chapter 9 Sociolinguistics

Chapter 9 ： PsycholinguisticsI.Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1.The linguistic ability of human beings depends primarily on the structure of the vocal cords.2.Human beings are the only organisms in which one particular part of the lefthalf of the brain is larger than the corresponding part of the right half.3.The case of Phineas Gage suggests that if our language ability is located in the brain, it is clear that it is not situated right at the front.4.In general, the right side of the brain controls voluntary movements of, and responds to signals from, the left side of the body, whereas the left side controls voluntarymovements of, and responds to signals from, the right side of the body.5.L a nguage functions are believed t o b e lateralized p rimarily in the left hemisphereof the brain.6.The language we speak determines the way we perceive the world a nd t hereforethe nature of thought.7.Human beings can not think without language, just as they can not speak without thinking.8.If a language lacks a word, its speakers will not be able to grasp its concept.9.Generally speaking, left hemisphere is responsible for language and speech, analytic reasoning, associative thought, etc., while the right hemisphere is responsible for perception of nonlinguistic sounds, holistic reasoning, recognition of musical melodies, etc.nguage by no means determines the ways we perceive the objective world, but by its c onvenience, availability, and habitual use, does influence the perceptions of humanbeing.II.Fill in each of the blanks below with one word which begins with the letter given:11.P is the study of language in relation to the mind.12.The most important part of the brain is the outside surface of the brain, called the cerebral c , which is the decision-making organ of the body.13.The brain is divided into two roughly symmetrical halves, called h , one onthe right and one on the l eft.14.The localization of cognitive and perceptual functions in a particular side of thebrain is called l .15.Brain lateralization is g programmed, but takes time to develop.16.In addition to the m_____________area which is responsible for physical articulation of utterances, three areas of the left hemisphere are vital to language, namely, Broca's area,Wernicke's area and the angular gyrus.17.The relationship between the name and the meaning of a word is quitea .18.When language and t hought are identical or closely parallel to e ach other, we m ayregard thought as s speech and speech as o thought.19.Because languages differ in many ways, Whorf believed that speakers of different languages perceive and experience the world differently, relative to their linguistic background.This notion is called linguistic r .20.The basic essentials of the first language are acquired in the short period fromabout age two to puberty, which is called the c period for first language acquisition.21.The strong version of Sapir-Whorf hypothesis has two aspects: linguistic d_______ and linguistic relativism.III.There are four choices following e ach statement. Mark the choicethat can bestcomplete the statement:22.Human linguistic ability largely depends on the structure and dynamics of.A. human brainB. human vocal cordsC. human memoryD. human23.Psychologists, neurologists and lingui sts have concluded that, in addition to themotor area which is responsible for physical articulation of utterances, three areas of the leftbrain are vital to language, namely, .A.Broca's area, Wernicke's area and t he angular gyrusB.Broca's area, Wernicke's area and c erebral cortexC.Broca's area, Wernicke's area and n euronsD.Broca's area, Wernicke's area and E xner's area24.The ____ age for the acquisition of the first language coincides with the period o brain lateralization.A. youngestB. flexibleC. optimumD. relevant25.Linguistic is the brain's neurological specialization for language.A. fossilizationB. performanceC. competenceD. lateralization26.Our linguistic ability is a gift of the species' gene p rogram.A. chemicalB. physicalC. scientificD. biological27.s hows that if our language ability is located in the brain, it is clear that it isnot situated right at the front of the brain.A.The case of GenieB. The case of Phineas GageC. The componential analysisD. The contrastive analysis28.The most important part of the brain is the outside surface of the brain, called.A. the neuronsB. nerve pathwaysC. cerebral cortex d. sensory organs29.A c c ording t o l ateralization theory, which of the following i s not the primary functionof the left hemisphere of the brain?A. analytic reasoningB. temporal orderingC. associative thoughtD.visual and spatial skills30.is commonly held to be an evolutionary precondition of the development of superior intelligence as well as a precondition of language acquisition.A. LateralizationB. MaturationC. Brain separationD. Memory capacity31.The dichotic listening research shows that the left hemisphere is not superior f or processing all sounds, but only for those that are in nature.A. non-linguisticB. musicalC. linguisticD. natural32.is responsible for physical articulation of utterances.A. The motor areaB. Broca's areaC. Wernicke's areaD. The angular gyrusnguage disorder resulting from a damage toin the brain reveals word-finding difficulties and problems with syntax.A. the m otor areaB. Broca's areaC. Wernicke's areaD. the angular g yrus34.In 1874, the young German physician Carl Wernicke published his discovery in a paper which contributed to the hypothesis that .A.there was only one language area in the left brainB.there was no language area in the left brainC.there was one language area in the right brainD.there was more than one language area in the left brain.35.is the language center primarily responsible for converting a visual stimulus into an auditory form and vice versa.A. The motor areaB. Broca's areaC. Wernicke's areaD. The angular gyrus36.The neurobiologist Eric Lenneberg is a major proponent of the idea that .A.there is a distinction between acquisition and learningB.there is a critical period for language acquisitionnguage influences thinkingD.there is interrelationship between language and thinking37.The case of Genie s hows that .nguage can not be acquired at all after the critical period.B.Cerebral plasticity after puberty is still high enough to for a successful mastery of a new language.C.the language faculty of an average human degenerates after the critical periodD.the language learning should be done as early as possible.IV Explain the following terms:38.psycholinguistics 39. brain lateralization40. dichotic listening 41. Broca's area42. angular gyms 43. cerebral plasticity44. linguistic determinism 45. sub vocal speech46. cerebral cortex 47. linguistic lateralization48. right ear advantage 49. critical period hypothesis50. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis 51. linguistic relativism52. overt thought 53. intrapersonal communication54.interpersonal communicationV. Answer thefollowingquestions:55.What are the biological foundations of language?56.What are the major mental functions under the control of each hemisphere?57.What can we do by means of dichotic listening tests?58.What is the safe conclusion from Genie's case?59.How are language and thought related to each other?Chapter 9 PsycholinguisticsI.Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. F2.T3.T4.T5.T6. F7.F8.F9.T 10.TII.II. Fill in each of the blanks below with one word which begins with the letter given:11. Psycholinguistics 12. cortex 13. hemispheres 14. lateralization15. genetically 16. Motor 17. arbitrary 18. sub-vocal, overt 19.relativism20. critical 21. determinismIII.There arefour choices following e ach statement. Mark the choice that can bestcomplete the statement:22.A 23.A 24.C 25.D 26.D 27.B 28.C 29.D 30.A31.C 32. A 33. B 34. D 35. D 36. B 37. CIV Explain the following t erms:38.Psycholinguistics: Psycholinguistics is the study of language in relation to the mind.39.brain lateralization: The localization of cognitive and perceptual functions ina particular hemisphere of the brain is called brain lateralization.40.dichotic listening: a research technique which has been used to study how the brain controls h earing and language, with which subjects wear earphones and simultaneously receive different sounds in the right and left ear, and are then asked to repeat what they hear. Dichotic listening research makes use of the generally established fact that anything experienced on the right-hand side of the body is processed in the left hemisphere of thebrain, andvice versa. A basic assumption, thus, would bethat a signal coming in the right earwill go to the left hemisphere and a signal coming in the left ear will go to the right hemisphere.41.Broca's area : It refers to the frontal lobe in the left cerebral hemisphere, whichis vital to language. This area is discovered by Paul Broca, a French surgeon and anatomist.42.angular gyms:The angular gyrus lies behind Wernicke's area.The angular g i syrus the language center responsible for converting a visual stimulus into an auditory form a ndvice versa. This area is crucial for the matching of a spoken form with a perceived object, forthe naming of objects, and for the comprehension of written language , all of which require connections between visual and speech regions.43.cerebral plasticity: According to L enneberg, p rior to the end o f the critical period, both hemispheres are involved to s ome extent in language and o ne c an take o ver if the otheris damaged. This neurological flexibility is called cerebral plasticity .44.linguistic determinism: a theory put forward by the American anthropological linguists Sapir and Whorf, which states that the way people view the world is determined bythe structure of their native language.45.subvocal speech: a term used to refer to thought when thought and language areidentical or closely parallel to each other.46.cerebral cortex : the outside surface of the brain which receives messages fromall thesensory organs and where human cognitive abilities reside.47.linguistic lateralization: It refers the brain's neurological specialization for language.48.right ear advantage: The speech signals presented i n the right ear goes directly to theleft brain, while the speech signals in the left ear must first go to the right hemisphere, from where it is transferred to the left side of the brain for processing. Since the speech signals inthe left ear takes a non-direct route and a longer time before processing than a linguisticsignal received through the right ear, linguistic stimuli heard in the left ear are reported less accurately than those heard in the right ear. This phenomenon is called the right ear advantage.49.critical period hypothesis: The critical period hypothesis refers to a period in one' slife e xtendingfrom ab o ut age t wo t o p uberty, during which the h uman brain is most ready toacquire a particular language and language learning can proceed easily, swiftly, and without explicit instruction.50.S apir-Whorf hypothesis: a theory put forward by the American anthropological linguists Sapir and Whorf which states that the way people view the world is determined wholly or partly by the structure of their native language.51.linguistic relativism: Whorf believed t hat speakers of different languages perceive and experience the world differently, relative to their linguistic background, hence the notion of linguistic relativism .52.overt thought: When language and thought are identical or closely parallel to each other, wemay reg ard s peech as "overt thought.”53.intrapersonal communication: It means that language users use language to facilitates thinking, speech behavior and action for the individual.54.i nterpersonal communication: It means language users use language to convey information, thoughts and feelings fromone person to another, or to control each other' sbehavior.V. Answer thefollowingquestions:55.What are the biological foundations of language?Of all organisms, human beings are the only spontaneous creators and users of highly sophisticated languages that permit the communication of a wide range of knowledge and ideas. Evidently, our linguistic ability does not depend primarily on the structure of our vocalcords, for other mammals also h ave vocal cords. Human linguistic ability largely depends,instead, on the structure and dynamics of the human brain. As far as is currently known, human beings are the only organisms in which one particular part of the left half of the brainis larger than the corresponding part of the right half. This has led to the belief that human language is b iologically, or moreexactly, neurologically, based.56.What are the major mental functions under the control of each hemisphere?Psychological research suggests that both hemispheres perform important mental functions and they differ only in the manner in which they treat incoming stimuli. For example, the right hemisphere processes stimuli more holistically and the left hemi spheremore analytically.Brain lateralization for major mental functions under the control of each hemisphere isgiven as follows:(1)Left hemisphere Right hemispherelanguage and speech perception of nonlinguistic s oundsanalytic reasoning holistic reasoningtemporal ordering visual and spatial skillsreading and writing recognition of p atternscalculation recognition of musical melodiesassociative thoughtBecause each cerebral hemisphere has unique functional superiority, it is accurate to think of the hemispheres as complementarily specialized .57.What can we do by means of dichotic listening tests?Dichotic listening research makes use of the generally established fact that anything experienced on the right-hand side of the body is processed in the left hemisphere of thebrain, andvice versa. A basic assumption, thus, would bethat a signal coming in the right ear will go to the left hemisphere and a signal coming in the left ear will go to the right hemisphere. By means of dichotic listening tests, we can analyze the characteristics of incoming stimuli processed by the individual hemispheres.Dichotic listening test canshow that the left hemisphere is not superior for processing allsounds, but only for those that are linguistic in nature, thus providing evidence in support ofthe view that the left side of the brain is specialized for language and that it is where language centers reside.58.What is the safe conclusion from Genie's case?A safe conclusion from Genie' s case is that the language faculty of an average humandegenerates after the critical period and consequently, most linguistic skills cannot develop.59.How are language and thought related to each other?Language and thought may be viewed as two independent circles overlapping in some parts, where language and thought are consistent with each other and one never occurs without theother. When language and t hought are identical or closely parallel to each other,we may regard thought as "subvocal speech”,and speech as "overt thought. In such a case,speaking and thinking take place simultaneously.。

Chapter 9 Psycholinguistics心理语言学一、本章纲要二、本章重点(2005，单选；2007，名词解释) Psycholinguistics is the study of language in relation to the mind. As the term suggests, it is viewed as the intersection of psychology and linguistics, drawing equally upon the language we acquire, produce and comprehend, and the mind or brain in which our linguistic and cognitive faculties are localized and organized, and interact with each other in particular ways. Our linguistic capability depends largely on the structure and dynamics of the human brain. 心理语言学主要从心理的角度对语言进行研究，目的在于揭示人类是如何掌握语言，说出语言和理解语的，语言与思维的关系等一系列问题。

1.The biological foundations of language语言的生理基础（2005，判断）Our linguistic ability is a biological gift of the species’ gene program. 人类不需要课堂教学就可以自然习得自己的母语。

人类有语言能力的主要原因不可能是人有声带，因为其它动物也有声带。

人类的语言能力主要依赖人脑结构和人脑的机制。

人类大脑的左半球的某些区域比右大脑相应的区域要大，这是人类大脑所特有的特征。

sociolinguistics语言学定义Sociolinguistics is a subfield of linguistics that focuses on the study of language in its social context. It examines how language is used and how it varies across different social groups, communities, and cultures. Sociolinguistics explores the relationship between language and society, and how language reflects and shapes social identity, power dynamics, and social interactions.One of the key areas of study in sociolinguistics is language variation. Language variation refers to the fact that language is not uniform but varies in pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar across different regions, social classes, age groups, and ethnicities. Sociolinguists investigate how and why these variations occur and what they reveal about social factors such as social class, gender, ethnicity, and age.Another important aspect of sociolinguistics is language attitudes and ideologies. Language attitudes refer to people's opinions and evaluations of different languages or language varieties. Sociolinguists examine how language attitudes are shaped by social factors and how they influence language use and language policies. Language ideologies, on the other hand, refer to the beliefs and values associated with particular languages or language varieties. Sociolinguists analyze howlanguage ideologies influence language choices, language maintenance or shift, and language planning.Sociolinguistics also explores language and identity. Language is a fundamental aspect of individual and group identity, and sociolinguists investigate how language use and language choices contribute to the construction and negotiation of social identities. Language can be a marker of social class, ethnicity, gender, and other social categories, and sociolinguists examine how language is used to express and negotiate these identities.Power and language is another important area of study in sociolinguistics. Language is not only a means of communication but also a tool of power and social control. Sociolinguists investigate how language is used to assert dominance, maintain social hierarchies, and reproduce inequalities. They examine how language choices and language policies can reflect and perpetuate power imbalances and social inequalities.Sociolinguistics also examines language change and language contact. Language is constantly evolving, and sociolinguists study how and why languages change over time. They investigate the social factors thatdrive language change, such as contact with other languages, migration, and social mobility. Sociolinguists also analyze language contact situations, where different languages come into contact and influence each other, leading to the emergence of new linguistic varieties.In addition to these main areas of study, sociolinguistics also explores language and education, language planning and policy, language and globalization, and language and technology. Sociolinguists investigate how language is taught and learned in educational settings, how language policies are formulated and implemented, how language is affected by globalization processes, and how technology impacts language use and communication.Overall, sociolinguistics provides valuable insights into the complex relationship between language and society. It helps us understand how language is used, how it varies, and how it reflects and shapes social identities, power dynamics, and social interactions. By studying sociolinguistics, we can gain a deeper understanding of the role of language in our everyday lives and in the broader social context.。

判断题:正确写A，错误写BChapter 1:1。

Linguistics is the systematic study of language。

True.2。

Linguistics deals with a particular language。

False。

3。

Linguistics is scientific because it is helpful to language use.False.4。

The task of a linguist is to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system.True。

5. Linguistics is generally divided into general and specific linguistics.False。

6。

General linguistics deals with the general aspects of language application.False.7。

General linguistics does not study theories of language.False。

8。

Phonetics studies human sound patterning and the meaning of sounds in communication。

False.9. Phonology studies how a sound is produced.False。

10. Morphology is the study of sentences.False.11. Syntax is the study of the rules of words.False。

12. Semantics is the study of word meaning。

填空题Chapter11. function is realized by mood and modality.【答案】Interpersonal2. Halliday proposes a theory of metalingual functions of language, that is, language has , interpersonal and textual functions.【答案】ideational3. Some sentences do not describe things. They cannot be said to be true or false. The utterance of these sentences is or is a part of the doing of an action. They are called p .【答案】performative1. studies meaning in language, is about principles of forming and understanding correct English sentences, and is concerned with the internal organization of words. They are all among the main branches of linguistics.【答案】semantics；syntax；morphology2. In linguistics, refers to the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation as sentences.【答案】Syntax3. studies how the speech sounds are made, transmitted, and received, and studies the rules governing the structure, distribution and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.【答案】phonetics; phonology1. is the study of the language-processing mechanisms. It is concerned with the storage, comprehension, production and acquisition of language; , on the other hand, attempts to show the relationship between language and society. They both belong to branches of macrolinguistics.【答案】psycholinguistics ; sociolinguistics2. Computational linguistics can be seen as a branch of applied linguistics, dealing with computer of human language.【答案】processing1. grammars attempt to tell what is in the language, while grammars tell people what should be in the language. Most contemporary linguists believe that whatever occurs naturally in the language should be described.【答案】descriptive；prescriptive2. In linguistics, languages are studied at a theoretical point in time: one describes a ‘state’of the language, disregarding whatever changes might be taking place.【答案】synchronicChapter21. Consonant articulations are relatively easy to feel, and as a result are most conveniently described in terms of place and of articulation.【答案】manner2. are produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.【答案】consonantsChapter31. There are two fields of morphology: the study of and the study of .【答案】inflectional；lexical/derivational2. A morpheme is one that cannot constitute a word by itself.【答案】bound3. is a branch of linguistics that studies the interrelationship between phonology and morphology.【答案】Morphophonology1. is a relatively complex form of compounding in which a new word is formed by joining the initial part of one word and the final part of another word. For example, the English word smog is made from and .【答案】blending；smoke；fog2. The principle of Creation can account for the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation of some English verbs.【答案】Analogical3. Back-formation refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an affix from a longer form already in the language.【答案】imaginedChapter41.______ refers to ties and connections which exist within texts. They are also called formal links between sentences and between clauses.【答案】CohesionChapter51. According to G Leech, meaning is the communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content【答案】connotative2. According to G. Leech, meaning refers to what is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of the speaker／writer.【答案】affective1.“X buys something from Y”and “Y sells something to X”are in a relation of .【答案】converse antonymy2. Terms like “desk”and “stool”are of the term “furniture”.【答案】(co-)hyponyms3.“Tulip”, “rose”and “violet”are all included in the notion of “flower”. Therefore, they are superordinates of “flower”【答案】FChapter91. “The world is like a stage” is an example of, and “All the world is a stage”is an example of . They are often used in analyzing features of literary language.nnn【答案】simile；metaphor1. At different times, different patterns of metre and sound have developed and become accepted as ways of structuring poems. Among them, consists of lines in iambic pentameter which do not rhyme.【答案】blank verse2. A foot contains two syllables. A stressed syllable comes first, following by an unstressed syllable.【答案】trochee。

Chapter 8 Sociolinguistics1、Do you agree with the following statement? Why or Why not? Among all the regional dialects of Chinese, Beijing dialect is better than the others, that’s why it was chosen as the basis of putonghua (Standard Chinese).I definitely do not agree this statement. (1) As a social phenomenon, language is closely related to the structure of the society in which it is used, and the evaluation of a language or a variety of a language is entirely social. (2) To the professional linguist, all language forms and accents are equally good, because they all fulfill the communicative function they are expected to fulfill and each of them has its own complex and delicate systems of grammatical rules and speech sounds. (3）A certain variety of language appears to be superior to others maybe because the areas where that variety is spoken is economically or socially more influential, or because the variety is spoken by the class of people possessing higher social, political, and/or economical status.2、What is a register? What factors should be taken into account in identifying a register?Varieties classified according to use are called registers.According to Halliday’s functional-systematic framework, three factors are concerned with registers, namely, field, mode and tenor of discourse. (1) The field of discourse refers to the event in which the discourse is functioning including subject matters, e.g. Classical music , the Olympic games. (2) The mode of discourse refers to the function of discourse in the event, including both the medium of language ——spoken or written,extempore or prepared, and its rhetorical mode, as narrative, persuasive, phatic , etc. (3) The tenor of discourse refers to the role relations among the participants involved, especially then level of formality they adopt, e.g. Intimate, casual, or formal.Chapter 9 Stylistics1、What are the dimensions along which different styles of discourses can be compared?As a branch of linguistics, stylistics refers to the study of style. Style variation occurs not only from situation to situation but also according to medium and degree of formality. Style may vary in literary language within or between texts, genres and periods.Stylistic variation may occur on different linguistic levels. (1) Lexical variation. Different styles may involve different lexical choices. For example, a. The price of meat has been going down steeply.I b. The price of meat has been declining alarmingly. “Go down” and “decline” are synonymous, but the latter one is more formal than the first one. (2) Grammatical variation. Stylistic variation may involve some distinctive grammatical structures. William Shakespeare uses some lexical items characteristic of his period in his Sonnet 18. (3) Phonological variation. Stylistic variation can also be realized phonologically by taking on different patterns of tonality or changing the tonic of a sentence to show different meaning. a. My brother who lives in Nai'robi has just arrived. b. My 'brother who lives in Nai'robi has just arrived. In a, with the stress falling on“Nairobi”, the sentence defines the brother is the one that lives in Nai'robi ,but in b, with the stress falling on “brother” and “Nairobi”, the sentence may mean that there is in fact only one brother to refer to.(4) Graphological variation. he author may specially design the text so as to achieve some particular effect. Take E.E. Cummings’poem“…and breakonetwothreefourfivepigeons-justlikethat ”for example. In this line, the poet use a numer of words in succession as if to portray the shooting of five pigeons without any break.Chapter 10 Psycholinguistics1、Summarize the process of language production.(1) The biological foundation of language production include the operation of speech organs, the modification of air stream, and more importantly, and the function of human brain.(2) Language production is logically divided into three major steps: deciding what to express (conceptualization), determining how to express it (formulation), and expressing it (articulation). Conceptualization is the process when a speaker decides upon an intention or some content to express (e.g. A desired outcome or an observation) and encodes the situational constraints on how the content may be expressed (e.g. polite or informal speech ) . Formulation is divided into a word selection stage, deciding ehich word to use, and a sound processing stage, which in volves constructing the phonological form of a selected word. The last process is articulation, that is, the execution of motor programs to pronounce the sounds of a word.2、Compare language acquisition and language learning.Language acquisition is the process by which humans acquire the capacity to perceive and comprehend language, as well as to produce and use words and sentences to communicate. Language acquisition is said to be a subconscious process of rule internalization resulting from exposure to comprehensible input when the learner’s attention is on meaning rather than form, and it is not dependent on the teaching of grammatical rules. Language acquisition usually refers to first-language acquisition, which studies infants' acquisition of their native language. This is distinguished from language learning, which deals with the learning (in both children and adults) of additional languages. However, Language learning centers on issues such as second, and foreign language learning, language education, bilingualism, literacy, language representation in mind and brain, culture, cognition, pragmatics, and inter-group relations. Language learning refers to a conscious process involving the study of explicit rules of language. It, in a broad sense, includes both formal learning in the classroom stimulated by teaching and natural, informal language learning without instruction from any teacher. The concept of language learning is linked to the traditional approach to the study of languages and today is still generally practiced in high schools worldwide. Attention is focused on the language in its written form and the objective is for the student to understand the structure and rules of the language, whose parts are dissected and analyzed. The task requires intellectual effort and deductive reasoning. Generally speaking, language learning involves receiving information about the language, transforming it into knowledge through intellectual effort and storing it through memorization, mostly for second-language learner, While, language acquisition involves developing the skill of interacting with foreigners to understand them and speak their language, mostly for native speaker.Chapter 11 Cognitive Linguistics1、Exemplify what conceptual metaphors are.Metaphor is defined as understanding one conceptual domain in terms of another conceptualdomain, which can be schematized as: CONCEPTUAL DOMAIN (A) IS CONCEPTUALDOMAIN (B). This is known as conceptual metaphor. In other words, a conceptual metaphor is essentially a device that involves conceptualizing one domain of experience in terms of another.LOVE IS A JOURNEYOur relationship had hit a dead-end street.We are going in different directions.The marriage is on the rocks.In this example, LOVE IS A JOURNEY is the conceptual metaphor, and it suggest that love , like journey, may have different directions and may end. To understand conceptual metaphors more accurately, we should know that conceptual metaphors from linguistic metaphors.Conceptual metaphors relate to“ways of thinking”, and thus are schematic or abstract such as LOVE IS A JOURNEY; in contrast, linguistic metaphors are manifestations of conceptual metaphors, which are those concrete expressions listed beneath the conceptual metaphor LOVE IS A JOURNEY. 2、Exemplify what is referred to by iconicity.The iconicity of language means that the structure of language reflects in some way the structure of experience, that is, the language mimes the world. On the syntactic level, theiconicity of language manifests itself especially as iconicity of order iconicity of distance, and iconicity of complexity.(1)Iconicity of order refers to the order of elements in language parallels that in physical experience or the order of knowledge. Word-order iconicity is found in the ordering of events in narrative sequences, which tends to reflect closeness in time. E.g. He stood up and jumped onto his horse. In this sentence, “ stood up” is what happened before “jumped onto his horse”.Another example of iconic ordering involves the concept of closeness to the speaker. What is nearest to the speaker in a physical or in a metaphorical sense is always mentioned first.(2) Iconicity of distance means that the linguistic distance between expressions corresponds to the conceptual distance between the ideas they represent. Lexical causatives (e.g. kill) tend to convey a more direct causation than periphrastic causatives (e.g. cause to die) in the following sentences : a.The farmer killed the animal.b. The farmer caused the animal to die.(3)Iconicity of complexity means more complex meanings are expressed by more complex forms. This principle of iconicity can be used as well to explain why the description of a multi- event is longer than that of a single event.a. Mary cleaned the floor.b. Mary cleaned the floor, and then watered the flowers.c. Mary cleaned the floor, watered the flowers, and then walked to the kitchen.This explains why a multi-event is longer than that of a single event.Chapter 12 Applied Linguistics1、What is applied linguistics?In its broadest sense, applied linguistics refers to all studies that are to apply linguistic theories, methods and findings to solve problems or improve situations involving language and its users and uses. In its narrowest sense,applied linguistics is the study of second and foreignlanguage learning and teaching.2、Comment on the following statement: Girls generally do better than boys in learning a foreign language.This statement is not correct, and the following are the reasons.Learners vary enormously in learning a language. There are 6 factors responsible for individual differences in L2 learning.(1) No age or stage stands out as optimal or critical for all aspects of L2 learning, but each stage of development may have certain advantages and disadvantages. young children acquire L2 more readily and intuitively in social and communicative situations while older learners tend to learn more readily by means of cognitive and academic approaches.(2) Language aptitude refers to the natural ability, or gift, to learn a language, not including intelligence, motivation, interest, etc. Some language learners appear to have a gift for languages while others do not , and that gift is called language aptitude.(3) Another factor is motivation. Motivation refers to a combination of the learner’s attitudes, desires, and willingness to expend effort in order to learn the second language. Motivation can be divided into intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation. The former is enjoyment of language learning itself. The latter is driven by external factors such as parental pressure, societal expectations, more practical concerns such as getting a job or passing an examination, and other sources of rewards and punishments. Motivation is generally considered to be one of the primary causes of success and failure in L2 learning. Research has repeatedly proven that intrinsic motivation contributes strongly to L2 learning.(4) In addition, language attitude, may also affect language learning. Language attitude refers to the feelings that learners have about the target language. The attitude that speakers have towards their own language or the language of others can be either positive or negative. Positive attitudes towards a L2 may evoke greater interest and more effort to learn. Knowing about attitudes is an important aspect of evaluating the likely success of a language teaching programme.(5) Learning strategies is a important factor. Learning strategies are behaviors or actions which learners use to make language learning more successful, self-directed and enjoyable. In general, they are the ways in which learners attempt to work out the meanings and uses of words, grammatical rules, and other aspects of the language they are learning. Successful learners generally use a greater number of active learning strategies.3、How can we tell whether a teacher’s teaching is learner-centered or not?In learner-centered teaching, teachers serve as a guide and companion as well as a motivator, counselor and analyst of needs. Learner-centered teaching emphasizing the active role of students in learning, try to give learners more control over what and how they learn and encourage learners to take more responsibility for their own learning. Learner-centeredness may be reflected by recognizing (1) learners’prior knowledge, (2) learners’needs, goals and wishes, (3) learners’ needs styles and learning preferences and (4) learners’views of teaching and of the nature of classroom tasks. If the teacher’s teaching is in accordance with the above requirements, the teacher is learner-centered, and vice versa.。

Final examination for Introduction to Linguistics (January, 2015)I.Translation (1 X 20 = 20 %): Chinese into English = 10 English into Chinese = 10II.Fill in the blanks (2 X 15 = 30 %): Fill in the blanks in sentences using linguistic terms III.Definitions ( 4 X 5 = 20 %)IV.Short essays (15 X 2 = 30 %)RevisionI.Terms for sections I, II, and III.Chapter 7:1) sociolinguistics 社会语言学Sociolinguistics might be defined as the study of correlations between linguistic variables (e.g. the precise phonetic quality of a vowel, or the presence or absence of a certain element in a system and non-linguistic variables such as the social class of speakers, their age, sex, hometown, etc.2) the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis 萨丕尔-沃夫假说American Anthropological linguisticsLinguistic determinism: Language determines our way of thinking.Linguistic relativity: similarity between languages is relative, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be.3) linguistic determinism 语言决定论Language determines our way of thinking.4) linguistic relativity 语言相对论Similarity between languages is relative, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be.5) the context of situation 情景语境According to Halliday, the context of situation contains three components:（1）Field of discourse: the subject matter being discussed.（2）Tenor of discourse: the social relations between the participants of conversations（3）Mode of discourse: the channel of communication6) communicative competence 交际能力The implications from sociolinguistics for language teaching is called communicative competenceHymes:(1) Whether (and to what degree) something is formally possible.(2) Whether (and to what degree) something is feasible, in virtue of the means of implementation available.(3) Whether (and to what degree) something is appropriate (adequate, happy, successful) inrelation to the context in which it is used and evaluated.(4) Whether (and to what degree) something is in fact done, actually performed, and what its doing entails.M. Canale and M. Swain:(1) Grammatical competence(2) Sociolinguistic competence(3) Discourse competence(4) Strategic competence7) woman register 女性用语According to Lakoff, there exists a woman register in language that takes on the following features:(1) Women use more fancy color terms such as mauve (淡紫色) and beige（米色）.(2) Women use less powerful curse words.(3) Women use more intensifiers such as terribly and awfully.(4) Women use more tag questions: He’s right, isn’t he?(5) Women use more statement (declarative) questions: He’s rig ht?(6) Women’s linguistic behavior is more indirect and, hence, more polite than men's: Could you lower your voice a little?8) linguistic sexism 语言性别歧视linguistic discrimination against women: chairman, man power, man（used to refer to the whole human race）, he (used to refer to a person of unknown sex), gentlemen.There are many more words for prostitutes than for whoremasters or whoremongers.If a man behaves strangely, one may say, “There’s a woman in it.”The proverb: Wives and children are bills of charges.9) cross-cultural communication跨文化交际Cross-cultural communication is a field of study that looks at how people from differing cultural backgrounds communicate, in similar and different ways among themselves, and how they endeavor to communicate across cultures.Chapter 8:1) the speech act theory 言语行为理论This is the first major theory in the study of language in use. It originated with the Oxford philosopher Austin who classifies sentences in two categories: performatives and constatives.2) performatives 言语行为句Austin classifies sentences in two categories: performatives and constatives. Performatives do not describe things. They cannot be said to be true or false. Uttering them is, or is a part of, doing an action, e.g.I name this ship Queen Elizabeth.I apologize.I declare the meeting open.I sentence you ten years of imprisonment.3) constatives 表述句Constatives are descriptive statements, capable of being analyzed in terms of truth-values, e.g.I pour some liquid into the tube.John went to the zoo yesterday.4) locutionary act 表述性言语行为、言中行为The act of producing speech sounds, words or sentences.5) illocutionary act 施为性言语行为、言外行为T he act of making known the speaker’s purpose or the intended meaning: ∙asking or answering a question∙giving some information or an assurance or a warning∙pronouncing sentence∙making a request or an appointment or a criticism∙making an identification or giving a description, and many others.6) perlocutionary act 言后行为The consequential effect of a locution upon the hearer. By saying something the speaker may change the opinion of the hearer, misleading him, surprising him, or induce him to do something. Whether these effects are intended by the speaker, they can be regarded as part of the act performed by the speaker. This is what is called perlocutionary act.7) the cooperative principle 合作原则According to Grice, in daily conversations, people are cooperative. They often recognize a common purpose or a set of purposes or at least a mutually agreed direction for the conversation to develop. That is, they follow a cooperative principle or CP for short.8) maxim of quantity 数量准则(1) make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purpose of the exchange)(2) do not make your contribution more informative than is required.9) maxim of quality 质量准则(1) do not say what you believe to be false.(2) do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.10) maxim of relation 关联准则Be relevant11) maxim of manner 方式准则Be perspicuous(1) avoid obscurity of expression.(2) avoid ambiguity.(3) be brief(4) be orderly12) calculability 可计算性Implicature is calculable in that it can be worked out on the basis of previous information, including:1) the conventional meaning of the words,2) the CP and its maxims,3) the context,4) other items of the background knowledge,5) the fact that all relevant items falling under the previous headings are available to both participants and both participants know or assume this to be the case.13) cancellability 可删除性Also known as defeasibility. A conversational implicature relies on a number of factors as discussed in the part for calculability. If any of them changes, the implicature will also change. Example:A: Where’s X?B: He’s gone to the library. He said so when he left. (implicature cancellation)14) non-detachability 非可分离性A conversational implicature is attached to the semantic content of what is said, not to the linguistic form. Therefore, it is possible to use a synonym and keep the implicature intact. For example, John’s a genius and John’s a mental prodigy said ironically both implicate that John’s an idiot.But conversational implicatures related to the Manner maxim are an exception. Example (8):At home,A: Let’s get the kids something.B: OK, but I veto I-C-E C-R-E-A-M. (manner)15) non-conventionality 非规约性Conversational implicature is by definition different from the conventional meaning of words. To show this more clearly, we can have a look at some examples of entailment (a logical relationship between two sentences in which the truth of the second necessarily follows from the truth of the first, while the falsity of the first necessarily follows from the falsity of the second: I saw a boy and I saw a child):John has three cows.John has only three cows. (implicature)John has some cows. (entailment)John has some animals. (entailment)John has something. (entailment)Somebody has three cows. (entailment)Somebody has some cows. (entailment)Somebody has some animals. (entailment)Somebody has something. (entailment)16) contextual meaning 语境意义A description of something in reality or a suggestion or a warning is sometimes referred to as contextual meaning, or speaker’s meaning or utterance meaning.17) pragmatics 语用学The discipline that concentrates on contextual meaning is called pragmatics.18) relevance theory关联理论Relevance theory was proposed by Sperber and Wilson who argue that all Gricean maxims, including the CP itself should be reduced to a single principle of relevance. The assumption, or principle, underlying relevance theory is that in any given context, what people say is relevant. This principle of relevance can be seen as a further specification of the Gricean notion of cooperation. For relevance theory, achieving successful communication by way of the relevance of what is being said is a sufficient aim in conversation or other verbal interaction.Chapter 9:1) literary stylistics 文学文体学Literary stylistics: the study of the linguistic features related to literary style, the way in which literary works are written.2) foregrounding 前景化(1) Where there seems to be foregrounding on the phonological level, phonological knowledge can be used to analyze the unusual sound patterns(2) Where there seems to be foregrounding on the level of lexis, morphological analysis can be done about new combinations of words(3) Where there is foregrounding on the level of word order and syntax, grammatical knowledge about word classes can be used to analyze unusual or marked combinations or constructions.(4) If a language unit cannot be literally interpreted, the figures of speech that are involved and used for signification may be analyzed.(5) In any case, unusual, deviant, or marked uses of language in literature (different from the everyday, non-literary language) are identified and analyzed.3) simile 明喻a way of comparing one thing with another, of explaining what one thing is like by showing how it is similar to another thing. And it is explicitly signaled in a text, with the words as or like, e.g.I have seen ships sail like swan asleep.Pop looked so unhappy, almost like a child who’s lost his piece of candy.4) metaphor 暗喻always makes a comparison between two unlike things, but unlike a simile, this comparison is implied rather than stated:All the world’s a stage,And all the men and women are merely players;5) metonymy 借喻a change of name, e.g.The pen is mightier than the sword.Can grey hairs make folly venerable?In the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread.6) synecdoche 提喻a type of metonymy. The name of a part of an object is used to talk about the whole thing, and vice versa.The legs could hardly keep up with the tanks.A Daniel came to judgment.England beat Argentina in the football match.7) rhyme 尾韵serves a two-fold purpose: first, as a combining agency for the stanza; second, as a musical device giving pleasure in itself:That night when joy beganOur narrowest veins to flush.We waited for the flashOf morning’s leveled s un. (abba)8) alliteration 头韵the repetition of the same sound at the beginning of a series of words, or at the beginning of stressed syllables within words:Where with blade, with bloody blameful bladeHe bravely broached his boiling bloody breast.9) assonance 类韵the repetition of similar (not necessarily identical) vowels situated within words:We were the first that ever burst into the silent sea.10) consonance 辅音叠韵the repetition of the final consonant, functioning as the end rhyme:Light breaks where no sun shines;Where no sea runs, the waters of the heartPush in the tides.And broken ghosts with glowworms in their headsThe things of lightFile through the flesh where no flesh decks the bones. (abccba)11) reverse rhyme 反韵describes syllables sharing the vowel and initial consonants:Quelled and quenched it leaves the leaping sun.12) pararhyme 类尾韵when two syllables have the same initial and final consonants but different vowels, they pararhyme:And by his smile, I knew that sullen hall.By his dead smile I knew we stood in hell.13) repetition 重复the repetition of the same word:O, my luve is like a red, red rose14) metre 格when stress is organized to form regular rhythms, the word for it is metre.15) iamb 抑扬格an iambic foot contains two syllables: an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed one:and palm to palm is ho ly pal mer’s kiss.16) trochee 杨抑格an trochaic foot contains two syllables: a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllable: Wil lows whi ten, as pens qui ver.17) anapest 抑抑扬格an anapestic foot contains three syllables: two unstressed syllables are followed by a stressed one:without cause be he pleased, without cause be he cross.18) dactyl 扬抑抑格A dactylic foot contains three syllables: a stressed syllable followed by two unstressed ones: one for the mas ter, and one for the dame.19) spondee 扬扬格a spondaic foot contains two stressed syllables, but lines of poetry rarely consist of onlyspondaic feet: and a black -/ Back gull bent like an iron bar slowly.20) couplet 对句two lines of verse, usually connected by a rhyme:Her eyes are wild, her head is bare,The sun has burnt her coal-black hair,21) quatrain 四行诗stanzas of four lines, very common in English poetry.When lovely woman stoops to folly,And finds too late that men betray,What charm can soothe her melancholy,What art can wash her guilt away?O, my luve is like a red, red rose,That’s newly sprung in June.O, my luve is like the melodie,That’s sweetly play’d in tune.22) blank verse 无韵诗consists of lines in iambic pentameter which do not rhyme:But do not let us quar rel a ny more,No my lucrezia; bear with me for once:Sit down and all shall happen as you wish.You turn your face, but does it bring your heart?23) narrator 叙事者A narrator is a personal character or a non-personal voice that the creator of the story develops to deliver information to the audience, particularly about the plot. I-narrators are often said to be “limited” because they don’t know all the facts or “unreliable” because they trick the reader by withholding information or telling untruths.If the narrator is not a character in the fictional world, he or she is usually called a third person narrator, because reference to all the characters in the fictional world of the story will involve the use of the third person pronouns. This is the dominant narrator type.24) schemata 图式Schema theory suggests the knowledge we carry around in our head is organized into interrelated patterns. They are constructed from our experience of the experiential world and guide us as we make sense of new experience.In language schemas are the underlying structures which accounts for the organization of texts or discourse. Different participants in the same situation will have different schemas, relating to their different viewpoints. Besides indicating their viewpoints by choosing what to describe, novelists can also indicate it by how it is described, particularly through evaluativeexpressions:She opened the door of her grimy, branch-line carriage, and began to get down her bags. The porter was nowhere, of course, but there was Harry … there, on the sordid little station under furnace …25) new information 新信息information that is presented by the speaker as not recoverable26) given information 已知信息i nformation that is presented by the speaker as recoverable27) direct speech 直接引语a reporting clause, a reported clause and quotation marks:“Am I too late?” s he asked.28) indirect speech 间接引语the narrator provides the reporting clause and contributes to the formation of the reported clause: She asked whether she was too late.29) free direct speech 自由直接引语a reported clause without either the reporting clause or the quotation marks or both:“Am I too late?”30) free indirect speech 自由间接引语closer to the direct speech than the indirect speech.Was she too late? She asked.31) narrator’s representation of speech acts 叙事者的言语行为表达a summary of a piece of discourse.She asked him a question.32) narrator’s representation of speech 叙事者的言语表达telling us that speech occurs.She talked with him for a while.Chapter 12:1) functional sentence perspective 功能句子观According to the Prague school linguists, apart from the analysis of a sentence in terms of subject and predicate from the formal point of view, there may also be a functional analysis in terms of Theme (the starting point of an utterance) and Rheme (the nucleus or the core of the utterance). In English, theme and rheme are often expressed by the grammatical subject and predicate.I went to the zoo yesterday.However, there are utterances in which they do not correspond, e.g.Yesterday I went to the zoo.At the airport I met John yesterday.The analysis of a sentence in terms of theme and rheme is now known as the functional sentence perspective because this patterning is determined by the functional approach of the speaker.2) systemic-functional grammar 系统功能语法According to Halliday, the Systemic-Functional (SF) Grammar is a sociologically oriented functional linguistic approach which has two components: SYSTEMIC GRAMMAR and FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR.Systemic grammarThe system is a list of choices that are available in the grammar of a language. The number system in English, for example, contains two choices: singular and plural. The person system offers three choices: first person, second person, and third person. There are also systems of gender, tense and mood, etc.Functional grammarFunctional aspect is also termed sociosemantics. According to Halliday, the context of situation or the social context is at the basic level of linguistic investigation and contains three components:Field of discourse: the subject matter being discussed.Tenor of discourse: the social relations between the participants of conversationsMode of discourse: the channel of communicationThese three situational components are related to the three important functions of language identified by Halliday: ideational, interpersonal and textual: language serves for the expression of content (ideational); language serves to establish and maintain social relations (interpersonal); language enables people to construct texts (textual). These three functions are related to three grammatical systems: transitivity, mood and theme.3) American structuralism 美国结构主义American Structuralism is a branch of synchronic linguistics that emerged independently in the United States at the beginning of the twentieth century. It developed in a very different style from that of Europe, under the leadership of anthropologists and linguists as F. Boas, who held that there were no ideal types or forms of languages, for human languages were endlessly diverse, E. Sapir, who tried to impose the grammatical categories from the Indo-European languages upon all other languages, L. Bloomfield, who defined linguistics as a branch of psychology known as behaviourism, Z. Harris, and C. Hocket, whose tradition actually influenced the whole of the 20th century American linguistics.4) generative-transformational grammar 生成转换语法From his practice Chomsky gradually established the well-known Generative-transformational grammar. It has undergone five stages of development. The classical theory aims to make linguistics a science. The standard theory deals with how semantics should be studied in a linguistic theory. The extended standard theory focusesdiscussion on language universals and universal grammar. The revised extended theory focuses discussion on government and binding. The latest is the minimalist program, a further revision of the previous theory.5) the innateness hypothesis 天赋假说Chomsky believes that language is somewhat innate, and that children are born with what he calls a language acquisition device (LAD), which is a unique kind of knowledge that fits them for language learning. He argues that children are born with knowledge of the basic grammatical relations and categories, and this knowledge is universal. And the study of language can throw some light on the nature of the human mind. This approach to language is a reaction against behaviorism in psychology and empiricism in philosophy.6) theme 主位the element which serves as the point of departure; it is that with which the clause is concerned. As a general guide, the Theme can be identified as the element which comes in the first position in the clause.7) rheme 述位the part in which the theme is developed, the remainder of the message, is called the Rheme.8) ideational function 概念功能language serves for the expression of content9) interpersonal function 人际功能language serves to establish and maintain social relations10) textual function 语篇功能language enables people to construct texts11) phrase structure rulesThe phrase structure component has phrase structure rules. e.g.S→NP + VPVP→V + NPNP→Det + NDet→the, a, etc.N→man, ball, etc.V→hit, took, etc.12) transformational rules 转换规则The transformational component has transformational rules which change the deep structures into surface structures. According to Chomsky, active and passive, declarative and interrogative, positive and negative sentences have the same deep structures.The difference between them simply comes from the operation of the relevant transformations.13) deep structure 深层结构the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction.14) surface structure 表层结构the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction, which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive.15) transitivity传递性the representation of outer experiences and inner experiences.II.Essay questions.1) What would you say about and for or against the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis?Sapir-whorf Hypothesis is a belief that our languages help mould our way of thinking and consequently, different languages may probably express our unique ways of understanding the world. On one hand, language determine our way of thinking, on the other hand, similarity between languages are relative, the greater their structural difference is, the more diverse their conception of world will be. As the hypothesis was put forward by Sapir and whorf, so, it is called Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.Arguments against S-w Hypothesis: the arguments are directed at strong version of s-w hypothesis, language determinism. It concerns excessively with surface structures of individual languages. In fact all languages are fundamental of the same universal human character. The flaws of that hypothesis can be revealed through the following analysis. One, Different grammatical structures do not mean that speakers of different languages differ in thinking logic. Two, Equivalent translation is always possible in spite of the fact that in practice there are hardly any people in perfect control of two different languages. Three, People who have good command of 2 genetic-unrelated languages do not have “double minds”.2) How would you summarize the concept of situation as proposed by Firth?A: Firth was strongly influenced by the Anthropological view of language and he was fully aware of the importance of the context in the study of language use, so he tried to set up a model for illustrating the close relationship between language use and its co-occurent factors. In the end, he developed his theory of “context of situation” which can be summarized as follows:1, The relevant features of the participants, person, personalities. 2, the relevant objects. 3, The effects of the verbal action.3) Does woman register differ from linguistic sexism?A: Woman register means that the language used by woman shares some characters which distinguish it from the language used by man. Woman register is a kind of speech variety, because of having a number of distinctive words or by using the words in a unique way or special grammatical structures, but linguistic sexism, is the discrimination against woman. Actually, all the woman register is the weaker-register, the difference between woman and man are governed by society. So, if we want to change the linguistic sexism we need to change the society.4) How would you describe and evaluated the theory of illocutionary acts?1 locutionary act: The performance of an utterance. The term equally refers to the surface meaning of an utterance. (We move our vocal organs and produce sounds, organized in a certain way and with certain meaning.)2 illocutionary act: The semantic 'illocutionary force' of the utterance, thus its real, intended meaning. (The intention and function of an utterance) To say sth is to do sth and act performed is known as an illocutionary act.3 perlocutionary act: Its actual, consequential effect, whether intended or not (its psychological consequences, such as persuading, convincing, scaring, enlightening, inspiring, or otherwise getting someone to do or realize something).5) How would you discuss the maxims of the cooperative principleand illustrate with your own example the violation of the maxim?A: CP is proposed by English philosopher Grice, its purpose is to explain the course of natural conversation, the participants must first be willing to cooperate, It goes as follows:1, Maxims of quantity, 2, Maxims of quality, 3, Maxims of relation, 4, Maxims of manner. Violations: boys are boys; wars are wars - Maxims of quantity.He is made of iron----Maxims of quality (at a party)A: “Mr.C is an old dog.” B: “It is a fine day.” - Maxims of relationA: “Let’s get kids something.” B: “Yes, but I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M” - Maxims of manner6) How is poetry analyzed at the phonological level?First step: to find where there seems to be foregrounding on the phonological level, phonological knowledge can be used to analyze the unusual sound patterns.Second step: to analyze the form of sound patterning, there are 7 types of sound patterning: rhyme, alliteration, consonance, reverse rhyme, pararhyme and repetition.Third step: to analyze the stress and metrical pattering to work out the number of syllables in each line and to fell the stressed or unstressed syllables, when stress is organized to form a regular rhythm, it is called meter, the unit of meter is called feet. So we analyze both the number and the type of feet, there are 6 types of feet, iamb, trochee, the melody, meter, rhythm.7) How would you illustrate the differences between different methods of speech presentation?The speech presentation continuum may have the following possibilities:Direct speech: a reporting clause, a reported clause and quotation marks:“Am I too late?” she asked.Free direct speech: a reported clause without either the reporting clause or the quotation marks or both:“Am I too late?”Indirect speech: the narrator provides the reporting clause and contributes to the formation of the reported clause:She asked whether she was too late.Free indirect speech: closer to the direct speech than the indirect speech.Was she too late? She asked.Narrator’s representation of speech acts (NRSA): a summery of a piece of discourse.She asked him a question.Narrator’s representation of speech (NRS): telling us that speech occurs.She talked with him for a while.8) How would the innateness hypothesis influence your understanding of child first language acquisition?According to Chomsky, language is innate and children are born with Language Acquisition Device. Innateness Hypothesis is based on 3 facts.First: children learn their first language very fast with little effort.Second: although children learn their first language in quite different environments, the results are the same.Third: children learn the total grammar of the language during a very limited time, from limited exposure to speech. So although children are not born with a language, they are born with a language, they are born with the device to acquire a language. Chomsky argues that LAD consists of 3 elements: a hypothesis-maker, linguistic universal and evaluation procedure. Children is the hypothesis maker, they look for regularizes in speech and make hypothesis about how to use the language and children must be equipped with an evaluation procedure, which allow them to choose a number of possible grammars.9) How would you describe the distinction between deep structures and surface structures in TG grammar?Every sentence exists on two levels: Surface structures are sentences or phrases which are pronounced or written and Deep structure the structures contain all the units and relationships that are necessary for interpreting the meaning of the sentence. Examples: Boy loves Girl (deep structure). The boy kissed the girl (surface structure). The boy was kissing the girl. The girl was kissed by the boy. (Surface and deep structure)]. The deep structure shows the semantic components but the surface structure shows the proper phonological information in order to。