Linguistics
scope of linguistics: (a branch of linguistics that….) phonetics（语音学）: the study of linguistic speech sounds, how they
are produced, how they are perceived, and their physical properties.(study of the phonic medium of language) phonology:（音位学）the study of how speech sounds in a language form
patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in
linguistics communication.
morphology:（形态学）the study of the word structure and word
formation.
syntax:（句法学）is the branch of linguistics that studies the rules
that govern the formation of sentences.
semantics: (语义学) the study of linguistic meaning. pragmatics:（语用学）a branch of linguistics that studies the context
of language use to effect successful communication.
Some distinctions in linguistics:
Prescriptive & descriptive 1)Prescriptive: aims to describe and analyze the language people
actually use
”correct & standard“Descriptive: aims to lay down rules for
behavior in using language.(doctor)
Synchronic & diachronic 共时的&历时的2)
Synchronic: the description of a language at some point of time
in history.
Diachronic: the description of a language as it changes through
time.
Langue & parole 语言&言语3)
Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the
members of a speech community.
Parole: refers to the realization of language in actual use.
Competence & performance 语言能力&语言运用4) Competence: the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language
Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.
Design features of language:
1)arbitrariness: （任意性）means there is no logical connection
between meanings and sounds.
2)Productivity: it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.
3)Duality:（双重性）duality of structure or double articulation of
language enables users to talk about anything within their knowledge.
4)Displacement: language can be used to refer to contexts removed
from the immediate situations of the speaker. 不受时空限制
5)Cultural transmission 文化传播（eg:狼孩）
of language:
1)Descriptive function: it is the function to convey factual
information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases
even verified.
2)Expressive function: supplies information about the user's
feelings, preferences, prejudices and values.
3)Social function: serves to establish and maintain social relations between people.
（音素）is a phonetic unit or segment. Phone:is a phonological unit. It is a unit that is of Phoneme:（音位） unit.abstract distinctive value. It is an
the minimal units of meaning词素—meaning carries information about that smallest The unit of language
or function Free morpheme: a morpheme which can be a word by itself.
Bound morpheme: a morpheme must be attached to another one.
) the morphemes which change the 衍生词素Derivational morphemes：(category or grammatical class of words. They are conjoined to other
morphemes /words, new words are derived or formed.
标出(-en,-ate,-ic,-ous,-ly,-tion,-sive,-er)
Inflectional morphemes: (曲折词素) they are attached to words or
morphemes, but they never change their syntactic category.(-s,-er,-est,-ed,-ing) ○标出
: refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or
similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun
phase or a verb.
Non-traditional categories: determiner(Det)限
定,degree(Deg),qualifier(Qua)词Phrase elements?: specifiers, complements(XP Rule), modifiers.
Deep structure: formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's
subcategorization properties. 没变形陈述句
Surface structure
5. Lexical meaning:
Sense: is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form,
the collection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized.
Eg: dog-general meaning of dog, features
Reference: means what a linguistic form refers to in the real,
physical world.
Eg；One particular/certain dog existent in the situation,
known to
each other
6.: it is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge Context shared by the speaker and the hearer. (John Firth)Speech act theory: (John Austin)is the act of uttering words, phrases （言内行为）Locutionary act:and clauses.s expressing the speaker'is Illocutionary act: (言外之意) the act of
intention; it is the act of performed in saying something.resulting by or the :（言后行为）is act of performed actPerlocutionary
brought the consequence of, or change the saying from something; it is
about by the utterance.Cooperative principle-CP (Paul Grice)The maxim of quantity:
Say no less than the conversation requires.Say no more than the conversation requires.The maxim of quality:
Don't say what you believe to be false.Don't say things for which you lack evidence.The maxim of manner:Don't be obscure. Don't be ambiguous.
Design features（定义特征）: the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals. Synchronic（共时的）: said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “point” in time. Diachronic（历时的）: said of the study of development of language and languages over time. Prescriptive（规定式）: to make an authoritarian statement about the correctness of a particular use of language. Descriptive（描写式）: to make an objective and systematic account of the patterns and use of a language or variety. Competence（语言能力）: unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a language. 对于一门语言的语法规则系统的无意识获得的知识。Performance（语言运用）:
the language actually used by people in speaking or writing. 人们说话写作时实际使用的语言。 Langue（语言）: the language system shared by a “speech community”. 一个“语言社团”共有的语言系统。 Parole（言语）: the concrete utterances of a speaker. 说话人实际说的话语。 Phonology（音系学）： the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of language. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. International Phonetic Alphabet（国际音标）: a set of standard phonetic symbols in the form of a chart (the IPA chart), designed by the International Phonetic Association since 1888. It has been revised from time to time to include
新编简明英语语言学知识点汇总1 Introduction 1.1 What is linguistics? Scientific study of language.
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Characteristics: ①language is system,elements of language are combined according to the rules;
②language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what it stands for, A rose by any other name would smell as well; ③language is vocal because the primary medium for all language is sound; Language is a system which consists of two structures. At the lower level there is a structure of sounds,which are meaningless by themselves.But the sounds can grouped or regrouped together into a larger numbers of units of meaning such as morpheme or words,which are found at the higher level of system(carp & park).Then the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite numbers of sentences;
Quiz of Linguistics I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False. 1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. ( T) 2. Linguistics studies particular language, not language in general. ( F) 3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks. ( F ) 4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts. ( T ) 5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole. ( T) 6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistics study. ( F) 7. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive. ( F ) 8. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar. ( T) 9. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time. ( F ) 10. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by Saussure. ( F) II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given. 1. Chomsky defines “competence”as the ideal user’s k nowledge of the rules of his language. 2. Langue refers to the a bstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules. 3. D uality is one of the desing features of human language which refers to the phenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units. 4. Language is a system of a rbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 5. P arole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. 6. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such application is generally known as a pplied linguistics. 7. Language is p roductive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before. 8. Linguistics is generally defined as the s cientific study of language. 9. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be d escriptive. 10. Modern linguistics regards the written language as s econdary . III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.
语言学概论
目录 第一章语言和语言学 (3) 第二章语言的物质载体——语音 (6) 第三章语言的建筑材料——语汇 (10) 第四章语言的结构规则——语法 (13) 第五章语言的表达内容——语义 (19) 第六章语言的运用特点——语用 (22) 第七章语言的书写符号——文字 (25) 第八章语言的发展和演变 (27) 第九章语言的获得和学习 (30) 第十章语言与文学写作 (32) 第十一章语言与民族文化 (34) 第十二章语言与科学技术 (36)
第一章语言和语言学 第一节认识人类的语言 一、语言的性质和类型P49 1.只有人类才有语言P49 （1）内容更多 （2）用处更大： ①交际功能②标志功能③记录功能④思维功能⑤认知功能 （3）能够创造 2.语言和民族、国家的关系P51（简答） “语言”最初是与“民族”直接相连的，至今也是最直观和最容易识别的民族标志， 同时也是国家的标志，但是只有全面了解从古到今的“语言”、“民族”之间，“民族” 和“国家”之间错综复杂的关系，才能对“语言、民族、国家”三者之间做出更加符合客 观事实的结论。 3.语言的特点和类型P52（单选） （1）从历时的角度看：语言的谱系分，也叫“语言亲属关系分类。 根据各种语言在语音、语汇、语法等方面是否有共同的来源和相似性大小对语言进行分类，就是语言的谱系分类。语言的谱系分类是个层级系统，从大到小：“语系、语族、语支、语言、方言、次方言。” （2）从共时角度看：语言的形态分类也叫语言的结构类型分类。 二、语言的表现形式P54 1.语言和言语P54 言语：说话的动作和说出来或写出来的成品。 语言：说话所使用的工具，是在背后支配着人们怎么说话和听话的规则。 言语属于个人现象语言属于社会现象，是全社会约定俗成的产物。言语是语言的表现形式，语言是抽象的，言语是具象的。（单选） 2.本体和外围P55 本体知识：语言系统内部的各要素；语音、词语、语法、语义、语用。 外围知识：语言与思维、语言与文化、语言与其它技能、语言运用等。 3.口语和书面语P56（分析） 用嘴巴说出来的话，叫“口语”。 用文字写下来的话，叫“书面语”。 口语是第一性的，书面语是第二性的。 注意：一方面书面语并不是口语绝对忠实的记录。另一方面书面语也不是口语的机械复制。 第二节语言符号和语言结构 一、语言的符号性P57（论述） 符号：用甲事物表示乙事物，甲事物就是符号。形式＋意义（物质实体＋表达的特定意义） 语言符号：语音＋意义 1.“能指”和“所指”P58（简答） 语言符号中能够指称某种意义的声音叫“能指”。
语言学概论重点总结 一、名词解释（4*6=24） 1、孤立语：孤立语又称词根语，其特点是缺乏形态变化，语法意义主要靠词序和虚词来表示，汉语就是一种比较典型的孤立语。例如，“我喜欢他”中的“我”是主语，“他”是宾语，主要取决于词序。又如，“买菜”是述宾结构，“买的菜”是偏正结构，主要取决于虚词。汉语缺乏严格意义上的形态变化，一个名词性词语无论是充当句子的主语还是宾语，词性都不曾发生变化。除了汉语外，属孤立语的还有越南语、彝语、苗语、缅甸语等。 2、屈折语：屈折语的特点是通过各种屈折方式来表示语法意义。屈折可以分为内部屈折和外部屈折。内部屈折指通过词的语音交替（改变部分语音）来构成不同的语法形式，表示不同的语法意义；如阿拉伯语以固定的辅音框架表示语汇意义，以元音交替表示不同的语法意义。 外部屈折指通过附加词缀的方式表示不同的语法意义。例如英语的book（书，单数）在后面加上词缀-s,就表示复数意义books(书，复数)。 屈折语的一个构型词缀可以同时表示几种语法意义，例如英语的-s在动词后面表示第三人称、单数、现在时、主动语态，如works. 同样的语法意义，在不同的词里也可以用不同的词缀来表示，如俄语中性名词单数主格的词尾有-o(如neop钢笔)，-e（noπe田地）。 屈折语的词根和构型词缀结合得很紧，如果去掉构型词缀，词根往往就不能成词，如俄语nepo去掉词尾-o,nep-就不能独立使用。 印欧语系各语言以及阿拉伯语等，一般都属于屈折语，其中俄语和德语是最典型的屈折语。 3、音位：是某种语言中能区别语素或词的语音形式的最小语音单位，是依据语音的社会属性划分出来的语音类别。 音位本身并不含有任何意义。音位只有在和别的音位组合成高一层级的单位后才能负载意义。如单个的/k/和/ae/或/t/是没有什么意义的，但是他们组合成了[caet](cat)之后就有了“猫”的意义。因此，音位只有区别音形进而区别意义的作用，而没有表达意义的作用。 音位分析的目的是要把语言里数目繁多的语言归纳为数目有限的一套音位系统，分析音位的三基本原则是：对立、互补、语音相似。 音位可以分为音质音位和非音质音位两大类。一般把音素的音质角度分析归并出来的音位叫音质音位，因为它占有一个时段，所以又叫音段音位。除了音质以外，音高、音强、音长这些非音质形式也能区别词的语音形式，由这些韵律（音律）形式构成的音位叫非音质音位。又叫超音段音位。包括调位、重位、时位。 调位：主要由音高特征构成的音位叫调位，又叫声调。调位是汉藏语系诸语言中区别词的语言形式的重要手段之一。 重位：主要由音强特征构成的音位叫重位。重音在英语、俄语中是区别词的语音形式和词义的重要手段。构成重位的非音质特征是综合的。 时位：由音长特征构成的音位叫时位。长短音的区别主要表现在元音上，如广东话和许多少数民族语言里，时位都有区别词的语音形式和意义的作用。 4、语流音变就是指在连续的语流中某些语音成分受前后语音环境的影响而发生变化的现象。有时说话人由于种种原因调整语音的快慢、高低、强弱，也会造成语音的某种变化。
一、定义 1.语言学Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。 4.识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。 Arbitrariness任意性 Productivity多产性 Duality双重性 Displacement移位性 Cultural transmission文化传递 ⑴arbitrariness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it
语言学第七章知识点总结 Language is an essential part of a given culture. It is an indispensable carrier of culture. It is regarded as a mirror of society. In primitive culture, the meaning of a word greatly depended on its occurrence in a given context. Firth-Context of Situation -illustrate the close relationship between language use and its co-occurrence factors. 1.The relevant features of the participants, persons, and personalities The verbal action of the participants; the non-verbal action of the participant 2.The relevant objects 3.The effects of the verbal action Speech Community It refers to a group of people share the same rules of speaking and one linguistic variety as well. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis Our language helps mould our way of thinking. Different languages may probably express speakers' unique ways of understanding the world. https://www.doczj.com/doc/fe7902918.html,nguage may determine our thinking patterns
Chapter one Introduction 一、定义 1.语言学Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。 4.识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。 Arbitrariness任意性 Productivity多产性 Duality双重性 Displacement移位性 Cultural transmission文化传递 ⑴arbitrariness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions ⑵Productivity Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send. ⑶Duality Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels. ⑷Displacement Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. ⑸Cultural transmission Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species. 5.语言能力Competence Competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. 6.语言运用performance Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。 7.历时语言学Diachronic linguistics The study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time. 8.共时语言学Synchronical linguistics The study of a given language at a given time. 9.语言langue The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community. 10.言语parole The realization of langue in actual use. 11.规定性Prescriptive It aims to lay down rules for ”correct” behavior, to tell people what they should say and what should not say.
Desig n features （定义特征）： the disti nctive features of huma n Ian guage that esse ntially make huma n Ian guage disti nguishable from Ian guages of ani mals. Synchronic （共时的）： said of an approach that studies Ianguage at a theoretical point "in time. Diachro nic （历时的）： said of the study of developme nt of Ian guage and Ian guages over time. Prescriptive （规定式）： to make an authoritaria n stateme nt about the correct ness of a particular use of Ian guage. Descriptive （描写式）： to make an objective and systematic acco unt of the patter ns and use of a Ian guage or variety. Compete nee （语言能力）： uncon scious kno wledge of the system of grammatical rules in a Ian guage. 对于一门语言的语法规则系统的无意识获得的知识。 Performa nee （语言运用）： the Ianguage actually used by people in speaking or writing. 人们说话写作时实际使用的语言。 Langue （语言）： the Ianguage system shared by a speech community ” 一个“语言社团”共有的语言系统。 Parole （言语）： the con crete uttera nces of a speaker. 说话人实际说的话语。 Pho no logy （音系学）： the study of the sound patter ns and sound systems of Ian guage. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in Ianguages, and to explain the variati ons that occur. Intern ati onal Phon etic Alphabet （国际音标） a set of standard phonetic symbols in the form of a chart （the IPA chart）, designed by the Intern ati onal Phon etic Associati on si nee 1888. It has bee n revised from time to time to include new discoveries and changes in phonetic theory and practice. Cardi nal Vowels （基本元音）： a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the descriptio n of the actual vowels of exist ing Ian guages.
Linguistics 1.The scope of linguistics: (a branch of linguistics that….) phonetics（语音学）: the study of linguistic speech sounds, how they are produced, how they are perceived, and their physical properties.(study of the phonic medium of language) phonology:（音位学）the study of how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistics communication. morphology:（形态学）the study of the word structure and word formation. syntax:（句法学）is the branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences. semantics: (语义学) the study of linguistic meaning. pragmatics:（语用学）a branch of linguistics that studies the context of language use to effect successful communication. Some distinctions in linguistics: 1)Prescriptive & descriptive Prescriptive: aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use Descriptive: aims to lay down rules for “correct & standard” behavior in using language.(doctor)
: (特点) 1) (独立性) a) ; b) ; c) . 2) (跨学科) 3) (应用性) 应用语言学包含着具有内在联系的三个方面：语言理论，语言描写和语言教学。 语言理论的作用是为语言教师提供关于一般语言系统的结构和功能运用得知识； 语言描写的作用是使语言教师了解英语的结构特点、 获得语言洞
察力。这两部分是语言教学的基础。 4) (试验性) , , , , . (客观性，系统性，明确性，经济性)（任务） 1) a ； (更好理解掌握最新的语言教学和语言学习的理论基础) 2) ； (全面了解影响语言学习和语言教学的各种因素) 3) a , . (一个语言教学理念、方法和技巧) 英语教学法主要是立足于心理学和教育学的理论和成果。应用语言学主要是站在语言学角度来看语言教学。 在言语交际中，特别是在某种语境中，人们有时不直接表达出自己的思想，而是通过另一种表达方式——虚拟结构，把自己的思想委婉、含蓄地表达出来。 1) ’t . 表示批评 2) . 表示惋惜 3) ’t . 表示感谢 4) . 表示劝告 5) I I ’t a . 表示遗憾 1．社会发展的需要
2．应用语言学学科建设的需要 3．教师发展的需要 4．外语教学改革的需要 : 1. ? (K. 1964) (N. 1959) 结构主义的观点把懂得一种语言局限在掌握结构规则和词汇上。 功能意念观点又增加了需要懂得如何运用规则和词汇去做自己要做的事情。 交往法观点则认为，要知道如何用语言做事，就要知道在什么场合、什么时间、如何去做才算是得体。 从哲学角度来看：语言是人们感受客观世界和表达主观世界的物质外壳。 从心理学角度来看：语言是人们进行认知心理活动的思维的外在形式。 从语言学角度来看：语言的核心就是强调语言的系统性、生成性、习惯性和文化性。 从语言的结构特征来看：语言是个符号系统。它是一个由语音、语素、词和词组、句子和篇章等构成的层级系统。
Chapter 6 Cognition is the mental process or faculty of knowing, including aspects such as awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment. There exist three approaches to the study of language and cognition: the formal approach, the psychological approach and the conceptual approach. The Formal approach basically addresses the structural patterns exhibited by the overt aspect of linguistic forms, largely abstracted away from or regarded as autonomous from any associated meaning. The Psychological approach looks at language from the perspective of relatively general cognitive systems ranging from perception, memory, and attention to reasoning. The conceptual approach is concerned with the patterns in which and the processes by which conceptual content is organized in language. Structure will be used to refer both to patterns and to process, the conceptual approach can more simply be said to address how language structures conceptual content. Psycholinguistics is the study of psychological aspects of language; it usually studies the psychological states and mental activities associated with the use of language. Six aspects of research within psycholinguistics: ①Acquisition ②Comprehension ③Production ④Disorders ⑤Language and thought ⑥Neurocognition Language acquisition: ①Holophrastic stage ②Two-word stage ③Stage of three-word utterances ④Fluent grammatical conversation stage Connectionism in psycholinguistics claims that readers use the same system of links between spelling units and sound units to generate pronunciations of written words like tove and to access the pronunciations
Linguistics What is Linguistics Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It endeavours to answer the question--what is language and how is represented in the mind? Linguists focus on describing and explaining language and are not concerned with the prescriptive rules of the language (ie., do not split infinitives). Linguists are not required to know many languages and linguists are not interpreters. The underlying goal of the linguist is to try to discover the universals concerning language. That is, what are the common elements of all languages. The linguist then tries to place these elements in a theoretical framework that will describe all languages and also predict what can not occur in a language. Linguistics is a social science that shares common ground with other social sciences such as psychology, anthropology, sociology and archaeology. It also may influence other disciplines such as english, communication studies and computer science. Linguistics for the most part though can be considered a cognitive science. Along with psychology, philosophy and computer science (AI), linguistics is ultimately concerned with how the human brain functions. Below are several different disciplines within linguistics. The fields of phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and language acquisition are considered the core fields of study and a firm knowledge of each is necessary in order to tackle more advanced subjects. Phonetics Phonetics is the study of the production and perception of speech sounds. It is concerned with the sounds of languge, how these sounds are articulated and how the hearer percieves them. Phonetics is related to the science of acoustics in that it uses much the same techniques in the analysis of sound that acoustics does. There are three sub-disciplines of phonetics: ?Articulatory Phonetics: the production of speech sounds. ?Acousitc Phonetics: the study of the physical production and transmission of speech sounds. ?Auditory Phonetics: the study of the perception of speech sounds. Phonology Phonology is the study of the sound patterns of language. It is concerned with how sounds are organized in a language. Phonolgy examines what occurs to speech sounds when they are combined to form a word and how these speech sounds interact with each other. It endeavors to explain what these phonological processes are in terms of formal rules. Morphology