweight 超重parallel connection of condensers 电容器的并联parallelogram rule 平行四边形定律parallel-resonance circuit 并联谐振电路parameter 参量particle 质点，粒子Pascal law 帕斯卡定律path 路程peak 峰值pendulum 摆penumbra 半影perfect conductor 理想导体perfect elastic collision 完全弹性碰撞perfect inelastic collision 完全非弹性碰撞periodicity 周期性period 周期periscope 潜望镜permanent magnet 永磁体permittivity of vacuum 真空介电常数permittivity 电容率phase 位相phenomenon 现象photocurrent 光电流photoelectric cell 光电管photoelectric effect 光电效应photoelectron 光电子photography 照相术photon 光子physical balance 物理天平physical quantity 物理量physics 物理学piezometer 压强计pitch 音调Planck constant 普朗克常量plasma 等离子体point charge 点电荷polarization 偏振polarized light 偏振光polycrystal 多晶体poor conductor 不良导体positive charge 正电荷positive crystal 正晶体positive ion 正离子positive plate 正极板positron 正电子potential energy 势能potentiometer 电位差计power 功率pressure 压强，压力primary coil 原线圈principle of constancy of lightvelocity 光速不变原理prism 棱镜projectile 抛体projectile motion 抛体运动projector 投影仪proton 质子pulley 滑轮pulley block 滑轮组quantity of heat 热量quantization 量子化quantum 量子quantum mechanics 量子力学quantum number 量子数radar 雷达radioactive source 放射源radius of gyration 回旋半径random motion 无规则运动range 量程rated voltage 额定电压reacting force 反作用力real image 实像real object 实物reasoning 推理recoil 反冲rectilinear motion 直线运动reference frame 参考系，坐标系reference system 参考系reflected angle 反射角reflected ray 反射线reflection coefficient 反射系数reflection law 反射定律reflectivity 反射率refracted angle 折射角refracted ray 折射线refraction law 折射定律refraction coefficient 折射系数refractive index 折射率relative acceleration 相对加速度relative error 相对误差relative motion 相对运动relative velocity 相对速度relativity 相对论resistance 电阻resistance box 电阻箱resistivity 电阻率resistor 电阻［器］resolution of force 力的分解resolution of velocity 速度的分解resonance 共振，共鸣resonant frequency 共振频率resultant force 合力resultant velocity 合速度reversibility of optical path 光路可逆性reversible process 可逆过程rheostat 变阻器right-hand screw rule 右手螺旋定则rocker 火箭rotating magnetic field 旋转磁场rotation 自转，转动Rutherford scattering 卢瑟福散射Rutherford ［α-particlescattering］ experiment 卢瑟福［α散射］实验S pole 南极saturation 饱和scalar 标量scalar field 标量场scanner 扫描器second cosmic velocity 第二宇宙速度selective absorption 选择吸收self-induced electromotiveforce 自感电动势self-inductance 自感self-induction phenomenon 自感系数semiconductor 半导体semi-transparent film 半透膜sensitive galvanometer 灵敏电流计sensitivity 灵敏度sensitometer 感光计sensor 传感器series connection of condensers电容器的串联series-resonance circuit 串联谐振电路short circuit 短路short sight 近视shunt resistor 分流电阻significant figure 有效数字simple harmonic motion (SHM) 简谐运动simple harmonic wave 简谐波simple pendulum 单摆single crystal（monocrystal）单晶体single slit diffraction 单缝衍射sinusoidal alternating current简谐交流电sinusoidal current 正弦式电流sliding friction 滑动摩擦slit 狭缝solar cell 太阳能电池solenoid 螺线管solidification 凝固solidifying point 凝固点solid 固体solution 溶液solvation 溶解sonar 声纳sound source 声源sound velocity 声速sound wave 声波sound 声［音］source 电源south pole 南极space 空间spark discharge 火花放电special relativity 狭义相对论specific heat capacity 比热容spectacles 眼镜spectral analysis 光谱分析spectral line ［光］谱线spectrograph 摄谱仪spectrography 摄谱学spectroscopy 光谱学spectrum 光谱speed 速率spherical mirror 球面镜spontaneous radiation 自发辐射spring balance 弹簧秤stability 稳定性stabilized current supply 稳流电源stabilized voltage supply 稳压电源standard atmospheric pressure标准大气压standard cell 标准电池standing wave 驻波static friction 静摩擦stationary state 定态steady current 恒定电流steady current source 恒流源steady voltage source 恒压源steam point 汽点stiffness 劲度［系数］stimulated radiation 受激辐射stop watch 停表sublimation 升华superconductivity 超导［电］性superconductor 超导体superposition principle ofelectric field 电场强度叠加原理superposition theorem 叠加定律supersaturation 过度饱和supersonic speed 超声速supersonic wave 超声波supply transformer 电源变压器surface resistance 表面电阻switch 开关system of concurrent forces 共点力系system of particles 质点系system of units 单位制systematic error 系统误差telescope 望远镜temperature 温度tension 张力the law of gravity 万有引力定律theorem 原理theorem of kinetic energy 动能定理theorem of momentum 动量定理theoretical physics 理论物理学theory 理论thermal capacity 热容［量］thermal equilibrium 热平衡thermal motion 热运动thermal transmission 传热thermodynamic scale ［oftemperature］热力学温标thermodynamic temperature 热力学温度thermometer 温度计thermometric scale 温标thermonuclear reaction 热核反应thick lens 厚透镜thin lens 薄透镜third cosmic velocity 第三宇宙速度three-phase alternating current三相［交变］电流time 时间timer 定时器，计时器torsion balance 扭秤total reflection 全反射trajectory 轨道transformer 变压器transistor 晶体管transition 跃迁translation 平移transmission line 传输线transmissivity 透射率transverse wave 横波triboelectrification 摩擦起电triode 三极管trough 波谷tuning fork 音叉turbulent flow 湍流ultrasound wave 超声波ultraviolet ray 紫外线umbra 本影undulatory property 波动性uniform dielectric 均匀电介质uniform motion 匀速运动unit 单位unit system 单位制universal constant 普适常量universal gravitation 万有引力universal meter 多用［电］表vacuum tube 真空管vacuum 真空value of amplitude 幅值vaporization 汽化variable 变量vector 矢量velocity of light 光速velocity 速度verification 验证vernier 游标vernier caliper 游标卡尺vibration 振动viewing angle 视角viewing field 视场virtual image 虚像virtual object 虚物virtual value 有效值visibility 可见度visible light 可见光voltage 电压voltage division circuit 分压电路voltaic cell 伏打电池voltmeter 伏特计voltmeter-ammeter method 伏安法volt 伏特volume 体积vortex electric field 涡旋电场watt 瓦特wave equation 波动方程wave theory 波动说wavelength 波长wave-particle dualism 波粒二象性wave 波weight 重量weightlessness 失重white light 白光work 功work function 逸出功X-ray X射线Young experiment 杨氏实验zero line 零线α -decay α衰变α -particle α粒子α -ray α射线β -decay β衰变β -ray β射线γ -decay γ衰变γ -ray γ射线。

MECH 496Praxim: TechanicalAnalysis Report Technical review of gravity compensationDavy Chui, Nicholas Adams, David Mountford, Ibrahim Gadala, Erica Wodzak4/6/2010Gravity compensation has been revisited to assess the need for rotational gravity compensation mechanism for a four link uni-compartmental knee bone cutting deviceGravity CompensationThis section analyses gravity compensation techniques to be implemented on the device. BackgroundThe goal of this technical analysis is to design a method to minimize the effect of unbalanced forces on the user experience of bone cutting while using the four linkage uni-compartmental knee bone cutting device. The device is required to limit the user input needed during operation to 2kg. This force is described as the operational weight of the device. Gravity compensation can be used to reduce the operation weight and consists of two components;(1) The ability to impede the vertical motion of the tool with respect to the device bone mount(2) The ability to impede device rotation about the joint located at the device bone mount Early analysis suggested that 80% of users are satisfied if the force required to stabilize the device isapproximately 1 kg. As a result, gravity compensation measures will be implemented to reduce the operation weight of the device to 10N. Figure 1 shows the user satisfaction curve for the operational weight of the device.Figure 1: Plot of the predicted user satisfaction at different operational weightsRotational Gravity CompensationFigure 2 shows an overview of the rotational gravity compensation problem. The joint located at the bone mount in Figure 2 is free to rotate about the y-axis. If the tool a distance D x away from the bone mount joint the weight of the tool and surrounding links create a moment about the bone mount joint that the user must resist. A gravity compensation mechanism used to minimize this moment should apply a torque to the radial link that resists both clockwise and anticlockwise rotation without having significant impact on the feel of the device at the hard surface.-Figure 2: Simplified linkage diagram for rotational gravity compensationTechnical AnalysisIn order to determine the torque needed to implement effective gravity compensation, the torque produced at different angles has been determined for the four linkage mechanism. A list of input variables used in the model is included in in Appendix B. The link lengths chosen fulfill all envelope requirements, and the link masses have been generated from the Solidworks model using 303 stainless steel. In the model the x component of the centre of gravity of each link with respect to the bone mount joint is determined and used to compute the moment about the bone mount joint at multiple tool positions and device orientations.Three angles were varied in the analysis, (1) θR – the angle of the radial links with respect to the bone mount, (2) θ12 – the angle t hat varies the linear length of the radial links, and (3) θ54 - the angle of theToolWeightxzGravitytool link with respect to the horizontal plane. Plots for each are shown below and the red box highlights the predicted operating range for each link.ResultsFigure 3 shows that the torque is largely symmetrical about the vertical plane - where θR = 0.The maximum torque generated around the bone mount joint with the operating range is 1.3 Nm, which corresponds to a user force of 9N. This value is based on the curve at 180 degrees, where the radial links are at full length and is not within the predicted operating range.Gravity compensation, such as a resistive joint shown in Figure 4, could be implemented to reduce the torque at the extremes of the range. This reduction would shift the ideal – zero torque – operating zone away from the vertical position shown in Figure 3 to an intermediate position shown by the red circles in Figure 4. The exact zero torque position will vary with the length of the radial links. This scheme would also increase the torque when moving in the opposite direction to over 2Nm in some positions.Figure 3: Plot of torque with respect to θR at increments of θ12Figure 4: Plot of torque with and without resistive joint gravity compensationFigure 4 shows the torque generated about the bone mount and how it changes with the linear length of the radial joints. The maximum torque of 1.55Nm corresponds to the device position when the radial links are completely horizontal, and as in Figure 3 this position is not part of the predicted operating range. A resistive joint could be used to shift the curve downwards and reduce the total torque generated by half.Figure 5: Plot of torque with respect to θ12 at increments ofθRFigure 5 shows the torque generated about the bone mount due to user motion along the y-axis. The maximum torque range of 0.2N is considerably smaller than that generated by the other two links. A resistive joint would not be beneficial for this joint.Figure 6: Plot of torque with respect to θ54 at increments of θRCommentaryThe figures above show that a resistive joint gravity compensation mechanism could effectively reduce maximum torque generated about the bone mount when moving away from the vertical position. Such a mechanism would likely come at the expensive of user feel because the force the user must provide will change direction throughout the operation, and the overall range of force the user must provide will increase.The total effect of torque generated due to rotation about the bone mount is significant in comparison to both overall user satisfaction and the total weight of the linkages. At 80% user satisfaction the maximum for a user will implement is 10N, equal to the maximum force created due to the rotation effects. If no linear spring mechanism is used to impede the vertical motion of the tool with respect to the device bone mount, the maximum operating weight of the device will be approximately 1.8 kg corresponding to a user satisfaction of 20%. However the rotational forces and linear forces are maximized in different orientations, and will not affect the user at the sometime. As a result no rotation gravity compensation mechanism will be implemented on the device because overall satisfaction meets user requirements, but a vertical gravity compensation spring will be sized once prototype construction is complete. There will be safety issues because the joint is unrestrained that must be addressed before the device can be considered for human trials.Appendix A: Gravity Compensation Parameters Table 1 – List of input variables used for moment analysisTable 2 – Table of maximum and minimum link ranges。

一个步枪枪机是与枪管在枪管尾端相连的,它在枪弹的后面并且结束了枪膛的尾端还支持枪弹的基座抵御火药产生的气的压力。

步枪枪机由一个包含一个枪机的接收器，它扣得很紧以便保持气压,而且保证该枪通过在枪管尾端装好枪弹而准备就绪。

该枪机在中心被刺出以连接击针,该击针被击针锤发动,当扳机被压下时飞出同时在起爆药或雷管处摩擦引爆装置。

这个机构在被摩擦之后,爆炸并放出一股热的激烈的火焰来点燃发射药。

该发射药燃烧同时引导一股非常快速的喷气，点燃枪弹穿出枪膛并且冲出膛口,最终以一种高速射向外部空间，这样子弹将会飞出相当远的距离并或多或少摧毁任何它袭击的物体。

扳机和击发机构定义一个击发机构是通过枪弹给雷管提供能量的方式。

一个扳机机构是被击发机构控制的机构。

概论在轻武器中,击发机构的击发类型基本不变,它是被机械控制的。

电力起爆药在这个领域和大量轻武器弹药被生产的地方有技术上的缺陷,他们要贵得多。

这不是说未来的轻武器有可能不会受益于电子或电力发动。

现在电力起爆药和桥式线路类型,或使用一个导电的雷管装置,很少被装入来复枪卡钳的枪弹。

他们是,然而,被广泛的运用于20 mm 和30 mm 的枪。

当一个击发雷管被装入一个小型武器的一发子弹,这对击发机构是必要的，去传递一个推力，这个推力会提供需求的不是很大的能量。

比如7.62 mm NATO round functions on about 0.4J of energy.It is usual to employ the term ‘撞针’ when the energy supplied comes either from a 弹簧associated permanently with the 撞针,or when utilizing the kinetic energy of some mass to which the 撞针is attached;e.g,the piston post of a gas operated LMG,or the bolt of a SMG which has a fixed 撞针.When the part that contacts the 雷管obtains its energy from a separate source,it is referred to as a ‘撞针’.For example,where the 击发机构consists of a spring operated hammer,that hammer drives forward a ‘撞针’.Ths terminology is equally applicable to electrical firing.撞针撞针can be free floating or spring retracted.Free floating 撞针s must be designed with some care,otherwise there is a possibility that sufficiently large inertia forces can be generated when the weapon is swung or dropped,to fire the 雷管.Even if immediate firing is not produced,repeated light taps of a free floating 撞针may eventually fire the 雷管.This occurred with early versions of the AR-15 rifle.撞针的其它方面和撞针的参考价值有:·额外的突出物将会产生锋利的雷管.•额外的撞针的动力将会产生锋利的雷管.•一个尖利的撞针将会产生锋利的雷管.•该撞针必需与雷管保持联系并且必需在弹膛压力升高的时候被充分的支持,以防止雷管的贯穿同时允许高压气冲出并进入枪机里的撞针孔.With a 撞针that passes through the 枪机,回火处理的问题变得很重要. If it is too brittle, it can break, and leave a portion permanently projecting to act as a fixed 撞针, with the result that round can be fired before the bolt is fully closed. If it is too soft, it will bend and cannot be withdrawn in to the bolt.TerminologyThere are certain terms that are used with trigger and 击发机构s and these are defined below:•BentA recess in some part of the 击发机构by which the forward movement of the 撞针may be held up.•SearA component of the trigger 机构that engages in the bent. It is controlled by the trigger. When it is removed from the bent, the latter can move forward and firing begins. When it is engaged in the bent, firing ceases.•CockingThe preparation of the 击发机构for firing. It usually involves the storing of energy in a spring and the engagement of the sear in the bent.•Lock TimeThis is the time that elapses between operation of the trigger and 雷管initiation. It is largely a function of whether a ‘closed’ or ‘open’ breech system is used.Open Breech/Bolt SystemWhen the gun is ready to fire, the breech block or bolt is held in the open or rear position. The return spring is under compression and the next round to be fired is still positioned in the conveyor. Operation of the trigger releases the bolt which goes forward, collects a round from the conveyor, chambers it and then support that round in the chamber. According to the system of operation, the round is fired automatically as soon as the support is complete. A considerable time passes between the firer pressing his trigger and the 雷管being struck, which in a GPMG will be of the order of 25ms. Release of the trigger causes a re-engagement of the sear in the bent and the breech block is again held up to the rear ,leaving the chamber open.This system has two obvious advantages:•A round is never left in the chamber with the risk of cocking off which is present when the chamber is hot after prolonged firing.•The firer does not have to re-cock a heavy breech block against the strength of the return spring whenever he requires to clear the chamber.There are some disadvantages produced by the movement of the bolt during the lock time. These are:•The change of the centre of gravity of the gun caused by the forward movement of the bolt and, in some cases, the barrel as well.•The reaction in the direction of recoil of the powerful return spring as the bolt goes forward. •The vibrations set up in the body and barrel by the bolt locking, or otherwise supporting the case, directly before firing occurs.The firer is unable to maintain his aim during the events described above. This is further prejudiced by the heavy trigger pull required to disengage the sear from the bent whilst the fullforce of the compressed return spring is thrusting the mating surfaces together.The ‘open breech’ syst em is usually used on fully automatic weapons where the spread of shot is used to produce a beaten zone and there is no requirement for single shot accuracy. Some sub-machine guns and light machine guns fire single shot, but as a generalization open breech systems will not provide as accurate single shot fire as that from closed breech systems.Closed Breech/Bolt SystemsHere the breech or bolt is closed during the ‘ready’ period with a round in the chamber. When the trigger is operated the only parts that have to move are the 撞针and spring, or the hammer and 撞针, according to the design of the 击发机构. Since these parts have a very small inertia, the response is very speedy and the lock time is very short. There are no significant vibrations or changes of centre of gravity and so the system is ideal where single shot accuracy is required. From this it follows that the closed breech system is employed in rifles and pistols where accuracy and quick response are the primary requisites. The actual lock time in a closed breech system is dependent upon the mechanical details, being as low as 1.5ms in a Martini type. 2.2ms in target rifle and as high as 5.5ms in a well designed 7.62mm SL rifle using a hammer and 撞针.This system has the disadvantages that:•The propellant is very subject to heating whilst in the chamber and so the ballistics will vary according to the length of the ready period.•The chamber pressure will vary with propellant temperature and the resultant difference in force produced will affect the vibration pattern of the barrel.•In a very hot barrel, the round can cock off in a short while although this degree of heat is not likely to be realized in a SL rifle.Cock OffThe burning propellant heats the barrel and chamber of any weapon. The amount of heat can be considerable when firing at a high cyclic rate. The chamber eventually reaches an equilibrium temperature which, in a GPMG, can be about 600℃. A round exposed to this temperature for as little as 5s can produce spontaneous ignition of the propellant resulting in firing of the bullet in an unintended direction with possibly hazardous results. A misfired round may cock off and the case burst whilst the firer is fuzed, the main high explosive filling may ignite and then detonate. This could injure the firer severely and even destroy the gun.The actual time taken for cook off for a given chamber wall temperature depends mainly upon: •The chamber v/all thickness.•The chamber design e.g, fluted.•The type of propellant.•The 枪弹case material.•The 枪弹case thickness.•The air space and cooling effects around the barrel and body.Trigger 机构sThe trigger 机构consists of the mechanical linkage, or the electric device, which controls the 击发机构. It may be operated by hand or from a remote position using either mechanical or electrical linkage. The requirement for remote control can exist in an armoured fighting vehicle, but is rare otherwise.The function of a trigger 机构is to initiate the train of events that cause the 击发机构to operate and fire a 枪弹. Its 机构, in a self loading weapon, may ensure that only one round can be fired each time it is operated. In a weapon that can fire fully automatic, it stops the weapon firing when desired by controlling the 击发机构and ensuring that the working parts are brought to rest in the correct part of their cycle. Fire can then be reopened by a further operation of the trigger by the firer as required.Other uses for the 机构In a pistol or revolver, the initial manual operation of the trigger may be used to cock the hammer and store energy in the hammer mainspring. Further operation of te trigger lever then releases the hammer.Safety devices, both applied and grip, may make use of the trigger 机构so that it cannot be operated or cause the 击发机构to be operated. These safety devices are, however, not a fundamental part of the trigger 机构and often operate direct onto the 击发机构, where ideally they positively lock the 撞针or 撞针. This is more satisfactory and eliminates the possibility of a failure of the safety device caused by the 击发机构operating although the trigger is locked. This could occur as the result of a breakage or mechanical failure in the 机构s from the trigger to the 撞针.The selection of the type of fire required-single shot or automatic-may be both controlled by use of the trigger lever or 机构. Again this is subsidiary to the primary function of the trigger but may enable the designer to make a simpler 机构by combining it with the trigger. This selection is sometimes made by enabling the trigger to be operated in two different ways to select the type of fire required, or the control of the selection of the type of fire may be operated separately from the trigger, but operate through the medium of the trigger 机构. These other functions achieved in the tno.ff.er 机构and elsewhere will be dealt with in detail later in this chapter, but it is necessary to appreciate their possible inclusion in the trigger 机构s before it is dealt with in detail.Trigger OperationThe train of events in trigger 机构s is initiated by the manual operation of some form of trigger control. In small arms this usually takes the conventional form of any simple lever in a conventional position either on the weapon, its mounting or in the fighting compartment, that canbe pushed, pulled or operated by the foot. Where it is remote from the gun it may operate the trigger 机构through the medium of a rod linkage, Bowden cable, lanyard or an electric circuit and, in the case of the latter, can be controlled by an electric switch or button. They normally fall into categories according to the type and role of a particular weapon. The simplest way to study trigger and 击发机构s is by considering both of their applications to each classification of weapon in turn.撞针or 撞针DesignA blunt nosed 撞针usually gives a better transfer of energy and crushing effect to the 雷管, with more positive and efficient ignition of the 雷管composition. The energy imparted to the 撞针will be affected by its mass, that of the working parts that operate it, and their source of energy. A 击发机构may have its own method of storing and applying energy, or it may make use of some operating part of the gun which has energy to spare. In both pistol and, rifle, the 撞针is generally operated by its own 机构or source of energy and in automatic weapons more commonly by making use of some working part of the gun operating system.Revolver and Pistol 机构sActions may be either single or double. In a single action pistol the 击发机构s is cocking by hand, although subsequent firing with a self-loading pistol will cock the 击发机构as a part of the operating cycle. In a double action pistol the 击发机构may be cocked also by the initial operation of the trigger 机构. In the case of a self-loading pistol of this type, subsequent firing causes the 击发机构to be cocked as a part of the operating cycle. The additional advantage is, in the case of a misfire, a second application of the trigger will cock and operate the 击发机构again, giving a second chance of the round being fired, a considerable advantage in a close quarter weapon. An added advantage is that a loaded pistol may be carried with the 击发机构unlocked and yet be immediately available for action by the application of the trigger. However with a revolver, a second pull of the trigger will index and present a new round for firing in a very much shorter time than a stoppage can be cleared in a pistol.。

航海英语常用缩写集团标准化小组：[VVOPPT-JOPP28-JPPTL98-LOPPNN]A B S A m e r i c a n B u r e a u o fShippingA.C. Alternating CurrentAHV Anchor handling vesselAIS Automatic IdentificationSystemAMVER Automated Mutual VesselRescue systemARCs Admiralty Raster ChartsARPA Automatic Radar Plotting AidAUSREP Australian Ship ReportingsystemB.S. Breaking StrainBV Bureau VeritasCABA Compressed Air BreathingApparatusCES Coast Earth StationCG Coast GuardCMS Constantly Manned StationCO2 Carbon DioxideC of B (B) Centre of BuoyancyC of G (G) Centre of GravityCPA Closest Point of ApproachCPP Controllable Pitch PropellerCQR Chatham Quick ReleaseCRS Coast Radio StationCS Coast StationDC Direct CurrentDGPS Differential GlobalPositioning SystemDNV Det Norske VeritasDRHQ Divisional Rescue HeadQuartersDSC (i) Dynamically Supported Craft(hydrofoils)DSC (ii) Digital Selective CallingDWT (DW) DeadweightECDIS Electronic Chart DisplayInformation SystemEFSWR Extra Flexible Steel WireRopeENC Electronic Navigation ChartEPIRB Emergency PositionIndicating Radio BeaconETA Estimated Time of ArrivalFRC Fast Rescue CraftFSM Free Surface MovementFSWR Flexible Steel Wire RopeFWA Fresh Water AllowanceGHz gigahertzGM Metacentric HeightGMDSS Global Maritime Distress and Safety SystemGMT Greenwich Mean TimeGPS Global Positioning SystemGT (g.t.) Gross TonsGZ Righting LeverHF High FrequencyHLO Helicopter Landing officerHMS Her Majesty’s ShipHMSO Her Majesty’s Sta tionery Office HRU Hydrostatic Release UnitHSC High Speed Craft (code)IAMSAR International Aeronauticaland Maritime Search andRescue ManualICAO International Civil Aviation AuthorityICS International Chamber ofShippingIHO International HydrographicOfficeIMDG International Maritime Dangerous Goods CodeIMO International Maritime OrganisationISM International Safety ManagementITU International Telecommunications UnionKB Measured distance betweenthe keel and the ships centreof buoyancyKG Measured distance betweenthe keel and the ships centreof gravitykg kilogramkHz kilohertzkJ kilo JouleKM Measured distance between the keel and the ships metacentrekN kilo NewtonkW kilowattlbs poundsLBP length betweenperpendicularsLCB Longitudinal Centre of BuoyancyLFL Lower Flammable LimitLNG Liquid Natural GasLOA length over allLR Lloyds RegisterLUT Land User TerminalMA Mechanical AdvantageMAIB Marine AccidentInvestigation BranchMARPOL Maritime Pollution Conventionmbs millibarsMCA Maritime and Coastguard AgencyMEC Marine Evacuation ChuteMES Marine Evacuation SystemMGN Marine Guidance NoticeMHz megahertzMIN Marine Information NoticeMN Mercantile MarineMNTB Merchant Navy Training Board MoB Man overboardMPCU Marine Pollution Control Unit MRCC Marine Rescue Co-ordination CentreMSI Marine Safety Information MSN Merchant Shipping Notice (previous ‘M’ notice)NUC Not Under CommandNVE Night Vision EquipmentOiC Officer in ChargeOOW Officer of the WatchOSC On Scene Co-ordinatorP/A Public Address SystemRN Royal NavyRNR Royal Naval ReserveRoPax Roll on/Roll off + Passengers RoT Rate of TurnRo-Ro Roll on, Roll offrpm Revolutions per minuteR/T Radio TelephoneRx ReceiveSAR Search and RescueSARSAT Search and Rescue Satellite SART Search and Rescue Radar TransponderSES Ship Earth StationSOLAS Safety of Life at Sea (convention)SOPEP Ships Oil Pollution Emergency PlanSPM Single Point MooringSTCW Standards of Training, Certification andWatchkeeping (convention)SWL Safe Working LoadSWR Steel Wire RopeT.D. Tonnage DeckTMC Transmitting MagneticCompassTRS Tropical Revolving StormUFL Upper Flammable LimitUHF Ultra High FrequencyU.K. United KingdomUKC Under Keel ClearanceULCC Ultra Large Crude CarrierU.S. United StatesUSCG United States Coast Guard VCG Vertical Centre of GravityVDR Voyage Data RecorderVDU Visual Display UnitVHF Very High FrequencyVLCC Very Large Crude Carrier VTMS Vessel Traffic Management SystemVTS Vessel Traffic SystemW/L WaterlineWNA Winter North Atlantic Wps wires per strandW/T Wireless Telegraphy。

外部尺寸Approach angle 接近角Back angle 座椅背靠角Belt height 带高Body width 车身宽Bumper, front to cab tilt 驾驶室翻转到最大角度是到前保险杠的距离Bumper to back of cab 前保险杠到驾驶室后围距离Cab servicing tilt angle 驾驶室翻转角Camber angle 车轮外倾Cargo body height 货箱高度Cargo body length货箱长度Cargo body width货箱宽度Cargo door opening height货门门槛高度Cargo door opening width货门门槛宽度Cargo floor height货箱地板高度Cargo height装货高度Cargo length at belt带处装货高度Cargo length at floor地板处装货高度Cargo step height货梯高度Cargo width at wheel arch轮拱处装货宽度Castor注销后倾角Centre of gravity, cargo body, wheel centreline 货箱重心到车轮中心线的距离Cushion depth 坐垫深度Cushion width 坐垫宽度Departure angle 离去角Displacement, braking control, accelerator pedal 制动控制踏板与加速器踏板的高度差Distance, braking control to steering-wheel制动踏板控制面到转向盘间的距离Distance, cab to rear axle 驾驶室到后轴距离Distance, centerline of springs 弹簧中心距离Distance, R-piont, bunk-berth 点到卧铺的距离Distance, R-piont, heel point R R点到脚踏的距离Distance, R-piont, steering-wheel R点到转向盘的距离Distance, towing attachment牵引装置前置距Distane, towing device, front end牵引装置至车辆前端的距离Drawbar length 牵引杆长Drawgear length 牵引架长Elbow room, driver 驾驶员肘弯空间Engine cover height 发动机罩高Engine cover width 发动机罩宽Fifth wheel coupling pin 牵引座牵引销Fifth wheel lead 牵引座前置距Floar body height 浮式车身高Frame width 车架高Front of vehicle to cargo body 车辆前点到货箱距离Front wheel centerline to R-piont 前中心线到R点的距离Front fitting radius of semi-trailers 半挂车前回转半径Ground clearance 离地间隙Height, bunk-berth 卧铺高度Height, cabin floor 驾驶室地板高度Height, first step 第一级踏脚板高度Height, R-piont, head-lining R点至衬高度Height, second step 第二级踏板高度Height of attachment 牵引装置高度Height of chassis 底盘高度Height of coupling face 牵引座接合面高度Height of wheel arch 轮拱高度Hip room, driver 驾驶员处车身两侧壁间的空间Inclined height, R-piont, head-lining R点到顶衬的斜高度Interior cabin width 驾驶室内部宽度Interior cargo body height 货箱内高度Interior cargo body length 货箱内长度Interior cargo body width 货箱内宽度Kingpin inclination 主销内倾Kingpin offset 主销偏移距Knee clearance 膝部间隙Length of bunk-berth 卧铺长度Length of chassis 底盘长度Length of wheel arch 驾驶室后底盘长度Lift 车轮提升高度Overall height, tilt cab 驾驶室翻转时的总高度Overhang, attachment 牵引装置的悬伸Front Overhang 前悬Rear Overhang 后悬Pick-up height 客货两用车高度Position, steering-wheel, Y-plane 转向盘中心相对于Y基准平面的位置Radius, side glass 侧窗玻璃半径Ramp angle 纵向通过角Rear cargo floor height 后货箱地板高度Rear opening height 后门框高度Rear opening width at floor 地板处后门框宽度Rear opening width, belt 带处后门框宽度Rear opening sidth, upper 后门框上部宽度Rear tractor clearance radius of semi-tarilers半挂车间隙半径Rear wheel centerline后轮中心线Rear width at floor地板处货箱宽度Seat cushion height座椅坐垫高度Reat height adjustment 座椅高度调节Seat track travel 座椅移动行程Space behind R-piont R点后间距Space between cab and bodywork 驾驶室与车身间距Steering-wheel angle 转向盘倾角Steering-wheel diameter 转向盘直径Steering-wheel to seat 转向盘到座椅的距离Steering-wheel to seat back 转向盘到座椅靠背的距离Toe in 前束Track, front 前轮距Track rear 后轮距Tumble-home 风窗玻璃倾角Tyre outermost side walls width 轮胎最外侧宽度Turning circle 转弯直径Turning clearance circle 转弯通道圆Vehicle height 车高Vehicle length 车长Vehicle width 车宽Vertical clearance 车轮铅垂动行程Wheel space 轴距Wheel space, semi-trailer 半挂车轴距Width of bunk-berth 卧铺宽度X-coordinate, R-piont R点的X坐标X-coordinate, seat reference point 座椅参考点的X坐标Y-coordinate, R-piont R点的Y坐标Y-coordinate, R-piont, passenger’s seat 乘客座椅R点的Y坐标Z-coordinate, R-piont R点的Z坐标Z-coordinate, seat reference point 座椅参考点的Z坐标。