英语词汇学200要点(不过就难啊)

1 B a s i c C o n c e p t s 基本概念1.1 the definition of a word（： （1) a minimal free form of a language; (2） a sound unity ； (3） a unit of meaning; (4) a form that can function alone in a sentence 。

A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.)1.2 sound and meaning :symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary and conventional 。

A dog is called a dog not because the sound and the three letters thatmake up the word just automatically suggest the animal in question 。

1.3 sound and form : 1.4 vocabulary 1.5 classification of words 词汇分类 basic word stock 基本词汇nonbasic vocabulary 非基本词汇 by use frequency 按使用频率分： basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary 基本词汇和非基本词汇by notion 按概念分：content words and functional words实义词和功能词by origin 按起源分： native words and borrowed words 本地词和外来词 all national character 全民性stability 稳定性 productivity 多产性 polysemy 一词多义 collocability 搭配性terminology 术语jargon 行话slang 俚语argon 黑话dialectal words 方言词archaism 古语词neologism 新词neutral in style 文体上中性frequent in use 使用频繁native words 本地词 borrowed words 外来词 denizens 同化词aliens 异形词translation-loans 译借词1. No enough letters: alphabet from Latin2. Pronunciation changed more rapidly3. Early scribes: change spelling for easier recognition4. Borrowing: different rules of pronunciation and spelling obviouscharacteristics明显的特点(Functional words do not have notions of their own and their main function is to express the relation betweennotions, words, etc.)2 D e v e l o p m e n tIt is assumed that the world has approximately 3, 000 （some put it 5， 000 ) languages ， which can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar. 2。

￥English Lexicology(英语词汇学)lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.英语词汇学旨在调查和研究英语单词和单词的等价物的形态结构,其语义结构、关系、历史发展、形成和用法。

Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学), etymology(词源学),stylistics（文体论） and lexicography(词典学)Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabulary（词的定义）: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentence词语是语言最小的自由形式，拥有固定的声音和意义以及句法作用。

and meaning（声音与意义）: almost arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself” and form（读音和形式）:不统一的四个原因（1）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other （2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years（3）some of the difference were created by the early scribes（4）the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary`（5）printing、standardization、dictionary—Old English,The speech of the time was represented very much more faithfully in writing than it is today. 古代英语中的口语比今天更忠实的代表书面语—The written form of English is an imperfect representation of the spoken form。

English Lexicology(英语词汇学)1.English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.英语词汇学意在调查和研究英语单词和单词旳等价物旳形态构造,其语义构造、关系、历史发展、形成和使用方法。

2.English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学), etymology(词源学),stylistics（文体论）and lexicography(词典学) Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabulary1.Word（词旳定义）: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentence词语是语言最小旳自由形式，拥有固定旳声音和意义以及句法作用。

2.Sound and meaning（声音与意义）: almost arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”3.Sound and form（读音和形式）:不统一旳四个原因（1）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other （2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years（3）some of the difference were created by the early scribes（4）the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary （5）printing、standardization、dictionary—Old English,The speech of the time was represented very much more faithfully in writing than itis today. 古代英语中旳口语比今天更忠实旳代表书面语—The written form of English is an imperfect representation of the spoken form。

苦干加巧干，定会收到事半功倍之效——如何学习《英语词汇学》张维友(华中师范大学外国语学院，湖北武汉，430079)摘要：本文重申了英语词汇学的性质；讨论了教材内容的安排及重难点问题；阐述了如何处理好重点与一般,识记、领会与应用,读书与做练习,词汇学与语言学等四种关系；介绍和讲解了应考中注意的事项与方法，以帮助学员学好英语词汇学，掌握教材传授的基本理论知识，取得好成绩。

关键词：课程性质；内容安排；重难点问题；四种关系；应考事项中图分类号：G427文献标识码：A文章编号：1008-4851(2003)-03-0088-04作者简介：张维友，男，硕士学位，华中师范大学外国语学院院长，教授。

何谓词汇学？不少学生误以为，词汇学就是“学词汇”，把词汇学与市场上编写的“突破词汇大关”的各种词汇手册联系起来。

然而，真正开始学习，发现完全是两回事，因此产生畏难情绪。

有的学生说，他们把《英语词汇学》看过数遍，书上讲的东西似乎都明白了，但参加考试，结果却不理想。

凡此种种，实际上集中于两个问题：一是词汇学属于什么性质的课程，它包括哪些内容？二是学词汇学，怎样才能收到好效果？本文就这两个问题谈几点意见。

一、《英语词汇学》的性质英语词汇学是一门有关英语词汇的学问，是普通高等院校英语专业普遍开设的专业知识课程。

因为这门课程实用性强，对学好英语语言很重要，所以被列为高等教育自学考试英语语言文学专业本科段选修课。

英语词汇学是专业理论课，它运用现代语言学的有关理论，研究英语语言中的词汇问题。

该课程介绍“词”的基本知识，讨论词的形态结构及构成方式，探讨词的意义及语义关系，阐述英语词汇的发展变化乃至相关的词典知识。

学习本课程的目的是对英语词汇具有比较系统、比较完整的知识，较深入地了解英语词汇的现状及其历史演变过程，并能对现代英语词汇发展中出现的各种词汇现象做出分析和解释，提高对英语词语的理解、阐释和综合运用的能力。

由此可见，词汇学绝对不是一般意义上的“学词汇”。

Chapter 3Word Formation I词语结构13.1 Morphemes词素1. the morpheme is ‘ the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words’词素是“词语中最小的功能单位”。

2.Suffix：-ation：-tion, -sion, -ion.后缀：ation 的多变体，当它们有同样的意义和语法功能时它们属于同一个后缀3.Owing to different sound environment 因为存在不同的发生环境。

3.2 Allomorphs （语素变体）同质异晶，同质异象变体1.Morphemes are abstract units.‘They are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning’语素是抽象的单位,它们实际上是能发音的最小的意义载体.The morpheme is to the morph what a phoneme is to a phone:语素是一个音素发音的形素①single morphs单一语素词：bird, tree, green, sad, want, desire,Most morphemes are realized by single morphs,Words of this kind are called monomorphemic words.大多数语素通过单个的形素实现，语素与词相同叫做单一语素词.These morphemes coincide withe words as they can stand by themselves and function freely in a sentence.Words of this kind are called monomorphemic words.这些语素与词相同，由于它们能代表含义而且能够在句子中自由起作用。

1. What is lexicology?Lexico-(语素, meaning ‘word’) Lexicon(词典,字典)Lexical（(词的,词汇的) Lexicography（(词典编纂) Sociology (社会学) Psychology (心理学)Lexicology is the study of the structure, usage, origins and meanings of words.English lexicology studies English words in different aspects and from different angles.Without grammar we can express little; Without words we can express nothing.2.Define “word”A minimal free form of a language; A sound unity; A unit of meaning; A form that can function alone in a sentence.3. Origin of English WordsNative words 本族词Borrowed words / loan words 外来词Latin ，Scandinavian ，French ，Greek ，Spanish, German, Portuguese, Dutch, Arabic, Chinese, Hebrew, Persian, Japanese, Indonesian, RussianNative words: Anglo-Saxon wordsBody parts—hand, foot, arm, eye, boneNature—land, field, earth, hill, sun, moonTime—month, year, dayAnimals and plants—horse, sheep, dog, lamb, oak, elm, beechAdjectives—black, high, wide, long, smallVerbs—drive, ride, shine, choose, fly, seeAuxiliaries—shall, may, will, do, beBorrowed words P.9The boy kept interrupting the government man.Native words on P.5What features do these words have?Form the basic stock of English language most frequently used，Denote the commonest things necessary for life，Acquired earliest by children，Denote the most basic things in language Borrowingcake, knife, crop, ill, husband, Danishcoolie, litchi, dim sum, typhoon, kaolin, loquat, bureau, honor, literature, court French sauna Finnishhamburger, blitz, zinc Germanmacaroni, sonata, spaghetti Italiansultan, roc, harem, sheik, yashmak Arabicczar, commissar, intelligentsia Russiangeometry, gymnastics, tragedy, myth Greekgenius, memorandum, formula Latinkimono, judo, JapaneseReview questions(1)._____ studies the structure, meanings, origins and usage of words.A. Word formationB. LexicologyC. Morphology(2).There is a logical connection between the sound and meaning of words. This is a ____ view.A. naturalistB. conventionalistC. objective(3).____ is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.A. affixB. phraseC. word4. Morphemeneone morpheme nationtwo morphemes nation+althree morphemes inter+nation+alfour morphemes inter+nation+al+ist5.Word formation: affixation 词缀法Affix词缀(a form that is attached to a morpheme to modify meaning or function)prefix前缀,suffix后缀)root词根(the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.)6. Word and VocabularyThe general estimate of English vocabulary is over one million words.John has a good knowledge of Middle English vocabulary.The vocabulary of Black English proved too difficult for me.The five-year-old child has acquired a vocabulary of over 2000 words.This article gives a good introduction of specialized vocabulary of nuclear physics.V ocabularyThe total number of the words in a language.All the words used in a particular period.All the words of a given dialect.All the words possessed by a person.All the words of a given discipline.Basic Word Stock and Nonbasic V ocabulary 基本词汇和非基本词汇（The common core of the language.）Rain, snow, fire, water, sun, moon, spring, summer, wind, hill;Head, foot, hand, face, father, mother, sonApple, tree, horse, cow, cat, dog, sheepCome, go, eat, beat, carry, old, youngOne, ten, hundred, I, you, who, but, as, tillCharacteristics of Basic Word StockAll national character 全民性，Stability 稳定性，Productivity 能产性，Polysemy 多义性Do these belong to basic word stock?（1）Do you know what subject matter jurisdiction is?（subject matter jurisdiction诉讼标的管辖权；事物管辖权）（2）Due to Habeas Corpus, you and Miss Fontana had a common law marriage, which entitles her to what is legally referred to as equitable division of the assets.（Due to Habeas Corpus 人身保护法, common law marriage习惯法婚姻, 同居婚姻, equitable division of the assets 资产平均分配）（3）Due to the fact that you retained the residence, Miss Fontana is entitled to full canine property ownership. We’ll enforce that ownership right now.Nonbasic V ocabulary 非基本词汇Photoscanning, indigestion, algebraTerminology 术语（technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas）Hypo, buster, bargaining chipsJargon 行话(specialized words used by members of particular arts sciences, trades and professions among themselves)Dough (money), pot (drug) slang 俚语(sub-standard words)Can-opener (all-purpose key), dip (pickpocket) argot黑话(jargon of criminals)Review questions(1) The word ‘limitless’contains two _____.A. affixesB. rootsC. morphemes(2) Which of the following is not true?A. A word is the smallest form of languageB. A word is a sound unity.C.A word has a given meaning.D.A word can be used freely in a sentence.(3) According to semanticists, a word is a unit of ______.A. soundsB. meaningC. formD. function(4) A word is a _____ that stands for something else in the world.A. symbolB. systemC. structureD. pattern(5) How many morphemes does this word have? What kind of morpheme?•misleadingly7. Affixation 词缀法Prefixation 前缀法Negative prefixes表示否定意义的前缀Prefixes of degree or size (extra,hyper,mini,) 表示程度、大小等意义的前缀Prefixes of orientation and attitude 表示倾向和态度等意义的前缀(pro, anti)Locative prefixes表示方位意义的前缀(intra,inter,tele, sub)Prefixes of time and order 表示时间和顺序意义的前缀(ex, fore, post, pre)Number prefixes表示数字的前缀(mono,bi,tri,penta,)Miscillaneous prefixes其他意义的前缀(eco,auto,neo)Class-changing prefixes 改变词性的前缀（a, en, un, de)Suffixation 后缀法Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to roots.The primary function of suffixes is to change the grammatical function of roots.Review questions(1) Turn the following into verbs with -en,-ify, -ize(Horror, modern, Memory, apology, False, sterile, Length, intense, Beauty, fat Sympathy, memory)He ____ for interrupting her.She tried to ____ her room with posters and plants.A study has been ordered into the feasibility of _____ the airport’s main runway by 200m. However much they _____ with her, they all felt it was her fault.Soya is excellent food to ___ cattle.Over $40000 had been spent on _____ the station._____ the bottles by immersing them in boiling water for 15 minutes.If you are employed by a company, you’re one of its _____.A politician is someone whose job is politics.The _____ in a discussion are the people who participate in it.A woman who works as a ______ does the same job as a waiter.A ____ is someone who earns their living by playing the piano.If someone examines you, you are the ____ and he/she is the _____.8.Conversion 转类法# Noun attribute•Economy measure 节约措施economic measure 经济措施•Bankruptcy lawyer处理破产诉讼的律师bankrupt businessman破了产的商人•Riot police 防暴警察riotous police 闹事的警察•Danger zone 危险区•Depth charge 深水炸弹• A department decision 部门作出的决定•Impulse buying 凭一时的冲动买东西Bankruptcy lawyer# Noun to verb, verb to nounThe newspapers headlined his long record of accomplishments.He was admitted to the university after a three-year wait.This film is a remake.# Adjective to noun–Partial conversionThese books are intended for the deaf and mute.It is highly important to distinguish between the false and the true–Complete conversionMany classics are now available in bookstores.The police are netting 25 illegals a day in ChicagoThey needed to get there within three days. No ifs and buts were accepted. So Tom got the plans and helicoptered to the host city, while David got visaed up in Berlin and went there by Air France. At the airport shop, he was attracted by some celebrity ashtrays and bought one of them .We can’t stomach such a insult.Robert Acheson roomed right next to me.He wolfed down his lunch.I’m one of his familiars.Poor innocents!The engineers ahed and ouched at the new machines.He Hamleted the chance and then regretted for it.These shoes were an excellent buy.They lifted the rifles and hit him in the small of the back.9.Word Formation: Composition/Compounding• A process of word-formation by which two or more independent words are put together to make one word.Cruise missile 巡航导弹Laserbomb 激光炸弹Fox-bat 狐蝠式战斗机(米格-25)Well-balanced 平衡了的Dog-eat-dog 狗咬狗的Cross-question 盘问Compound nounPoorhouse identity crisis Rainbow fox-bat pickpocket Inpatient Compound adjectiveBittersweet lifelong feelgood inbornOne-man (concert) Around-the-moon (flight)Be-kind-to-animal (campaign) The-end-justifies-the-means (philosophy)One-family-one-child family planning (policy)No-one-dared-to-walk-in-the-street (situation)Compound verbbreast-feed sleepwalk Undertake whitewash Badmouth10. The development of the English VocabularyHistorical Review of English V ocabularyFirst language used in Britain: CelticThe Roman Legions(古罗马军团): Latin（55-54BC）Germanic tribes: Anglo-Saxon (450)Three periods of the English LanguageOld English (450AD—1150AD) when the first Germanic tribes began to settle in England.•Anglo-Saxon—the Germanic tribes•Latin –introduction of Christianity at the end of the 6th century.•Scandinavian –Norwegian and Danish vikings•5000-6000 words; highly inflectedMiddle English (1150—1500) during the Norman Conquest.•French influenceNorman Conquest 1066•9000 French words continually flowed into English•Dutch words entered English with the trade relation.•English regained position of importance–Wycliff translation of the Bible (威克利夫)–Writings of Chaucer and Langland (乔叟、朗兰)–English gradually came back to schoolsModern English (1450—)•Early Modern English (1500-1700) 早期现代英语•Late Modern English (1700-up to now) 后期现代英语Early Modern English (1500-1700) 早期现代英语•The Renaissance 文艺复兴—a new upsurge of learning ancient Greek and Roman classics•1500-1700–over 10,000 new words entered English.•The Bourgeois Revolution, the Industrial Revolution, colonization–absorb words from all major languages in the worldLate Modern English (1700-up to now) 后期现代英语•World wars•Advances in science and technology•Thousands and thousands of new words have been created through borrowing and word-formation•New words in all walks of life: politics, economy, commerce, culture, entertainment, education, sports, transportation, mass media•From synthetic language to analytic languageGrowth of Present-day English V ocabulary 当代英语词汇的发展Reasons for new words: 为什么需要新词To express new things and new changesTo arouse public attention and interestMain sources of new words: 新词所属领域Science and technologyEconomic and political changesInfluence of other cultures and languagesNew WordsNew Words and Changing American Culture 1990, Gozzi:•45% science and technology terms;•24% terms related to life-style•11% social and economic termsModes of V ocabulary Development 词汇的发展方式Creation 创词–formation of new words by using existing materials such as roots, affixes and other elements.Semantic changes 旧词新义– an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need. Borrowing借词—absorbing words from foreign languagesReviving archaic or obsolete words古词和废弃词复活11. Word formation•Encourage Affixation词缀法Derivation派生法•Moonlight Compounding 复合法•to Pocket the money Conversion 转类法•Motel Blending拼缀法•Memo (memorandum) Clipping 截短法•UNESCO Acronymy 首字母拼写法•Babysit (from babysitter) Backformation逆构法•Sandwich Proper noun专有名词Which of the following is a compound?A.PreschoolB. school masterC. At schoolD. schoolingBlending 拼缀法Brunch—breakfast+lunch Motel—motor+hotelBotel—boat+hotel Smog—smoke+fogFour structural types of BlendingBrunch—breakfast+lunch Carbecue—car+barbecueMedicare—medical +care Sitcom –situational+comedyThree stylistic types of Blending•Slang or make-shift wordsinfanticipating--infant+anticipating•Words for science and technologybiorhythm—biological+rhythmlidar—light and radar 激光雷达•Words used in mass mediadawk—dove and hawk 中间立场的Back Formation 逆构法edit—editor caretake—caretaker Peeve—peevish Frivol—frivolous Automate—automation Destruct—destruction Sidle—sidlingClipping 截短法Phone—telephone Zoo—zoological garden Copter--helicopterFridge—refrigerator Flu—influenza Curtsy—courtesyInitialism 首字母连接词VOA WTO YZU CCTVAcronym 首字母拼音词NASA AIDS Radar UESCO Laser12. Motivation 词的理据1.Onomatopoeic motivation 拟声理据2.Semantic motivation 语义理据（figurative sense）3.Morphological motivation 形态理据4.Etymological motivation 词源理据Primary onomatopoeia 基本拟声P.60•The imitation of sound by sound.•Here the sound is truly “an echo to the sense”.e.g.Here it comes sparkling,And there it lies darkling…Spouting and frisking,…Secondary Onomatopoeia•Certain sounds and sound sequences are associated with certain senses in an expressive relationship.e.g.sn/--breath noise; quick separation or movement; creeping:sniff, snuff, snore, snort, snip, snap, snatch, snake, snail, sneak, snoop (窥探) Duplicated words or phrases• A tall clock tick-tocked on the stair.•He gave the deck a thorough riffle-shuffle and then dealt the cards. 他把牌彻底洗过一遍,然后发牌. Metaphor•They were allowed to leapfrog the long lines of traders and get immediate appointments with Chinese representatives•US influence and prestige nosedived in Africa.•The came up with a plan for drastic pruning of the bloated institution.Synecdoche 提喻Sail—ship Hand—man The smiling year—spring A Solomon—a wise man Metonymy 借代• A watched bottle never boils.•He never let his heart rule his head.Analogy 类比•talkathon (马拉松式谈话或座谈节目)•telethon (马拉松式电视广播节目)Color analogy 色彩类比His short play is in the white list. (批准上演的节目名单)grey list—非明文查禁但仍属不合法的人或物grey-collar workers—服务性行业的职工Number analogy数字类比The Fourth World (最贫国集团)The First FamilyThe three R’s (reading, writing arithmetic)Space analogy 地点空间类比•Moonscape—landscape•Marrain(火星上地形)—terrain•Earthrise—sunrise•Spacefaring(航天飞行)--seafaring反义类比•Daylighting –白天兼职,晚上主要工作•Low-rise—低层建筑•Cold line—冷线Analogy 近似类比•Missile gap (美国与苏联在导弹发展上的差距)Generation gap, development gap，Production gap, credibility gap•Watergate13.The Change of Word MeaningAlbatross 信天翁---cause of worries, misfortuneFor it is my special albatross to be related to the guy…. (p.88)Harvest---getting in the crops，crops that you get inBenchEvery time we go there, he is sitting on a park bench.（A piece of furniture for you to sit on）Here is the list of the full bench of the supreme court. （judges）He was brought before the bench. （court）Mary served on the bench and in Congress.Tom got a bench in the Parliament. (seat)This is a team with the best bench. (substitutes)They conducted the bench test successfully.（table）Central signification : furnitureSecondary meaning: judge, seat, substitute ,tableShe took her cat to the bench show. 动物展览评比会Tom’s father worked as a bench scientist for many years. 在实验室工作的科学家I am tired of being a bench warmer, nor do I want to be a bench jockey. 替补队员；在替补队员席上起哄的棒球队员（为干扰对方运动员或裁判员）Treacle1. Pertaining to wild beast.(与野兽有关的。

英语词汇学笔记整理Chapter 11 - The definition of a word comprises the following points:(1) a minimal free form of a language;(2) a sound unity;(3) a unit of meaning;(4) a form that can function alone in a sentence.A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.2- Sound and Meaning: symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary and conventional.A dog is called a dog not because the sound and the three letters that make up the word just automatically suggest the animal in question.3- Old English, the speech of the time was represented very much more faithfully in writing than it is today. The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language so that some letters must do double duty or work together in combination.Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn far apart.4-A third reason is that some of the differences were created by the early scribes. Finally comes the borrowing, which is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary.5 - Vocabulary: All the words in a language make up its vocabulary. Not only can it refer to the total number of the words in a language, but it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period. We also use it to refer to all the words of a given dialect, a given book, a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person. The general estimate of the present-day English vocabulary is over million words.words used in a particular historical period. We also use it to refer to all the words of a given dialect, a given book, a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person. The general estimate of the present-day English vocabulary is over million words.words used in a particular historical period. We also use it to refer to all the words of a given dialect, a given book, a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person. The general estimate of the present-day English vocabulary is over million words.words used in a particular historical period. We also use it to refer to all the words of a given dialect, a given book, a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person. The general estimate of the present-day English vocabulary is over million words.6 - Words may fall into the basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency, into content words and functional words by notion, and into native words and borrowed words by origin.7 - The basic word stock is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though words of the basic word stock constitute a small percentage of the English vocabulary, yet it is the most important part of it. These words have obvious characteristics.8 - All national character. Words of the basic word stock denote the most common things and phenomena of the world around us, which are indispensable to all the people who speak the languageNatural phenomena/Human body and relations/Names of plants and animals/Action, size, domain, state/Numerals, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions9 - Stability. Words of the basic word stock have been in use for centuries.10 - Productivity . Words of the basic word stock are mostly root words or monosyllabic words. They can each be used alone, and at the same time can form new words with other roots and affixes.11 - Polysemy. Words belonging to the basic word stock often possess more than one meaning because most of them have undertone semantic changes in the course of useand become polysemous.12 - Collocability . Many words of the basic word stock quite a number of set expressions, idiomatic usages, proverbial sayings and the like.13 - Terminology consists of technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas .14 - Jargon refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts, sciences, trades and professions communicate among themselves such as in business.15 - Slang belongs to the sub-standard language, a category that seems to stand between the standard general words including informal ones available to everyone and in-group words like cant, jargon, and argot, all of which are associated with, or most available to, specific groups of the population.Slang is created by changing or extending the meaning of existing words though some slang words are new coinages altogether. Slang is colourful, blunt, expressive and impressive.16 - Argot generally refers to the jargon of criminals.17 - Dialectal words are words used only by speakers of the dialect in question.18 - Archaisms are words or forms that were once in common use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use.19 - Neologisms are newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.20 - By notion, words can be grouped into content words and functional words. Content words denote clear notions and thus are known as notional words. They include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals, which denote objects, phenomena, action, quality, state, degree, quantity.21 - Functional words do not have notions of their own. Therefore, they are also called empty words. As their chief function is to express the relation between notions, the relation between words as well as between sentences, they are known as formwords. Prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliaries and articles belong to this category.22 - However, functional words do far more work of expression in English on average than content words.23 - Native words are words brought to Britain in the fifth century by the German tribes; the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes, thus known as Anglo-Saxon words.24 - Apart from the characteristics mentioned of the basic word stock, in contrast to borrowed words, native words have two other features:Neutral in style. they are not stylistically specific.Stylistically, natives words are neither formal nor informal whereas the words borrowed from French or Latin are literary and learned, thus appropiate in formal style.Frequent in use. Native words are most frequently used in everyday speech and writing.25 - Words taken over from foreign languages are known as borrowed words or loan words or borrowings in simple terms. It is estimated that English borrowings constitute 80 percent of the modem English vocabulary. The Englishlanguage is noted for the remarkable complexity and heterogeneity of its vocabulary because of its extensive borrowings26 - Aliens are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling. These words are immediately recognizable as foreign in origin.27 - Semantic-loans. Words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the form. But their meanings are borrowed. In other words, English has borrowed a new meaning for an existing word in the language.Chapter 21 - It is assumed that the world has approximately 3, 000 (some put it 5, 000 ) languages, which can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar.2 - The Indo-European is one of them. It is made up of most of the languages of Europe, the Near East, and India.3 - They accordingly fall into eight principal groups, which can be grouped into an Eastern set: Balto-Slavic , Indo-Iranian , Armenian and Albanian ; a Western set: Celtic, Italic, Hellenic, Germanic.4 - In the Eastern set, Armenian and Albanian are each the only modern language respectively. The Balto-Slavic comprises such modern languages as Prussian, Lithuanian, Polish, Czech, Bulgarian, Slovenian and Russian.5 - In the Indo-Iranian we have Persian. Bengali, Hindi, Romany, the last three of which are derived from the dead language Sanskrit.6 - In the Western set, Greek is the modern language derived from Hellenic.7 - The Germanic family consists of the four Northern European Languages: Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, which are generally known as Scandinavianlanguages. Then there is German, Dutch, Flemish and English.languages. Then there is German, Dutch, Flemish and English.8 - Old English (450-1150)Anglo-Saxon as Old English. Old English has a vocabulary of about 50, 000 to 60, 000 words. It was a highly inflected language just like moderm German.Anglo-Saxon as Old English. Old English has a vocabulary of about 50, 000 to 60, 000 words. It was a highly inflected language just like moderm German.9 - Middle English (1150-1500)Although there were borrowings from Latin, the influence on English was mainly Germanic.Between 1250 and 1500 about 9000 words of French origin poured into English. Seventy-five percent of them are still in use today.If we say that Old English was a language of full endings. Middle English was one of leveled endings.10 - Modern English (1500-up to now)Modern English began with the establishment of printing in England.Early (1500-1700) and Late (1700-up to the present) Modern EnglishModern English began with the establishment of printing in England.Early (1500-1700) and Late (1700-up to the present) Modern EnglishIn the early period of Modern English, Europe saw a new upsurge of learning ancient Greek and Roman classics. This is known in history as the Renaissance.Latin and Greek were recognized as the languages of the Western world’’s great literary heritage and of great scholarshipIn fact, more than twenty-five per cent of modern English words come almost directly from classical languages.It can be concluded that English has evolved from a synthetic language (Old English) to the present analytic language.11 - Three main sources of new words: the rapid development of modern science and technology(45%); social, economic and political changes(24%);the influence of other cultures and languages(11%).the influence of other cultures and languages(11%).12 - Modern English vocabulary develops through three channels: creation, semantic change, borrowing.Creation refers to the formation of new words by using the existing materials, namely roots, affixes and other elements. In modern times, this is the most important way of vocabulary expansion.Semantic change means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need. This does not increase the number of word forms but create many more new usages of the words, thus enriching the vocabulary.Borrowing has played a vital role in the development of vocabulary, particularly in earlier times. Borrowed words constitute merely six to seven percent of all new worlds. In earlier stages of English, frnch, greek and Scandinavian were the major contributiors.Reviving archaic or obsolete words(复活古词和废弃词) also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant.Chapter 31 - These different forms occur owing to different sound environment. These minimal meaningful units are known as morphemes.In other words, the morpheme is "the amallest functioning unit in the composition of words"In other words, the morpheme is "the amallest functioning unit in the composition of words"2 - Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs. They are actual spoken , minimal carriers of meaning. The morpheme is to the morph what a phoneme is to a phone.3 - These morphemes coincide with words as they can stand by themselves and function freely in a sentence. Words of this kind are called monomorphemic words.4 - Some morphemes, however, are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are known as allomorphs.5 - There are cases where the allomorphs of the plural morpheme are realized by the change of an internal vowel or by zero morph.6 - Free Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free. These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. They are identical with root words, as each of them consists of a single free root, we might as well say that free morphemes are free roots.7 - Bound Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound. They are so named because they are bound to other morphemes to form words. Bound morphemes are chiefly found in derived words.8 - Bound morphemes include two types: bound root and affix.Bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a tree root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words.In English, bound roots are either Latin or Greek. Although they are limited in number, their productive power is amazing.Bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a tree root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words.In English, bound roots are either Latin or Greek. Although they are limited in number, their productive power is amazing.Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. According to the functions of affixes, we can put them into two groups; inflectional and derivational affixes.Affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional, thus known as inflectional morphemes. The number of inflectional affixes is small and stable.Derivational affixes. As the term indicates, derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words. Derivational affixes can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes come before the ward and the suffixes after the word.9 - A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analysed without total loss of identity. The root, whether free or bound, generally carries the main component of meaning in a word. Root is that part of a wordform that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed.10 - A stem may consist of a single root morpheme as in iron or of two root morphemes as in a compound like handcuff. It can be a root morpheme plus one or more affixational morphemes as in mouthful.A stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added。