Language-dependent and language-independent approaches to cross-lingual text retrieval

undeutsch假设-回复问题: 为什么语言学家会提出undeutsch假设？在语言学的研究中，undeutsch假设是指一个假设，即人类的每一种语言或方言，都有其独特之处，这些特点是无法用其他语言准确地描述或翻译的。

该假设源自于语言学家对于不同语言之间差异性的观察和研究。

为了更好地理解这个假设，我们需要逐步解答几个问题。

问题一: 什么是undeutsch假设？在语言学中，undeutsch假设是指每一种语言或方言都拥有其独特之处，这些特点无法被其他语言准确地描述或翻译。

根据这个假设，不同的语言在语音、语法、词汇等方面存在差异。

这样的差异使得翻译、交流、理解和学习不同语言变得更加复杂和困难。

问题二: 为什么语言具有独特之处？语言是人类沟通的基本工具，每种语言都随着时间的推移逐渐演化，形成其独特的语音系统、语法结构和词汇。

语言的演变受到不同地理、历史、文化等因素的影响，因此不同语言之间的差异是不可避免的。

例如，由于不同语音系统的存在，某些语言中的特定音素在其他语言中可能不存在，因此很难用准确的翻译来表达。

问题三: undeutsch假设对语言学研究的影响是什么？undeutsch假设的提出为语言学研究提供了更深入的思考。

首先，它促进了语言学家对各种语言的实地考察和深入分析，以进一步探索语言的差异和共性。

通过这种研究，语言学家可以更好地理解不同语言之间的相似性和差异性，为跨语言交流和翻译提供更准确的指导。

其次，undeutsch假设也指导了翻译和语言教学领域的发展。

翻译工作需要翻译者理解源语言的独特特点，并尝试用目标语言的表达方式进行准确翻译。

语言教学方面，教师需要考虑学习者的母语背景和文化差异，针对不同母语习得的语言难点进行有针对性的教学。

问题四: 这个假设有助于多语言社会的沟通吗？尽管不同语言之间存在差异，但undeutsch假设的提出并不阻碍跨语言社交和沟通。

事实上，人类具备学习和理解多种语言的能力，通过学习其他语言，我们可以更好地理解不同文化之间的差异和共通之处。

专八语言学考点语言学概论一.语言的甄别特征（Design Features）：语言的甄别特征（Design Features）包括：1. 任意性（Arbitrariness）2. 能产性（Productivity）3. 双层性（Duality）4. 移位性（Replacement）5. 文化传承（Cultural transmission）二．语言学的主要分支（the Main Branches of Linguistics）：1. 语音学（phonetics）：用以研究语音的特点，并提供语音描写、分类和标记方法的学科。

2. 音系学（phonology）：研究语言中出现的区别语音及其模式是如何形成语音系统来表达意义的学科。

3. 形态学（morphology）：研究词的内部结构和构词规则。

4. 句法学（syntax）：用以研究词是被如何组成句子，以及支配句子构成的学科。

5. 语义学（semantics）：研究语言意义的学科。

6. 语用学（pragmatics）：研究语言的意义在语境中如何被理解、传递和产出的学科。

7. 宏观语言学（Macrolinguistics）：主要包括社会语言学（Sociolinguistics）、心理语言学（Psycholinguistics）、人类语言学（Anthropological Linguistics）、计算机语言学（Computational Linguistics）。

三．语言学的流派（Different Approaches of Linguistics）：1. 结构主义语言学（Structural Lingustics）：1.1 布拉格学派（The Prague School）1.2 哥本哈根学派（The Copenhagen School）1.3 美国结构主义学派（American Structuralism）以上三个学派都受到索绪尔（Saussure）的影响，例如都区分语言和言语（Langue vs. Parole），共时和历时（Synchronic vs. Diachronic）。

1. 语言的普遍特征： 任意性 arbitrariness 双层结构 duality 既由声音和意义结构 多产性 productivity 移位性 displacement: 我们能用语言可以表达许多不在场的东西 文化传播性 cultural transmission2。

语言的功能： 传达信息功能 informative 人济功能： 行事功能： 表情功能： 寒暄功能： 娱乐功能 元语言功能metalingual 3. 语言学 linguistics ：包括六个分支 语音学 音位学 形态学 句法学 语义学 语用学 4. 现代结构主义语言学创始人： Ferdinand de saussure 提出语言学中最重要的概念对之一： 语言与言语 language and parole ，语言之语言系统的整 体，言语则只待某个个体在实际语言使用环境中说出的具体话语5. 语法创始人： Noam Chomsky 提出概念语言能力与语言运用 competence and performance 1. Which ofthe following statements can be used to describe displacement. one of the unique properties of language: a. we can easily teach our children to learn a certain languageb. we can use both 'shu' and 'tree'todescribe the same thing.c. we can u se language to refer to something not presentd. we can produce sentences that have never been heard before.2. What is the most important function of language?a. interpersonalb. phaticc. informatived.metallingual3. The function of the sentence "A nice day, isn't it ?"is __ a informativeb. phaticc. directived. performative4. The distinction between competence and performance is proposed by __ a saussureb. hallidayc. chomskyd. the prague school5. Who put forward the distinction between language and parole?a. saussureb. chomskyc. hallidayd anomymous第二节 语音学1.发音器官由声带 the vocal cords 和三个回声腔组成2. 辅音 consonant ：there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract.3. 辅音的发音方式爆破音 complete obstruction鼻音 nasals破裂音 plosivesinterpersonal PerformativeEmotive Phatic recreatinalPhoneticsphonology Morphologysyntaxsemanticspragmatics部分阻塞辅音 partial obstruction擦音 fricatives破擦音 affricates 等4.辅音清浊特征 voicing 辅音的送气特征 aspiration5.元音 vowel 分类标准舌翘位置，舌高和嘴唇的形状6 双元音 diphthongs, 有元音过渡 vowel glides1.Articulatory phonetics mainly studies __.a.the physical properties of the sounds produced in speechb.the perception of soundsc.the combination of soundsd.the production of sounds2.The distinction between vowel s and consonants lies ina.the place of articulationb.the obstruction f airstreamc.the position of the tongued.the shape of the lips3.What is the common factor of the three sounds: p, k ta.voicelessb.spreadc.voicedd.nasal4.What phonetic feature distinguish the p in please and the p in speak?a.voicingb.aspirationc.roundnessd.nasality5.Which of the following is not a distinctive feature in English?a.voicingb.nasalc.approximationd.aspiration6.The phonological features of the consonant k are __a.voiced stopb.voiceless stopc.voiced fricatived.voiceless fricative7.p is divverent from k in __a.the manner of articuIationb.the shape of the Iipsc.the vibration of the vocaI cordsd.the paIce of articuaItion8.Vibration of the vocaI cords resuIts in __a.aspirationb.nasaIityc.obstructiond.voicing第三节音位学 phonoIogy1.音位学与语音学的区别：语音学着重于语音的自然属性，主要关注所有语言中人可能发出的所有声音；音位学则强调语音的社会功能，其对象是某一种语言中可以用来组合成词句的那些语音。

第二语言习得的个体差异众所周知众所周知,,一个发育正常的婴幼儿一个发育正常的婴幼儿,,其母语习得的成功率可以达到百分之百到百分之百,,他们从咿呀呀学语到比较完整地表达意愿和进行交际仅需6-7年时间年时间,,而且过程轻松、偷快。

第二语言习得的效果却不尽然尽然,,其过程不仅漫长而且困难重重其过程不仅漫长而且困难重重,,成功率也往往低于第一语言习得。

特别值得注意的是习得。

特别值得注意的是,,使用同一教材使用同一教材,,由同一教师执教由同一教师执教,,运用同样的教学方法和处于同样的环境样的教学方法和处于同样的环境,,学习者的最终学习效果往往会表现出很大的个体差异。

这是为什么呢现出很大的个体差异。

这是为什么呢? ?根据目前的研究根据目前的研究,,影响第二语言习得的因素是多种多样的影响第二语言习得的因素是多种多样的,,大致可分为内部因素和外部因素两大类。

内部因素一般指学习者自身的因素因素,,如学习者的学习态度、学习动机、智力水平如学习者的学习态度、学习动机、智力水平,,语言学能、性格及学习策略等。

外部因素指那些不以习者个人意志为转移的因素及学习策略等。

外部因素指那些不以习者个人意志为转移的因素,,如年龄因素、社会环境因素、家庭因素及性别因素等。

本文将着重讨论影响语言学习的一些内部因素讨论影响语言学习的一些内部因素,,因为某些内部因素是随外界环境的变化而变化的境的变化而变化的,,因而教师可以对他们进行调控因而教师可以对他们进行调控,,并经过使其朝着有利于语言学习的方面转变。

着有利于语言学习的方面转变。

一、态度和动机一、态度和动机(attitude and miti-vation) (attitude and miti-vation)态度和动机被认为是决定第二语言学习成败的最重要的情感因素。

态度一般包括三个内涵素。

态度一般包括三个内涵::对第二语言社团及其成员所持的态度对第二语言社团及其成员所持的态度,,对所学语言的态度及对语言学习一般性的态度。

语言学概论一.语言的甄别特征（Design Features）：语言的甄别特征（Design Features）包括：1. 任意性（Arbitrariness）2. 能产性（Productivity）3. 双层性（Duality）4. 移位性（Replacement）5. 文化传承（Cultural transmission）二．语言学的主要分支（the Main Branches of Linguistics）：1. 语音学（phonetics）：用以研究语音的特点，并提供语音描写、分类和标记方法的学科。

2. 音系学（phonology）：研究语言中出现的区别语音及其模式是如何形成语音系统来表达意义的学科。

3. 形态学（morphology）：研究词的内部结构和构词规则。

4. 句法学（syntax）：用以研究词是被如何组成句子，以及支配句子构成的学科。

5. 语义学（semantics）：研究语言意义的学科。

6. 语用学（pragmatics）：研究语言的意义在语境中如何被理解、传递和产出的学科。

7. 宏观语言学（Macrolinguistics）：主要包括社会语言学（Sociolinguistics）、心理语言学（Psycholinguistics）、人类语言学（Anthropological Linguistics）、计算机语言学（Computational Linguistics）。

三．语言学的流派（Different Approaches of Linguistics）：1. 结构主义语言学（Structural Lingustics）：1.1 布拉格学派（The Prague School）1.2 哥本哈根学派（The Copenhagen School）1.3 美国结构主义学派（American Structuralism）以上三个学派都受到索绪尔（Saussure）的影响，例如都区分语言和言语（Langue vs. Parole），共时和历时（Synchronic vs. Diachronic）。

Language is a powerful tool that enables communication,expression,and connection among individuals.In an English composition about the power of language, one can explore various aspects of how language shapes our world and influences our lives.The Importance of Language in CommunicationLanguage is the primary means through which we communicate our thoughts,feelings, and ideas.It allows us to share experiences,learn from one another,and build relationships.In the essay,you could discuss how language bridges cultural gaps, enabling people from different backgrounds to understand and appreciate each others perspectives.Language as a Reflection of CultureEvery language is a reflection of the culture from which it originates.It carries the history, traditions,and values of a society.In your composition,you might delve into how language is not only a means of communication but also a carrier of cultural identity, shaping our worldview and influencing our behavior.The Role of Language in EducationLanguage plays a crucial role in education,as it is the medium through which knowledge is imparted.Your essay could explore how language proficiency is essential for academic success and how learning a new language can open doors to new educational opportunities and a broader understanding of the world.Language and IdentityLanguage is closely tied to ones identity.It is a part of who we are and where we come from.In your composition,you could discuss how language can be a source of pride and a marker of belonging to a particular community or group.The Evolution of LanguageLanguage is not static it evolves over time,influenced by social,technological,and environmental factors.Your essay could examine the dynamic nature of language and how new words and expressions are created to reflect changing societal norms and innovations.The Challenges of LanguageWhile language is a powerful tool,it can also present challenges,such as misunderstandings and miscommunications.Your composition might address the difficulties of language barriers and the importance of learning multiple languages to foster global understanding and cooperation.The Power of Persuasive LanguageLanguage has the power to persuade and influence.In your essay,you could explore how the choice of words and the structure of sentences can sway opinions and affect decisionmaking processes.The Impact of Language on Mental HealthLanguage can also have a profound impact on mental health.Positive and supportive language can uplift and encourage,while negative or derogatory language can harm and demotivate.Your composition could touch on the importance of using language mindfully to foster mental wellbeing.The Future of LanguageWith advancements in technology,the way we use language is changing.Your essay might speculate on the future of language,considering the role of artificial intelligence, machine translation,and the potential for new forms of communication.ConclusionIn conclusion,your English composition on the power of language could emphasize its multifaceted role in our lives,from facilitating communication to shaping our identities and influencing our perceptions of the world.By exploring these themes,you can demonstrate the profound impact that language has on individuals and societies alike.。

胡壮麟的语言学笔记1. What is language?“Language is system of arbitrary（随意的）vocal（发音的，口头的）symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic（固有的，内在的，本质的）connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in French, “shu” in Chinese. It is sy mbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.2. What are design features of language?“Design features”here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality（二元性）, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission（文化传播）and interchangeability（可交换性）3. What is arbitrariness?By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. Language is therefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like “bang”, “crash”, “roar”, which are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds (words compounded to be one word) are not entirely arbitrary either. “Type” and “write” are opaque（不透明的，难理解的，晦涩的）or unmotivated words, while “type-writer”is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it. So we can say “arbitrariness”is a matter of degree.4. What is duality?Linguists refer “duality” (of structure) to the fac t that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.); at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning. According to Hu Zhanglin et al., language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language. A small number of semantic units (words), and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences (note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!). Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No animal communication system enjoys this duality.5. What is productivity?Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sen tences in one’s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. No one has ever said or heard “A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an African gibbon”, but he can say i t whennecessary, and he can understand it in right register. Different from artistic creativity, though, productivity never goes outside the language, thus also called “rule-bound creativity” (by N.Chomsky).6.What is displacement?“Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. When a man, for example, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be something that had occurred, or something that is occurring, or something that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however, you can decide it is barking for something or at someone that exists now and there. It couldn’t be bow-wowing sorrowfully for a bone to be lost. The bee’s system, nonetheless, has a small share of “displacement”, but it is an unspeakable tiny share.7.What is cultural transmission?This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings (N. Cho msky called it “language acquisition device”, or LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog’s barking system. If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolf’s roaring “tongue” when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.8. What is interchangeability?Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. Though some people suggest that there is sex differentiation in the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possible and acceptable. Some male birds, however, utter some calls which females do not (or cannot). When a dog barks, all the neighboring dogs bark. Then people around can hardly tell wh ich dog (dogs) is (are) “speaking” and which listening.9.Why do linguists say language is human specific?First of all, human language has six “design features” which animal communication systems do not have, at least not in the true sense of them. Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Washoe, a female chimpanzee, was brought up like a human child by Beatnice and Alan Gardner. She was taught “American sign Language”, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees. Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even when he is taken back and taught to do so.10. What functions does language have?Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative. According to Wang Gang (1988,p.11), language has three main functions: a tool of communication, a tool whereby people learn about the world, and a tool bywhich people learn about the world, and a tool by which people create art . M .A. K. Halliday, representative of the London school, recognizes three “Macro-Functions”:ideational, interpersonal and textual.11. What is the phatic function?The “phatic function” refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts(rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. Much of the phatic language (e.g. “How are you?” “Fine, thanks.”) is insincere if taken literally, but it is important. If you don't say “Hello” to a friend you meet, or if you don’t answer his “Hi”, you ruin your friendship.12. What is the directive function?The “directive function” means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function, e. g., “Tell me the result when you finish.” Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can, according to J. Austin and J. Searle’s “Indirect speech act theory” at least, serve the purpose of direction too, e.g., “If I were you, I would have blushed to t he bottom of my ears!”13. What is the informative function?Language serves an “informational function” when used to tell something, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labelled as true (truth) or false (fal sehood). According to P. Grice’s “Cooperative Principle”, one ought not to violate the “Maxim of Quality”, when he is informing at all.14. What is the interrogative function?When language is used to obtain information, it serves an “interrogative function”. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc., according to the “indirect speech act theory”, may have this function as well, e.g., “I’d like to know you better.” This may bring forth a lot of personal information. Note that rhetorical questions make an exception, since they demand no answer, at least not the reader’s/listener’s answer.15. What is the expressive function?The “expressive function” is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like “Good heavens!” “My God!” Sentences like “I’m sorry about the delay” can serve as good examples too, though in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative function to pass judgment on the truth or falsehood of statements, language used for the expressive function evaluates, appraises or asserts the speaker’s own attitudes.16. What is the evocative function?The “evocative function” is the use of language to create cer tain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is , for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please. Jokes(not practical jokes, though) are supposed to amuse or entertain the listener; advertising to urge customers to purchase certain commodities; propaganda to influence public opinion. Obviously, the expressive and the evocative functions often go together, i.e., you may express, for example, your personal feelings about a political issue but end up by evoking the same feeling in, or imposing it on, your listener. That’s also the case with the other way round.17. What is the performative function?This means people speak to “do things” or perform actions. On certain occasions the utteranceitself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. The judge’s imprisonment sentence, the president’s war or independence declaration, etc., are performatives.18. What is linguistics?“Linguistics” is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one languag e of any one society, but the language of all human beings. A linguist, though, does not have to know and use a large number of languages, but to investigate how each language is constructed. He is also concerned with how a language varies from dialect to dialect, from class to class, how it changes from century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue, and perhaps how a person learns or should learn a foreign language. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities.19. What makes linguistics a science?Since linguistics is the scientific study of language, it ought to base itself upon the systematic, investigation of language data which aims at discovering the true nature of language and its underlying system. To make sense of the data, a linguist usually has conceived some hypotheses about the language structure, to be checked against the observed or observable facts. In order to make his analysis scientific, a linguist is usually guided by four principles: exhaustiveness, consistency, and objectivity. Exhaustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant to the study and give them an adequate explanation, in spite of the complicatedness. He is to leave no linguistic “stone” unturned. Consistency means there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement. Economy means a linguist should pursue brevity in the analysis when it is possible. Objectivity implies that since some people may be subjective in the study, a linguist should be (or sound at least) objective, matter-of-face, faithful to reality, so that his work constitutes part of the linguistics research.20. What are the major branches of linguistics?The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, psycholinguistics etc.21. What are synchronic and diachronic studies?The description of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synchrony study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachronic). An essay entitled “On the Use of THE”, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration.22. What is speech and what is writing?No one needs the repetition of the general principle of linguistic analysis, namely, the primacy of speech over writing. Speech is primary, because it existed long long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds: individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese. In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing as written codes, gives language new scope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messages can be carried through timethereby, so that people of our time can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can read Beowulf, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A. Poe. Thirdly, oral messages are readily subject to distortion, either intentional or unintentional, while written messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading. Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore.23. What are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches?A linguistic study is “descriptive” if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and “prescriptive” if it tries to lay down rules for “correct” language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were based on “high” (literary or religious) written records. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive, however. It (the latter) believes that whatever occurs in natural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy. These, with changes in vocabulary and structures, need to be explained also.24. What is the difference between langue and parole?F. de Saussure refers “langue” to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists. 25. What is the difference between competence and performance?According to N. Chomsky, “competence” is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and “performance” is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while h is performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language. Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, F. de Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product, and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual. Sussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.26. What is linguistic potential? What is actual linguistic behaviour?These two terms, or the potential-behavior distinction, were made by M. A. K. Halliday in the 1960s, from a functional point of view. There is a wide range of things a speaker can do in his culture, and similarly there are many things he can say, for example, to many people, on many topics. What he actually says (i.e. his “actual linguistic behavior”) on a certain occasion to a certain person is what he has chosen from many possible injustice items, each of which he could have said (linguistic potential).27. In what way do language, competence and linguistic potential agree? In what way do they differ? And their counterparts?Langue, competence and linguistic potential have some similar features, but they are innately different. Langue is a social product, and a set of speaking conventions; competence is a property or attribute of each ideal speaker’s mind; linguistic potential is all the linguistic corpus or repertoire available from which the speaker chooses items for the actual utterance situation. In other words, langue is invisible but reliable abstract system. Competence means “knowing”, and linguistic potential a set of possibilities for “doing” or “performing actions”. They are similar in that they all refer to the constant underlying the utterances that constitute what Saussure, Chomsky and Halliday respectively called parole, performance and actual linguistic behavior. Parole, performance and actual linguistic behavior enjoy more similarities than differences.28. What is phonetics?“Phonetics” is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription, speech sounds may be studied in different ways, thus by three different branches of phonetics. (1) Articulatory phonetics; the branch of phonetics that examines the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate in the process. (2) Auditory phonetics, the branch of phonetic research from the hearer’s point of view, looking into the impression which a speech sound makes on the hearer as mediated by the ear, the auditory nerve and the brain. (3) Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear. Most phoneticians, however, are interested in articulatory phonetics.29. How are the vocal organs formed?The vocal organs or speech organs, are organs of the human body whose secondary use is in the production of speech sounds. The vocal organs can be considered as consisting of three parts; the initiator of the air-stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.30. What is place of articulation?It refers to the place in the mouth where, for example, the obstruction occurs, resulting in the utterance of a consonant. Whatever sound is pronounced, at least some vocal organs will get involved, e.g. lips, hard palate etc., so a consonant may be one of the following (1) bilabial: [p, b, m]; (2) ]; (4) alveolar:[t, d, l, n, s, z]; (5)T, Plabiodental: [f, v]; (3) dental:[ retroflex; (6) palato-alveolar:[ ]; (7) palatal:[j]; (8) velar[ k, g]; (9) uvular; (10) glottal:[h]. Some sounds involve the simultaneous use of two places of articulation. For example, the English [w] has both an approximation of the two lips and that two lips and that of the tongue and the soft palate, and may be termed “labial-velar”.31. What is the manner of articulation?The “manner of articulation” literally means the way a sound is articulated. At a given place of articulation, the airstream may be obstructed in various ways, resulting in various manners of articulation, are the following: (1) plosive:[p, b, t, d, k, g]; (2) nasal:[m, n,]; (3) trill; (4) tap or flap;(5) lateral:[l]; (6) fricative:[f, v, s, z]; (7) approximant:[w, j]; (8) affricate:[ ].32. What is IPA? When did it come into being ?The IPA, abbreviation of “International Phonetic Alphabet”, is a compromise system making use of symbols of all sources, including diacritics indicating length, stress and intonation, indicating phonetic variation. Ever since it was developed in 1888, IPA has undergone a number of revisions.33. What is narrow transcription and what is broad transcription?In handbook of phonetics语音学, Henry Sweet made a distinction between “narrow”and “broad”transcriptions, which he called “Narrow Romic”. The former was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation while Broad Romic or transcription was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.34. What is phonology? What is difference between phonetics and phonology?“Phonology” is the study of soun d systems- the invention of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and the patterns wherein they fall. Minimal pair, phonemes, allophones, free variation, complementary distribution, etc., are all to be investigated by a phonologist. Phonetics is the branch of linguistics studying the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. A phonetist is mainly interested in the physical properties of the speech sounds, whereas a phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features, morphological features, and the way they are conceived and printed in the depth of the mind phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which from meaningf ul utterances, to recognize a foreign “accent”, to make up new words, to add the appropriate phonetic segments to from plurals and past tenses, to know what is and what is not a sound in one’s language.35. What is a phone? What is a phoneme? What is an allophone?A “phone” is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. When we hear the following words pronounced: [pit], [tip], [spit], etc., the similar phones we have heard are [p] for one thing, and three different [p]s, readily making possible the “narrow transcription or diacritics”. Phones may and may not distinguish meaning. A “phoneme” is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. As an abstract unit, a phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. For example, the phoneme[p] is represented differently in *pit+, *tip+ and *spit+. The phones representing a phoneme are called its “allophones”, i.e., the different (i.e., phones) but do not make one word so phonetically different as to create a new word or a new meaning thereof. So the different [p] s in the above words are the allophones of the same phoneme [p]. How a phoneme is represented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random. In most cases it is rule-governed; these rules are to be found out by a phonologist.36. What are minimal pairs?When two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string, the two forms (i. e., word) are supposed to form a “minimal pair”, e.g., “pill” and “bill”, “pill” and “till”, “till” and “dill”, “till” and “kill”, etc. All these words together constitute a minimal set. They are identical in form except for the initial consonants. There are many minimal pairs in English, which makes it relatively easy to know what are English phonemes. It is of great importance to find the minimal pairs when a phonologist is dealing with the sound system of an unknown language.37. What is free variation?If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast; namely, if the substitution of one for the other does not generate a new word form but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, the two sounds then are said to be in “free variation”. The plosives, for example, maynot be exploded when they occur before another plosive or a nasal (e. g., act, apt, good morning). The minute distinctions may, if necessary, be transcribed in diacritics. These unexploded and exploded plosives are in free variation. Sounds in free variation should be assigned to the same phoneme.38. What is complementary distribution?When two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in “complementary distribution”. For example, the aspirated English plosives never occur after *s+, and the unsaturated ones never occur initially. Sounds in complementary distribution may be assigned to the same phoneme. The allophones of [l], for example, are also in complementary distribution. The clear [l] occurs only before a vowel, the voiceless equivalent of [l] occurs only after a voiceless consonant, such as in the words “please”, “butler”, “clear”, etc., and the dark *l+ occurs only after a vowel or as a syllabic sound after a consonant, such as in the words “feel”, “help”, “middle”, etc.39. What is the assimilation rule? What is the deletion rule?The “assimilation rule” assimilates one segment to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones more similar. This rule accounts for the raring pronunciation of the nasal [n] that occurs within a word. The rule is that within a word the nasal consonant[n] assumes the same place of articulation as the following consonant. The negative prefix “in-“ serves as a good example. It may be pronounced as *in+, or *im+ when occurring in different phonetic contexts: e. g., indiscrete-[ ] (alveolar) inconceivable-[ ](velar) input-*‘imput+ (bilabial)The “deletion rule” tells us when a sound is to be deleted although is orthographically represented. While the letter “g” is mute in “sign”, “design” and “paradigm”, it is pronounced in thei r corresponding derivatives: “signature”, “designation” and “paradigmatic”. The rule then can be stated as: delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. This accounts for some of the seeming irregularities of the English spelling.40. What is suprasegmental phonology? What are suprasegmental features? “Suprasegmental phonology” refers to the study of phonological properties of linguistic units larger than the segment called phoneme, such as syllable, length and pitch, stress, intonation. 41. What is morphology?“Morphology” is the branch of grammar that studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed. It is generally divided into two fields: inflectional morphology and lexical/derivational morphology.42. What is inflection/inflexion?“Inflection” is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect, and case, which does not change the grammatical class of the items to which they are attached.43. What is a morpheme? What is an allomorph?The “morpheme” is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. The word “boxes”, for example, has two morphemes: “box” and “-es”, neither of which permits further division or analysis if we don’t wish to sacrifice meaning. Therefore a morpheme is considered the minimal unit of meaning. Allomorphs, like allophones vs. phones, are the alternate shapes (and thus phonetic forms) of the same morphemes. Some。

第一章Invitation to Linguistics1.Definition of language：Language is a system of vocal (and written) symbols with meaning attached that is used forhuman communication of thoughts and feelings.2.Design features of language(语言的普遍特征)：①.Arbitrariness 任意性：The forms of linguistic signs generally bear no natural relationship to the meanings they carry②.Duality 二重性：Human language has two levels of structures: the primary meaningful level of morphemes, words, phrases, sentences and the secondary meaningless level of sounds. The units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level, and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.③.Creativity 创造性：Language is resourceful because of its duality and recursiveness.④.Displacement移位性：Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present in time and space at the moment of communication.3.Functions of language1)Informative function2)Interpersonal function人际功能3)Performative (行为) function4)Emotive function5)Phatic (寒暄) function6)Recreational function7)Metalingual function（元语言功能）指用语言去说明或解释语言的功能4.Main branches of linguistics：Main branches of linguistics (microlinguistics微观) and interdisciplinary（跨领域、跨学科）fields of linguistics (macrolinguistics宏观)1) Main branches of linguistics:(1) Phonetics发音学，语音学;(2) Phonology;（音位学、语音体系）(3) Morphology 词法/ Lexicology词汇学;(4) Syntax句法;(5) Semantics语义学(6) Pragmatics语用学：研究特定情境中的特定话语，在不同的语言交际环境中如何理解和运用语言支。

语言普遍性与语言习得人类语言习得存在诸多共性,而语言普遍性理论能对语言习得共性作出很好的解释。

本文基于普遍语法和类型普遍性,分别从内在和外部解释了一语与二语习得的本质心理过程和认知过程。

标签：语言普遍性普遍语法类型普遍性一语习得二语习得第二语言习得研究在经历了对比分析(ContrastiveAnalysis)、偏误分析(ErrorAnalysis)之后，又提出了语言普遍性理论，为二语习得研究打开了一个新的视角。

应用于语言习得研究的语言普遍性理论主要有Chomsky的普遍语法(UniversalGrammar:UG)和Greenberg的类型普遍性(TypologicalUniversals)。

一、语言普遍性普遍语法是“由人类所有语言所共有的原则、条件和规则组成的系统，是人类语言的本质所在”。

UG理论认为,正是因为有普遍语法的存在，人类各语言之间才表现出了许多惊人的相似之处。

例如，每种语言都有一种区分疑问句和陈述句的语言手段，而且标示一般疑问句有三种基本方法，大多数语言都有其中的一种或一种以上。

以英语、法语和汉语的一般疑问句为例，它们或者保留陈述句的句法形式，改变语调，如例(2);或者改变句法，如主语与动词颠倒等，如例(3);或者把外加的词和词组添加到基本陈述句形式上，如例(4):(1) a.英语:Youwanttobuyanewpencil.(降调)b.法语:Tuveuxacheterunnouveaucrayon.(降调)c.汉语:你要买一支新铅笔。

(降调)(2) a.英语:Youwanttobuyanewpencil?(升调)b.法语:Tuveuxacheterunnouveaucrayon ?(升调)c.汉语:你要买一支新铅笔?(升调)(3) a.英语:Doyouwanttobuyanewpencil?b.法语:Veux-tuacheterunvouveaucrayon?c.汉语:是不是你要买一支新铅笔？(4) a.英语:Youwanttobuyanewpencil,don'tyou/right/what?。

第一节语言的本质一、语言的普遍特征（Design Features）1. 任意性Arbitratriness：shu 和Tree都能表示“树”这一概念；同样的声音，各国不同的表达方式2. 层结构Duality：语言由声音结构和意义结构组成（the structure of sounds and meaning）3. 多产性productive：语言可以理解并创造无限数量的新句子，是由双层结构造成的结果（Understand and create unlimited number with sentences）4. 移位性Displacemennt：可以表达许多不在场的东西，如过去的经历、将来可能发生的事情，或者表达根本不存在的东西等5. 文化传播性Cultural Transmission：语言需要后天在特定文化环境中掌握二、语言的功能（Functions of Language）1. 传达信息功能Informative：最主要功能The main function2. 人际功能Interpersonal：人类在社会中建立并维持各自地位的功能establish and maintain their identity3. 行事功能performative：现实应用——判刑、咒语、为船命名等Judge，naming，and curses4. 表情功能Emotive：表达强烈情感的语言，如感叹词/句exclamatory expressions5. 寒暄功能Phatic：应酬话phatic language，比如“吃了没？”“天儿真好啊！”等等6. 元语言功能Metalingual：用语言来谈论、改变语言本身，如book可以指现实中的书也可以用“book这个词来表达作为语言单位的“书”三、语言学的分支1. 核心语言学Core linguistic（1）语音学Phonetics：关注语音的产生、传播和接受过程，着重考察人类语言中的单音。

四种二语习得理论1、中介语理论（Interlanguage）by SelinkerML TLchiglishtarget language中介语是介于母语与目标语之间的一种语言Positive transfer（正迁移）母语的干扰：Transfer（迁移）Negative transfer（负迁移）正迁移（positive）:母语帮助目标语2、文化移入说（Acculturation . Model）--by Schunman（舒曼）3、渐进体系说（Approximative System）循序渐进（Graduality）Palmer ( 帕默) "Snowball"四先原则：先易后难，先简后繁，先死后活，先集体后个人。

4、输入说（Input Theory）S.D.Krashen（克拉申）对于二语的习得，要进行大量的，可理解性的输入"i+1"即"input+1","1"相当于不定量"n"“中国外语立体教学理论”by “张正东”所用甚少四、环境对外语教学的影响Critical period 关键期假说“13”is the critical age1、印度狼孩2、非洲黑猩猩孩3、辽宁猪孩思考题：语言学对我国外语教学有什么样的启示第二部分：外语教学流派(Schools of FILM )教学目的：1、了解英语教学法主要流派。

2、借签第四讲：一、FLIM: Foreign Language Teaching Methods（一）.GTM（语法翻译法）----Grammar Translation Methods始于18世纪末19世纪中，源于欧洲（西欧），（18世纪前的拉丁语）中国从1872年开始，同文馆标志着中国班级教学的开始。

GTM持续到20世纪70年代。

主要特点如下（弊端）1、重视书面语，轻视口语。

2、重视语法教学。

戴炜栋《新编简明英语语⾔学教程》（第2版）课后习题详解（第10章语⾔习得——第12章语⾔与⼤脑）第10章语⾔习得1. Try to explain the terms:Language AcquisitionLanguage Acquisition DeviceCritical Period HypothesisKey: (1) Language acquisition refers to the child’s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community.(2) Chomsky referred to children’s innate ability to learn their native language as Language Acquisition Device (LAD). The LAD was described as an imaginary “black box”existing somewhere in the human brain. The “black box”is said to contain principles that are universal to all human languages. Children need access to the samples of a natural language to activate the LAD, which enables them to discover his language’s structure by matching the innate knowledge of basic grammatical system to that particular language.(3) This hypothesis was put forward by Eric Lenneberg in 1967. It states that children have a special propensity for acquiring language, especially between the ages of 2 to 13. There are two versions of CPH. While the strong one suggests that children must acquire their first language by puberty or they will never be able to learn from subsequent exposure, the weak one holds that language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty.2. Among the language acquisition theories mentioned in this chapter, which one do you think is more reasonable and convincing? Explain why.Key:There are three language acquisition theories mentioned in this chapter. Traditional behaviorists view language as behavior and believe that language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation. According to innatist view, human beings are biologically programmed for language and that the language develops in the child just as other biological functions such as walking. The interactionist view holds that language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which the child develops.Behaviorists view sounds reasonable in explaining the routine aspects, the innatist accounts most plausible in explaining children’s acquiring complex system, and the interactionist description convincing in understanding how children learn and use the language appropriately from their environment.In my opinion, I think that the interactionist view is more reasonable, because environment plays a great role in our acquisition of language. Only when conversations provide the right level of language that children are capable of processing can they facilitate children’s language acquisition, otherwise, it is insufficient for children to learn the language’s structure.（答案不唯⼀，⾔之成理即可）3. Which of the following statements are TRUE and which are FALSE? Why?a. All normal children have equal ability in learning their first language.b. It is easy for parents to teach their children grammar.c. The young child is not taught to speak, or to understand his language. There isno formal learning of grammar or pronunciation practice.d. At first children do not inflect nouns or verbs.e. Children learn their native language well whenever they start and whateverkinds of language samples they receive.f. The ability to learn a second language as an adult may vary considerablybetween individuals.g. For a child to acquire his mother tongue the most basic requirement is that hehears people speaking this language. He will then begin to learn the language.h. Phonology and grammar are finite, tightly structured systems, the child mustmaster them before puberty in order to be a native speaker of the language. Key: a) True. (Language acquisition device explains it.)b) False. (Grammatical development is partly a matter of growing “competence”and partly a matter of increasing “performance”capacity. Some subtle grammatical distinctions may not be mastered much before the age of ten.)c) True. (Young children acquire their mother tongue.)d) True (At the beginning, children’s acquisition focuses on content.)e) False (Critical Period Hypothesis can explain it.)f) True (Different individuals are exposed to different language learning environment; and their learning abilities are affected by different motivation and personalities.)g) True. (When a child begins acquire his mother tongue, he must be exposed to the language environment.)h) True. (Critical Period Hypothesis can explain it.)4. Each of the following utterances comes from the speech of a child in thetwo-word state. Identify the semantic relation expressed by each of these utterances.Key:a) The child’s utterance “Jimmy swim”may have a lot of different semantic meanings such as “Jimmy can swim”, “Jimmy swims”, or “Jimmy is swimming”. For children have no concepts of tense at this age, he/she only use two words “Jimmy swim”to express his/her intended meaning “Jimmy is swimming?”, a interrogative question.b) The semantic meaning of “Ken book”is “Ken’s book”. The part which is omitted by the child is the possessive case of Ken, but it still can imply the meaning of “Ken’s book”.c) When the child sees his/her father in the office, the child may say “Daddy office”, which means “Daddy is at his office”.d) By omitting the subject of the sentence “You”, the child expresses the meaning using “Push baby”. Obviously the meaning is synonymous with “You push the babies”.e) When the child sees his/her mother reading, he/she simply says “Mommy read” instead of using the present tense.第11章第⼆语⾔习得1. To what extent is second language learning similar to first language learning? Can you list some proof from your own learning experiences?Key: Theoretically the new findings and advances in first language acquisition especially in learning theories and learning process are illuminating in understanding second language acquisition. The techniques used to collect and analyze data in first language acquisition also provide insights and perspectives in the study of second language acquisition. For example, we started to learn our native language from listening, then speaking.（答案不唯⼀，⾃由发挥即可）2. Try to observe yourself and pay attention to your own learning experience, what conclusions are you more likely to use or depend on Chinese in learning and using English?Key: When I first contacted with English, I often used Chinese to help me learn it. According to the pronunciation of some English words, I picked an approximate accent to mark an English word. Chinese played a great role as interlanguage in such an English learning process. Those Chinese markers helped me remember the English words better.（答案不唯⼀，⾃由发挥即可）。

爱因斯坦谈人生作者简介：阿尔伯特·爱因斯坦(AlbertEinstein1879～195 5)，德国著名物理学家，1921年因在物理学方面的杰出贡献，特别是发现光电效应定律获诺贝尔物理学奖。

他提出的狭义相对论和广义相对论有力地推动了物理学的发展。

我们这些终有一死的凡人是多么不可思议!每个人都只在这世界上作短暂的逗留，究竟为了什么却并不知道，虽然偶尔觉得自己意识到这个问题。

但无需深思，从日常生活中就可认识到我们是为别人而活。

首先是为其欢笑和健康维系着我们幸福的那些人；其次是为许许多多素昧平生的人，同情的纽带把他们的命运和我们联系在一起。

每天我都上百次地提醒自己，我的精神生活和物质生活都与别人的劳动分不开，这些人有的仍健在，有的已过世；我还提醒自己，对于我已经得到和正在得到的一切，我要尽心尽力做出相应的回报。

我非常愿意过俭朴生活，我经常不安地感到自己过多地占有了同胞的劳动成果。

我认为把人划分为不同的阶层是没有道理的，归根到底是一种强制行为。

我还认为简单朴素、不事张扬的生活方式，对任何人的身心都有好处。

我根本就不相信哲学所谓的人的自由。

一个人的所作所为，不仅是外界所迫也是内心所需。

叔本华说过："一个人能做他想做的，但不能要他想要的。

"从年轻时起这句话就一直深深地激励着我。

生活中，无论是我自己面临困境，还是看见他人遇到艰难，我都能以此自慰；同时，这句话也是使我宽容忍耐的不尽源泉。

认识到这一点，就能安心地缓减那易于使人气馁的沉重的责任感，并使我们不至于对自己对他人都过分苛求;这也有助于培养一个人的人生观，特别是那种该幽默就幽默一下的人生观。

探求个人或一切生物生存的意义或目的，客观地讲，我一直都认为是荒谬的。

当然，每个人都有某种理想，正是这种理想决定了他的奋斗目标和价值标准。

因此，我从不认为安逸和快乐本身是最终所求，我把这种理想准则称之为"猪舍里的理想"。

一直照亮我前进道路并反复给我勇气使我愉快面对生活的理念是真、善、美。

定义1.语言学Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.语言Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

4.识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。

Arbitrariness 任意性Productivity 多产性Duality 双重性Displacement 移位性Cultural transmission 文化传递⑴arbitrariness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions ⑵Productivity Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶Duality Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels. ⑷Displacement Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. ⑸Cultural transmission Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力Competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。

第二语言习得对第一语言的影响罗仁地 (Randy J. LaPolla)澳大利亚拉筹伯大学语言接触及其结果最近跟双语很有关系的一个热门话题是语言接触。

Thomason & Kaufman (1988, 还有Thomason 2001) 的研究纵览语言之间广泛接触的情况，并从中归纳出语言接触的一些原则。

他们认为语言接触与因语言接触所引起的语言影响是有直接的关系，也就是说接触越强，影响越深，接触的程度与所呈现的影响的深度成正比：如果接触程度不深入，一般所呈现的影响只限于借词，语法和语音影响的现象只有在有比较深入接触的情况下才会呈现。

语言学家对语言接触越关注，就越发现其普遍性。

以前我们做语言分析和语言比较的时候，不怎么重视语言接触，只是当我们碰到了一些解释不了的现象的时候就会说“可能是语言接触的影响”。

Dixon (1997) 认为语言的发展与自然生态的发展很类似，呈现“疾变平衡” (punctuated equilibrium) 的现象。

所谓的“平衡”是说两个或两个以上的语言长期并存、接触，慢慢地、潜移默化地互相影响，有长期持续性的平衡情况。

但是偶尔会有所谓的“疾变”情况。

这通常是在有外族侵占或民族迁徙的情况下出现。

以前我们多数注意到“疾变”的结果，而比较少注意到长期并存的结果。

Dixon 认为语言接触是影响所有语言的历史发展的重要因素，因此我们再也不能象以前一样，轻视语言接触。

我们今天讨论的是双语教育和双语情况。

真正的双语情况正是我上面所说的，只能在有比较深入的语言接触的情况下才能呈现。

基本上来说，深入而长期的双语情况最后有两种可能的结果（我指的是社会双语情况）：第一种结果：说话者完全转用第二语言，第一语言消失。

第二种结果：两种语言在类型上单向或互相同化，形成一个语言区域 (Sprachbund, linguistic area)。

第一语言虽然被保留，但却已蜕变成为另一种类型的语言。

如果第一语言是弱势语言（人口少而又没有文字），而第二语言是强势语言，那么第一种结果最有可能实现。

从属论元结构范文从属论元结构（Dependency Argument Structure，DAS）是一种句法结构分析方法，用于描述句子中词语之间的从属关系。

该方法主要基于词语之间的依存关系，而不像传统的短语结构语法关注短语的组合关系。

本文将详细介绍从属论元结构的定义、分析步骤以及在自然语言处理中的应用。

一、定义1. 依存关系（Dependency Relation）：表示词语之间的从属关系。

例如，动词与其宾语之间存在一种直接依存关系。

2. 依存弧（Dependency Arc）：用于表示依存关系的连线。

依存弧通常由依存头（Head）和依存从属（Dependent）两个节点组成，依存头表示被依存的词语，依存从属表示依存于其他词语的词语。

二、分析步骤1. 词性标注（Part-of-Speech Tagging）：为句子中的每个词语标注其词性。

词性标注可以通过已有的标注工具或基于机器学习的方法实现。

2. 依存句法分析（Dependency Parsing）：通过分析句子中的依存关系，确定每个词语的从属关系。

依存句法分析可以使用基于规则、统计或神经网络的方法进行。

3.构建从属论元结构：根据依存句法分析结果，构建从属论元结构。

每个依存弧表示一个从属关系，依存头为被依存的词语，依存从属为依存于其他词语的词语。

4.结构表示：将从属论元结构以图形或树状结构的形式进行展示。

通常，从属论元结构以树状结构表示，根节点表示整个句子，其他节点表示词语，依存弧表示从属关系。

三、应用1.句法分析：通过从属论元结构，可以对句子的句法结构进行分析和表示，有助于理解句子的语义和结构。

2.机器翻译：从属论元结构可以用于源语言和目标语言之间的结构对齐，进而辅助机器翻译的进行。

3.信息抽取：从属论元结构可以帮助提取句子中的关键信息，如主语、宾语、谓语等。

这对于信息抽取任务，如命名实体识别、关系抽取等，非常有帮助。

4.语义角色标注：从属论元结构可以为语义角色标注提供基础，通过分析从属关系，可以确定词语在句子中扮演的角色，如施事者、受事者、目标等。

第二语言习得研究》重点知识点第二语言得研究概述第一节第二语言得研究的基本概念在第二语言得研究中，有一些基本概念需要明确。

首先，母语通常指研究者所属社团使用的语言，也被称为“本族语”或“第一语言”。

其次，目的语指研究者正在研究的语言，与研究者的语言得环境无关。

第一语言指儿童幼年最先接触和得的语言，而第二语言则是相对于研究者得的第一语言之外的任何一种其他语言。

得指非正式的语言获得，通常是指在自然状态下下意识的语言获得。

研究则指正式的语言规则研究，即通过课堂教学的方式来获得第二语言。

此外，第二语言得指研究者在目的语国家研究目的语，而外语得则是指研究者所学的语言在本国不是作为整个社团的交际工具，而且研究者所学的语言主要是在课堂研究的。

第二语言环境指研究者所学的语言在语言得发生的环境中作为交际语言。

自然的第二语言得指以交际的方式获得第二语言，而且语言得通常是在自然的社会环境下发生的。

有指导的第二语言得则是以教学指导的方式获得第二语言，语言得通常是在课堂教学环境中发生的。

最后，语言能力是由交际双方内在语法规则的心理表征构成的，是一种反映交际双方语言知识的心理语法。

而语言表达则是交际双方在语言的理解与生成过程中对其内在语法的运用，是关于语言运用的知识。

第二章对比分析与偏误分析第一节对比分析一对比分析产生的背景对比分析是一种语言学理论，其基础是结构主义语言学，而心理学的理论基础则是行为主义心理学。

对比分析的产生背景主要是因为第二语言得过程中研究者母语和目的语之间的差异，而对比分析则是通过对母语和目的语之间的差异进行比较和分析，以便更好地理解第二语言得过程。

二对比分析的基本内容对比分析的基本内容包括三个方面，即对比分析的基本假设、分析方法以及对比分析的两种观点。

对比分析的基本假设是，研究者在研究第二语言时会受到母语的影响，母语和目的语之间的差异会影响研究者的语言得。

对比分析的分析方法则是通过对母语和目的语之间的差异进行比较和分析，以便更好地理解第二语言得过程。

Language and GenderBy Wang Lian王濂No. 200607240401Class 1, Grade 2006The School of Foreign LanguagesChina West Normal UniversityA Paper for the Optional Course SociolinguisticsJan 2010Language and GenderAbstract:The observations of gender-related linguistic differences and social differences between the genders can help people see how closely language and social variation are related. According to this thesis, avoiding gender stereotyping and gender prejudiced language use is waiting for people to correct.Key words: gender society language differenceHow language reflects, records, and transmits social differences can be shown in many aspects, and reflexes of gender differences in language is especially marked, to some degree, for gender differences will determine the differences of the way speakers speak.Observations of the differences between the way males and females speak were long restricted to grammatical features, such as the differences between masculine and feminine morphology in many languages. Any language learners that study Russian know that word gender which was generally restricted to grammatical distinctions is one of the grammatical features of Russian. Nouns can be divided into three categories: masculine nouns, feminine nouns and neuter nouns. Generally, the nouns which end in a consonant or -й are masculine nouns, while the nouns ending in –a, -яare feminine nouns, and neuter nouns ends in –o or –e. Grammatical gender is marked mainly in pronouns, when people learn a language like French, where non-sexed items like table(la table) can be grammatically feminine.Language is originally a tool for people to communicate with each other, and there is no gender differences, however, each language is deeply marked with the imprint of gender because of the social division of labor between men and women, the differences of personality characteristics, and the difference of physiological characteristics. In other countries, there are some social linguists specializing in the relationship between language and gender. There is an American scholar called Graham Goodwin who collected conversations between males and females of different ages, races and occupations over ten times in Philadelphia from 1990 to 2000. After a comparative study, he found that there were at least following language characteristics between males and females:Women prefer to use first-person plural form, for example, we need…，while men prefer to use first- person singular form, for example, I want….Women prefer to use plain and simple words, for example, they like to use these words just like nice, sweet to describe “good”, while men prefer to use flowery, exaggerated words, such as splendid, gorgeous and so on to describe "good".Women like to create some feminine-like words, such as dove grey (similar to the pigeon feathers gray), while men prefer to use standard English to say, such as light grey (light gray).Women always pay much attention to grammatical correctness, for example, we are going to…, while men do not attach importance to the correctness of syntax, for example, we are gonna….Women like direct quotation, for example, Hannah said that…, while men like indirect quotation, for example, she said that….Women like to express politely, for example, would you…, while men like regular expressions, for example, can you….The last but not the least is that women like to listen to other people, while men like to tell others.(/s/blog_486c0f670100a6ul.html) Besides, there is a popular prejudice that women talk more than men. Popular magazine "Female Brain" said that women say 20000 words a day, while men only say 7000 words, but it is not the result of study.(/health/2007-10/08/content_11333389.htm). Empirical studies of a number of social situations have shown the opposite to be true.For a long time, people always think that women’s talk is associated with the home and domestic activities, while men’s is associated with the outside world and economic activities. The thinking of "Patriarchal" is not unique to China, but almost a global phenomenon. So, as for language, gender discrimination can be also seen everywhere such as proverbs, expressions, vocabulary, and word meaning. In the language of English , people can see that the sexist phenomenon is very universal. When people say or write something, they would like to use he to represent the person of unknown sex. English in the long process of development has gradually formed the tendency that words which refers to male are always used to represent the two sexes, although people are not intentionally discriminate against women when they use these words, it still reflects the social prejudices, and sometimes causes misleading. In English language,man, mankind or the words ending in –man,such as chairman, mailman, policeman, workman and so on, are often used to represent the two sexes. What’s more, at the beginning of a letter, people often use those words which refer to male to take the place of both sexes. For instance, at the beginning of formal letters, it is common to write Dear Sir or Dear Gentleman regardless of the gender of the addressee. Many words’structures are originally neither good nor bad, but only because of people's views and prejudices of society they have such means of discrimination against women. For example, when people refer to both men and women, the two sides are not on an equal footing, and they always refer to men first, such as king and queen , brother and sister, father and mother, boys and girls, husband and wife, Adam and Eve, man and woman, Mr. Lucas and his wife Louise. In English, occupations which have a lower social status tend to have both masculine nouns and feminine nouns such as waiter/ waitress, steward/stewardess, while occupations which have a higher social status have only masculine nouns. If people want to express the concept of women, the words can only be preceded by the words, such as lady, woman, female.For instance, a lady-doctor, a woman-lawyer, a female-surgeon.(/34/2005-7-12/30009@163959.htm)Such usages do not only reflect and record current prejudices, but they are easily transmitted, reinforcing the lower power and prestige ascribed to women in a society. Eliminationof gender discrimination in language has become an important component of the movement for women's rights in western countries, especially the United States in recent years. And it has achieved initial success. The most prominent example is the English acronyms "Ms". But as long as there is still gender discrimination in society, the gender discrimination in languages would be difficult to be eliminated.According to the study of functional magnetic resonance imaging, phonological processing in males was shown to be located in the left half of the brain and in females to involve both left and right parts of the brain. This research shows that there is no evidence that any neurophysiological difference accounts for differences between male and female language. The main causes are social rather than biological. Level of education is the most critical social cause of gender differentiation in speechstule. In all studies, it has been shown that the greater the disparities between educational opportunities for males and females, the greater the differences between male and female speeech. So far, there has been still many places in China having the social phenomenon of patriarchal. So males in these communities are given more chances than females to study in schools. Thus, in these places, men and women speak in totally different ways. Either from the polite, logic or the accuracy of speaking, men can make a better speech than women does. But when offered an equal educational opportunity, there seems to be a tendency for women to be more sensitive than men to the status norm of language. Under such situation, men has much tighter social networks, while the women has looser multiple networks.Language is a symbol of social convention, and it has the characteristics of variability. Language has a direct reflection of social life. Instead, we must admit that the change in language to a certain extent will help to promote both the social change and the change of human’s concept. So avoiding gender stereotyping and gender prejudiced language use is a lateral reflection of the progress of society. References:1.Sociolinguistics社会语言学，Bernard Spolsky, 上海外语教育出版社，2008.102./34/2005-7-12/30009@163959.htm3./health/2007-10/08/content_11333389.htm4./s/blog_486c0f670100a6ul.html。

分析语言不平等的分类、产生原因及应对策略-社会语言学论文-语言学论文——文章均为WORD文档，下载后可直接编辑使用亦可打印——社会语言学是近10 多年来发展起来的一门的学科，它从社会学、民族学、人类学、地理学等多学科的角度研究语言和社会的关系。

两者的关系主要体现在四个方面: (1) 语言的存在离不开社会: (2) 社会的构成需要语言;(3) 语言行为同时也是社会行为; (4) 语言通讯的问题和对语言的态度都是可能产生严重社会后果的问题。

所以，研究语言和社会关系的社会语言学是十分必要的。

近年来，在现当代世界，不平等现象处处可见。

既有国与国之间的不平等、民族与民族之间的不平等，也有人与人之间的不平等。

在语言世界里也存在不平等现象，各种语言(包括语言变体) 被人们划出高低和优劣，即在这些人眼中，语言是不平等的。

正是由于这种不平等现象的存在，某些方言被轻视，而使用这些方言的人也受到不公正待遇。

这一现象引起了社会学者的广泛关注。

那么，何为语言不平等(language inequality) ? 针对这一问题，本文将从社会语言学角度分析语言不平等的分类、产生的原因及应对策略。

一、语言不平等分类及其产生的原因(一) 语言不平等分类所谓语言不平等就是有些使用者视自己的语言为先进语言，视其他使用者的语言为落后语言，这其实是一种偏见。

说到语言不平等，英国著名语言学家赫德森进行了广泛研究，并得到众多学者的认可和借鉴。

赫德森将语言不平等分为三类: 主观不平等(subjective inequality) ; 交际不平等(communicative inequality) ; 严格的语言不平等(strictly linguistic inequality) 。

主观不平等与我们的日常生活联系最紧密，它涉及到人们对语言使用者的主观看法。

来自同一个地方的人喜欢用方言进行交谈来加深对彼此的身份认同; 大学入学考试要求报考英语专业的考生英语应达到一定水平; 大学毕业时英语专业的学生英语应达到专业四级的水平，非英语专业的学生应达到大学英语四级的水平，否则不予颁发学位证书; 招聘时，招聘单位对应聘者语言掌握水平的要求，如某学校招聘英语教师时，要求应聘者普通话水平达到二级甲等，英语达到专业八级的水平，否则不予录用。