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语言学概论期末复习(男神版)

语言学概论期末复习(男神版)
语言学概论期末复习(男神版)

语言学概论

Chapter 1

Invitations to Linguistics

1.What is language

Senses of language in Webster’s New World Dictionary (our book, p.

2) “Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human

communication. “(Wardaugh)

2.Design features of language语言设计特征

1. arbitrariness (任意性)

2. duality (双重性)

3. Creativity (创造性) or productivity

4. displacement (移位性)

5. interchangeability (互换性)

6. specialization (专业化)

7. cultural transmission (文化传承)

3.Functions of Language(语言功能)

Jakobson’s view: (情感功能) (指代功能) (诗学功能)

(寒暄功能) (元语言) (意动功能) Halliday’s view: 1.ideational function (概念功能) 2.

Interpersonal function(人际功能) 3.

Textual function(语篇功能)

Functions on the book: (告知性的) Function(人际功能) (行事功能)

Function Communion(寒暄功能) Function(娱乐

功能) Function(元语言功能)

4.What Is Linguistics

? Linguistics is the scientific study of language or the science of language.

?1) Exhaustiveness(穷尽性)2) Consistency(贯通性) 3) Economy(经济性) 4) Objectivity(客观性)

vs. performance

言语能力 vs. 言语行为

?N oam Chomsky in his Aspects of the Theory of Syntax.

?C ompetence refers to a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.

?P erformance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.

Chapter 2

Speech sounds

1.Consonants and vowels

Distinction between consonants and vowels: the

obstruction (阻塞) of airstream

2.Minimal pairs and minimal sets(最小对立体)

^

① When two words are identical in every way except for a

contrast in one sound segment occurring in the same

position in the string, the two words are called a minimal

pair 最小对立体.

: pit and bit junk and chunk

ban and bin bet and bat

②A minimal pair should follow three conditions: 1) they are

different in meaning; 2) they differ only in one sound

segment; 3) the different sounds occur in the same

position in the strings.

Chapter 3

From morpheme to phrase

1.Root & affix

Root 词根: morpheme which is the basic part of a word.

(Occur on its own、may be joined to other

roots、or take affixes (manly, coldness) or

combining forms (biochemistry)

2 It is that part of the word left when all the affixes are

removed.

3.~

4.All words contain a root morpheme Affix词缀: letter or sound, or group of letters or sounds(=a

morpheme), which is added to a word, and

which changes the meaning or function of the

word.(Prefix前缀,Suffix后缀,infix中缀:

feet,geese)

2. inflectional affix 曲折词缀 and derivational affix 派

生词缀

Chapter 5

Meaning

1.The Referential Theory(所指理论)

①The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of

a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known

as the referential theory.

②Reference 所指 refers to the relationship between a

word and the object it denotes in the physical world, .

denotation 外延 in philosophy.

]

③Is a very popular theory (semantic triangle by Ogden

and Richards in Meaning of Meaning )

④Problems with this theory:Not every word has a

reference 所指.

2. Sense relations 意义关系

Sense may be defined as the semantic relations

between one word and another, or more generally between

one linguistic unit and another.

*distinctions between sense and reference:

The distinction between sense and reference is

comparable to that between connotation and denotation in

philosophy

①The former refers to the abstract properties of an

entity, while the latter refers to the concrete entities

having these properties.

②Every word has a sense, but not every word has a

reference.

③Reference in its wider sense would be the relationship

between a word or phrase and an entity in the external

world.

④So sense is intra-linguistic and reference is extra- l linguistic

[

3.3 kinds of sense relations:

Synonymy (同义关系)

Semantic relation of sameness or similarity in meaning of

two or more linguistic expressions. (absolute synonyms 绝对同

义词、relative synonyms 相对同义词、Stylistic synonyms 文体同义

词、Emotive synonyms 情感同义词、Collocational synonyms:搭配

同义词)

Antonymy (反义关系)

·Relation of semantic opposition.

·three main sub-types: 1)Gradable antonymy (等级反义关系):

They are gradable; the denial of one is not necessarily the assertion of the other. There is an

intermediate ground between the two.(hot\cold

warm\cool tall\short big\small )

2Complementary antonymy(互补反义关系)

The members of a pair in this type are

complementary to each other. There is no intermediate

ground between the two.(alive\dead odd\even

single\married male\female pass\fail hit\miss )

3[

4Converse antonymy(相反反义关系)

The members of a pair in this type show the reversal

of a relationship between two entities. They are also

known as relational opposites. There are always two

entities involved. One presupposes the other.

(buy\sell give\receive husband\wife

teacher\student above\below before\after)

Hyponymy(上下义关系)

A relationship between two words, in which the

meaning of one of the words includes the meaning of the

other word.

Sometimes a superordinate may be a superordinate to itself.

A superordinate may be missing sometimes. (red

green yellow)

Hyponyms may also be missing.(uncle rice)

https://www.doczj.com/doc/fd8471467.html,ponential analysis (成分分析)

Componential analysis: (in semantics) an approach to the study of meaning which analyses a word into a set of meaning

components or semantic features.

[

Usually, componential analysis is applied to a group of related words which may differ from one another only by one

or two components.

Semantic features 语义特征or semantic components are the basic unit of meaning in a word. The meanings of words

may be described as a combination of semantic features.

5. An integrated theory(整体理论)

The idea that the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are

combined is usually known as the principle of

compositionality(复合性原则)

a dictionary

a semantic theory

a set of projection rules 投射规则

The dictionary provides the grammatical classification and

semantic information of words.

The projection rules are responsible for combining the meanings

of words together.

Chapter 6

Language and cognition

is cognition

Two definitions about cognition:

①I n psychology it refers to the mental processes of an

individual with particular relation to the view that argues

that the mind has internal states (beliefs, desires, and

intentions) and can be understood in terms of information

processing.

②M ental process or faculty of knowing, including aspects

such as awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgement.

2.What is psycholinguistics(心理语言学)

Definition:is the study of psychological aspects of languages; it usually studies the psychological states and mental

activity associated with the use of language.

6 subjects of research within psycholinguistics:

Acquisition(语言习得) Comprehension(语言理解) Language and thought Production(语言产出) Disorders(语言无序性) Neurocognition

3.What is Cognitive Linguistics

Definition: is a newly established approach to the study of

language.

Chapter 7

Language, culture and Society

https://www.doczj.com/doc/fd8471467.html,nguage and Culture

①What is culture :

Culture, in a broad sense,means the total way of life of a

people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects,

institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the

life of the human community.

,

In a narrow sense, culture may refer to local or specific

practice, beliefs or customs, which can be mostly found in

folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture etc.

②The relationship between language and culture

A language not only expresses facts, ideas, or events which

represent similar world knowledge by its people, but also

reflects the people’s attitudes, beliefs, world outlooks etc. In

a word, language expresses cultural reality.

2.Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis (萨丕尔-沃尔夫假设)

Sapir and Whorf believe that language filters people’s perception and the way they categorize experiences. This interdependence of language and thought is now known as Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.

This hypothesis primarily suggests that our language will mould our view of the world.

But few people would tend to accept the original for this theory. Thus, two versions, strong version and weak version have been developed.

the strong version: the language patterns determine people’s

thinking and behavior.

the weak version: the former influences the latter.

https://www.doczj.com/doc/fd8471467.html,nguage and society

①^

②Definition of sociolinguistics(社会语言学):

Sociolinguistics is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.

③The relatedness between language and society:

1) While language is principally used to communicate

meaning, it is also used to establish and maintain social

relationships.

2) Users of the same language in a sense all speak

differently. The kind of language each of them chooses to

use is in part determined by his social background.

3) To some extent, language, especially the structure of its

lexicon, reflects both the physical and the social

environments of a society

4) Judgments concerning the correctness and purity of

linguistic varieties are social rather than linguistic.

4.Halliday’s register theory:

Definition of register(语域): The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.

Field of discourse(语场)refers to what is going on: to the area of operation of the language.

%

Tenor of discourse(语旨)refers “to whom the speaker is communicating”

Mode of discourse(语式)mainly refers to the means of communication.

Chapter 8

Language in use

1.What is Pragmatics

the study of language in use.

2.Speech act theory

1)The first major theory in the study of language in use,

which originated with the Oxford philosopher John Langshaw Austin: How to Do Things with Words

2)Speech act: an utterance(表达) as a functional unit in

communication. In speech act theory, utterances have two kinds of meaning:

a.【

b.propositional meaning 命题意义(also known as

locutionary meaning发话意义)

c. illocutionary meaning行事意义(also known as

illocutionary force行事语力).

A speech act is a sentence or utterance which has both

propositional meaning and illocutionary force.

3) 2 types of sentences:

Performatives(施为句;行事话语): an utterance

which performs an act

Constative(表述句;述事话语): an utterance which

asserts something that is either true

or false.

*It has even been suggested that there is no real

difference between constative and implicit performatives.

All sentences can be used to do things.

theory of the illocutionary act(行事行为理论)

T hree different types of act involved in or caused by the utterance of a sentence:

~

Locutionary act(发话行为)is the saying of something which is meaningful and can be understood.

I llocutionary act (行事行为)is using a sentence to perform a function,related to the speaker’s intention.

P erlocutionary act(取效行为)is the result or effects that are produced by means of saying something.

4.Categories of speech acts by Searle

1. Representative(阐述类):stating or describing, saying

what the speaker believes to be true . I swear…)

2. Directives(指令类): trying to get the hearer to do

something..Your money or your life.)

3. Commissives(承诺类):committing the speaker himself to

some future course of action. . I promise..)

4. Expressive(表情类):expressing feelings or attitude

towards an existing state. Thank you…)

5. Declarations(宣告类): bring about immediate changes by

saying something.. you are fired...)

theory of conversational implicature 会话含义理论

The second major theory in the study of language in use proposed by Herbert Paul Grice: Logic and Conversation.

1)Definition: Conversational implicature is a type of meaning,

which is deduced on the basis of the

conventional meaning of words together

with the context, under the guidance of the

CP and its maxims

2)Characteristics of implicature:

calculability(可计算性)

cancellability/ defeasibility(可删除性/可取消性)

Non-detachability(非可分离性)

Non-conventionality(非规约性)

1. The cooperative principle合作原则: The co-operation

between speakers in using the conversational maxims is

called the cooperative principle.

maxim对话准则: an unwritten rule about conversation

which people know and which influences the form of

conversational exchanges

Grice introduced 4 categories of maxims:

a. the maxim of Quantity

b. the maxim of Quality

c. the maxim of Relation

d. the maxim of Manne r

developments

1) Relevance theory 关联理论

Definition:Every act of ostensive communication

communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.

(每一个明示交际行为都传递一种假设:该行为本身具备

最适宜关联)

2)the Q- and R-principle

These two principle was proposed by Laurence Horn

①|

②The Q-principle is intended to invoke the first maxim of

Grice’s Quantity, and the R-principle the Relation maxim,

but the new principles are more extensive than the Gricean

maxims.

③Horn reduces all the Gricean maxims to two

principles: the Q- and R-principle

A. The Q-principle (hearer- based):

Make your contribution sufficient

Say as much as you can

B. The R-principle (speaker-based):

Make your contribution necessary

Say no more than you must

In other words, the Q-principle is concerned with the content.

The R- principle, on the other hand, is concerned with the form.

·

Chapter 11

Linguistic and Foreign Language Teaching

1.Definition:

SLA: Second language acquisition 二语习得

CPH :Critical Period Hypothesis 关键期假设

UG:Universal Grammar 普遍语法

LAD:Language Acquisition Device 语言习得基质

IL:Interlanguage 中介语

CA:Contrastive Analysis对比分析

EA: Error Analysis 错误分析

2.Universal Grammar 普遍语法

Universal grammar holds that there are certain basic structural rules that govern language that all humans know without having

to learn them.

3. Input and language learning

Language Acquisition Device 语言习得基质

·Krashen’s Input Hypothesis

1)There were two independent means or routes of second language learning: acquisition and learning.

Acquisition is a process similar to the way children

acquire their first language.

Learning as another route is a conscious learning of

the second language knowledge by learning the rules

and talking about the rules.

2)Krashen put forward that learners advance their language learning gradually by receiving

“comprehensible input”. He defined comprehensible

input as “i+1”: “i” represents learners’ current state of

knowledge, the next stage is i+1.

4.Inter language (IL,中介语):

Definition: is defined as an abstract system of learners’

target language system, it has now been widely used to

refer to the linguistic expressions learners produce (especially the wrong or not idiomatic ones) or learner language.

analysis and error analysis 对比分析与错误分析Contrastive analysis (CA) is a way of comparing languages in order to determine potential errors for the ultimate purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what does not need to be learned in a second language learning situation.

The goal is to predict what areas will be easy to learn and what areas will be difficult to learn.

Error analysis (EA)involves, first independently or objectively, describing the learner’s int erlanguage (that is, their version of the target language and the target language itself), then a comparison of the two is followed to locate mismatches.

Two main sorts of errors: interlingual

errors 语际错误 intralingual errors 语内错误.

语言学概论题目及答案

语言学概论试题(一) 一、填空(每空1分,共15分) 1.语言中最单纯、最常用、最原始和最能产的词是根词。 2.语言是人类最重要的交际工具,文字是最重要的辅助交际工具。 ?3.我国古代学者为读懂古书而建立的训诂学、文字学、音韵学组成了我国的语文学,通称为“小学”。 4.英语属于印欧语系的日耳曼语族的西部语支。 ?5.语音可以从生理角度分析它的产生方式,从物理角度分析它的表现形式传递过程,从社会功能角度分析它的功能作用。 6.是否能够独立运用,是区分词和语素的根本特点。 ?7.现代大多数国家的拼音文字的字母,大多直接来源于拉丁字母。 ?8.具有不同功能的三种最基本的语法单位是语素、词、句子。 ?9.语言发展的主要特点是渐变性和不平衡性。 ?10.我国宪法 1982年第19条明确规定“国家推广全国通用的普通话”。 二、选择题(每题1分,共10分)?????? 1. 中国的传统语文学研究的薄弱环节是( D ) ??A.文字学B.语音学? ?C.词汇学D.语法学 ?2. 汉语属于( B ) ?A.屈折语B.孤立语 ?C.多式综合语D.粘着语 ?3. 一种语言中数量最少的是( B ) ??A.音素B.音位 ??C.语素D.音节 ?4. 文字的前身是( C ) ??A.结绳记事B.手势 ??C.图画记事D.实物记事 ?5. 派生词中包含( B ) ??A.词尾B.词根 ??C.虚词D.根词 ?6. 语音和语义结合的最小的语言单位是( C ) ??A.音素B.义素 ??C.语素D.音位 7. 汉语单词“忽然”出现的位置是( C ) ??A.主语位置B.谓语位置 ??C.状语位置D.定语位置 8. 以下各种语言变体中,属于社会方言的是( D ) ???A.土话B.客家话 ???C.客套话D.黑话 9. 下列语素中属于自由语素的是( C ) ???A.初B.视 ???C.人D.民 10. 在语言结构的某一环节上能够互相替换,?具有某种相同作用的各个单位之间所形成的关系叫( D ) ??A.转换关系B.组合关系 ??C.层级关系D.聚合关系 三、名词解释(每题4分,共20分) ?1.专语语言学以具体语言作为研究对象的语言学。 2.组合关系指两个以上相连续的语言符号组合而成的线性关系。 3.语流音变语流中的某些音由于相互影响而发生临时性的变化,这种变化就叫语流音变。 4.语义场由具有某些共同义素的一群词类聚而成的场。 5.语法范畴把同一性质的语法意义综合和概括所形成的语法意义的类别。 四、试以国际音标标出下列各词的读音(每题2分,共10分) 1.优秀 2.维持 3.宏观 4.精神 5.离开 五、用义素分析法分析下列各组词(每题3分,共9分) ?1.瞻仰 [+用眼 +往一定方向 +崇敬地]

语言学概论试题及答案

一、填空题:(每空1 分,本大题共10 分) 1. ()语言学是在19世纪逐步发展和完善的,它是语言学 走上独立发展道路的标志。 2. 人的大脑分左右两半球,大脑的左半球控制( 掌管不需要语言的感性直观思维。 3. 进入20世纪以后,语言研究的主流由历史比较语言学转为 ()。 4. 俄语属于印欧语系的( 5. 一个音位包含的不同音素或者具体表现出来的音素叫做 ()。 6. 语言中最单纯、最常用、最原始和最能产的词是( 7. 现代大多数国家的拼音文字的字母,大多直接来源于()字 母。 8. 言外之意之所以能够被理解是因为()起了补充说明的 作用。 9. 方言在社会完全分化的情况下,有可能发展成(? )?; 在社会高度统一的情况下,会逐渐被共同语消磨直到同化。 10. 南京方言的“兰”、“南”不分,从音位变体的角度来说,[n ]和[l]是 属于()变体。 二、单项选择题: 码填在题干上的括号内。(每小题1 分,本大题共15 分)

1. 在二十世纪,对哲学、人类学、心理学、社会学等学科产生重大影响 的语言学流派是() A.历史比较语言学 B.心理语言学 C.结构主义语言学 D.社会语言学 2. “人有人言,兽有兽语”中的“言”属于() A.语言 B.言语 C.言语行为 D.言语作品 3. “我爱家乡”中“爱”和“家乡”() A.是聚合关系。 B.是组合关系。 C.既是聚合关系又是组合关系。 D. 4. 一种语言中数量最少的是 A.音素 B.音位 C.语素 D.音节 5. 英语的man—→men采用的语法手段是 A. 屈折变化 B.变换重音的位置 C. 变化中缀 D.异根 6. 在汉语普通话中没有意义区别功能的声学特征是() A.音高 B.音强 C.音长 D.音质 7. [ε]的发音特征是 A.舌面前高不圆唇 B.舌面后高不圆唇 C.舌面前半高不圆唇 D.舌面前半低不圆唇 8. 构成“语言、身体”这两个词的语素的类型() A.都是成词语素 B.都是不成词语素 C.“语”和“言”是成词语素,“身”和“体”是不成词语素 D.“语”和“言”是不成词语素,“身”和“体” 9. 广义地说,汉语动词词尾“着”、“了”、“过”属于语法范畴中的 ()

语言学概论复习资料

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绪论及语言本质 1.我国古代学者为读懂古书而建立的训诂学、文字学、音韵学组成了我国的语文学,通称为“小学”。 2.“语言学概论”课程容在语言学学科分类中,属于理论语言学。 3.狭义的应用语言学一般是指语言教学。 4.17世纪,法国波瓦雅的修道院里有两位学者阿尔诺.兰斯洛合编了一本普遍唯理语法。 5.历史比较语言学的出现,标志着语言学走出传统语文学,成为一门独立的科学。 6.传统语文学一般主要指古代印度、古代希腊和古代中国三个地方的语文学。中国传统的语文学通常叫小学。 7.语言系统的两种基本关系是组合关系和聚合关系。它们是打开语言的两把钥匙。 8.1786年,英国的威廉琼斯在皇家亚洲学会宣读的论文《三周年演说》中指出有共同的结构特点。为了纪念这一新发现,这一年被认为是历史比较语言学诞生的一年。 9.历史比较语言学的奠基人是丹麦的拉斯克、德国的葆朴和格里木。 10.语言的分类一般从两个方面进行:第一,按照语言的(结构/形态)特点分类;第二,按照语言的(亲属/来源)关系分类。 11.著名语言学家瑞士的索绪尔的著作《普通语言学教程》标志着结构主义语言学的诞生。 12.美国结构主义语言学的代表人物是布龙菲尔德,他的代表著作是《语言论》。 13.转换生成语言学的代表人物是乔姆斯基,他被称为“标准理论”的著作是《句法理论问题》。 14.根据语言的结构或者形态特点,一般把语言分为孤立语(词根语)、粘着语、屈折语和多式综合语(编插语)四种。 1.人类语言和动物的交际方式有着根本区别。 2.什么样的声音与什么样的意义相结合,取决于约定俗成的社会习惯。这里的“约定俗成”的容既有任意性,也有强制性。

英语语言学概论-简答题

1.Synchronic vs diachronic Language exists in time and changes through time. The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time. 2. Langue and parole Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by, and parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable, It does not change frequently, while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation. 3. Competence and performance Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. According to Chomsky, a speaker has internalized a set of rules about his language, which enables him to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. 4. Arbitrariness As mentioned earlier, language is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different language. On the other hand, we should be aware that while language is arbitrary by nature it is not entirely arbitrary; certain words are motivated. The best examples are the onomatopoeic words, such as rumble, crash, cackle, bang in English. Besides, some compound words are also not entirely arbitrary. For example, while photo and copy are both arbitrary, the compound word photocopy is not entirely arbitrary. But non-arbitrary words make up only a small percentage of the vocabulary of a language. The arbitrary nature of language is a sigh of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions. 5. Productivity Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before. They can send messages which no one else has ever sent before. Much of what we say and hear are saying or hearing for the first time. 6. Duality Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning such as morphemes and words, which are found at the higher level of the system. 7. Displacement Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in faraway places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what “displacement” means. This property provides speakers with an opportunity to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time or place. In contrast, no animal communication system possesses this feature. Animal calls are mainly uttered in response to immediate changes of situation, i.e. in contact of food, in presence of danger, or in pain. Once the danger or pain is gone, calls stop. 8. Cultural transmission While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e. we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned. An English speaker and a Chinese speaker are both able to use a language, but they are not mutually intelligible. This shows that language is culturally transmitted. It is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct. In contrast, animal call systems are genetically transmitted, i.e. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species. 9. Broad transcription and narrow transcription: Broad transcription is the transcription with letter-symbols only, this is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. Narrow transcription is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics, this is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose. 10. Sense and reference Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in. Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with relationship between the linguistic element and non-linguistic world of experience. 11. Context It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. Various components of shared knowledge have been identified, e.g. knowledge of the language they use, knowledge of what has been said before, knowledge about the world in general, knowledge about the specific situation in which linguistic communication is taking place, and knowledge about each other. Context determines the speaker’s use of language and also the hearer’s interpretation of

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