Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics
1.1 Why study language?
1. Language is very essential to human beings.
2. In language there are many things we should know.
3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically.
1.2 What is language?
1.3 Design features of language
The features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.
1.3.1 Arbitrariness
1.3.2 Duality
1.3.3 Creativity
Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences.
1.3.4 Displacement
1.4 Origin of language
1. The bow-wow theory
In primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that.
2. The pooh-pooh theory
In the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language.
3. The “yo-he-ho” theory
As primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.
1.5 Functions of language
As is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions:
1. Referential: to convey message and information;
2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;
3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions;
4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties;
5. Phatic: to establish communion with others;
6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings. What is contextualism?
“Contextualism” is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from, or reduce it to, observable context: the “situational context” and the “linguistic context”. Every utterance occurs in a particular spatial-temporal situation, as the following factors are related to the situational context: (1) the speaker and the hearer; (2) the actions they are performing at the time; (3) various external objects and events;
(4) deictic features. The “linguistic context” is another aspect of contextualism. It considers the probability of one word’s co-occurrence or collocation with another, which forms part of the meaning, and an important factor in communication.
Halliday (1994) proposes a theory of metafunctions of language. It means that language has three metafunctions: According to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least seven functions:
1.5.1 Informative
1.5.2 Interpersonal function
The interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.
1.5.3 Performative
The performative function of language is primarily to
change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.
1.5.4 Emotive function
1.5.5 Phatic communion
The phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day, etc., to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content. 1.5.6 Recreational function
The recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.
1.5.7 Metalingual function
The metalingual function means people can use language to tal k about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book” to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.
1.6 What is linguistics?
Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the language
of all human beings.
1.7 Main branches of linguistics
1.7.1 Phonetics
Phonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.
1.7.2 Phonology
Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.
1.7.3 Morphology
Morphology studies the minimal units of meaning – morphemes and word-formation processes.
1.7.4 Syntax
Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.
1.7.5 Semantics
Semantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.
1.7.6 Pragmatics
Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context.
1.8 Macrolinguistics
Macrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguistics, which dealt solely with the formal aspect of language system.
1.8.1 Psycholinguistics
Psycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example.
1.8.2 Sociolinguistics
Sociolinguistics is a term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society, including the language and the social characteristics of its users.
1.8.3 Anthropological linguistics,
Anthropological linguistics studies the relationship between language and culture in a community.
1.8.4 Computational linguistics
Computational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language.
1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics
1.9.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptive
To say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that
the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.
Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all.
For example, “Don’t say X.” is a prescriptive command; “People don’t say X.” is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.
1.9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic
A synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussure’s diachronic description is the study of a language through the course of its history. E.g. a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic
study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. The reason is that unless the various state of a language are successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.
1.9.3 Langue & parole
Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable and systematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints; langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event. What a linguist should do, according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics.
1.9.4 Competence and performance
According to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence
is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is deemed as a property of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.
Chapter 2 Speech Sounds
2.1 Speech production and perception
Phonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas:
1. Articulatory phonetics – the study of the production of speech sounds
2. Acoustic phonetics –the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech
3. Auditory phonetics –the study of perception of speech sounds
Most phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics.
2.2 Speech organs
Speech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts: the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.
2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription
2.3.1 Segments and divergences
As there are more sounds in English than its letters, each letter must represent more than one sound.
2.3.2 Phonetic transcription
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the International Phonetic Association. The symbols consists of letters and diacritics. Some letters are taken from the Roman alphabet, some are special symbols.
2.4.2 Consonants
The categories of consonant are established on the basis of
several factors. The most important of these factors are: 1. the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract (manner of articulation);
2. where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of the air (place of articulation).
2.4.3 Manners of articulation
8. Velar: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the soft palate.
2.4.5 The consonants of English
Received Pronunciation (RP): The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation. It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC English” or “Oxford E nglish” because it is widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by most newsreaders of the BBC network.
A chart of English consonants
Manner of articulation Place of articulation
Bilabial Labio-
dental Dental Alveolar Post-
alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
Stop
Nasal
Fricative Approximant
Lateral
Affricate
In many cases there are two sounds that share the same place and manner of articulation. These pairs of consonants are distinguished by voicing, the one appearing on the left is voiceless and the one on the right is voiced.
Therefore, the consonants of English can be described in the following way:
[p] voiceless bilabial stop [b] voiced bilabial stop [s] voiceless alveolar fricative [z] voiced alveolar fricative
[m] bilabial nasal [n] alveolar nasal
[l] alveolar lateral [j] palatal approximant
[h] glottal fricative [r] alveolar approximant
2.5 Vowels
2.5.1 The criteria of vowel description
1. The part of the tongue that is raised – front, center, or back.
2. The extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate. Normally, three or four degrees are recognized: high, mid (often divided into mid-high and mid-low) and low.
3. The kind of opening made at the lips – various degrees of lip rounding or spreading.
4. The position of the soft palate – raised for oral vowels, and lowered for vowels which have been nasalized.
2.5.2 The theory of cardinal vowels
[Icywarm tea doesn’t quite understand this theory.] Cardinal vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intending to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.
By convention, the eight primary cardinal vowels are numbered from one to eight as follows: CV1[ ], CV2[ ], CV3[ ], CV4[ ], CV5[ ], CV6[ ], CV7[ ], CV8[ ].
A set of secondary cardinal vowels is obtained by reversing the lip-rounding for a give position: CV9 –CV16. [I am sorry I cannot type out many of these. If you want to know, you may consult the textbook p. 47. – icywarmtea]
2.5.3 Vowel glides
Pure (monophthong) vowels: vowels which are produced without
any noticeable change in vowel quality.
Vowel glides: Vowels where there is an audible change of
quality.
Diphthong: A vowel which is usually considered as one
distinctive vowel of a particular language but really involves
two vowels, with one vowel gliding to the other.
2.5.4 The vowels of RP
[ ] high front tense unrounded vowel [ ]
high back lax rounded vowel
[ ] central lax unrounded vowel [ ] low back lax rounded vowel
2.6 Coarticulation and phonetic transcription
2.6.1 Coarticulation
Coarticulation: The simultaneous or overlapping articulation
of two successive phonological units.
Anticipatory coarticulation: If the sound becomes more like
the following sound, as in the case of lamp, it is known as
anticipatory coarticulation.
Perseverative coarticulation: If the sound displays the
influence of the preceding sound, as in the case of map, it
is perseverative coarticulation.
Nasalization: Change or process by which vowels or consonants
become nasal.
Diacritics: Any mark in writing additional to a letter or other basic elements.
2.6.2 Broad and narrow transcriptions
The use of a simple set of symbols in our transcription is called a broad transcription. The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription. The former was meant to indicate only these sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language while the latter was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the minutest shades of pronunciation.
2.7 Phonological analysis
Phonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics. On the other hand, phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. There is a fair degree of overlap in what concerns the two subjects, so sometimes it is hard to draw the boundary between them. Phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds while phonology studies the way in which speakers of a language
systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning. That is to say, phonology is concerned with the linguistic patterning of sounds in human languages, with its primary aim being to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.
2.8 Phonemes and allophones
2.8.1 Minimal pairs
Minimal pairs are two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound and which also differ in meaning. E.g. the English words tie and die are minimal pairs as they differ in meaning and in their initial phonemes /t/ and /d/. By identifying the minimal pairs of a language, a phonologist can find out which sound substitutions cause differences of meaning.
2.8.2 The phoneme theory
2.8.3 Allophones
A phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning. Any of the different forms of a phoneme is called its allophones. E.g. in English, when the phoneme / / occurs at the beginning of the word like peak / /, it is said with a little puff of air, it is
aspirated. But when / / occurs in the word like speak / /, it is said without the puff of the air, it is unaspirated. Both the aspirated [ ] in peak a nd the unaspirated [ =] in speak have the same phonemic function, i.e. they are both heard and identified as / / and not as / /; they are both allophones of the phoneme / /.
2.9 Phonological processes
2.9.1 Assimilation
Assimilation: A process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.
Regressive assimilation: If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation. Progressive assimilation: If a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, we call it progressive assimilation. Devoicing: A process by which voiced sounds become voiceless. Devoicing of voiced consonants often occurs in English when they are at the end of a word.
2.9.2 Phonological processes and phonological rules
The changes in assimilation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all phonological processes in which a target or affected segment undergoes a structural change in certain environments or contexts. In each process the change is
conditioned or triggered by a following sound or, in the case of progressive assimilation, a preceding sound. Consequently, we can say that any phonological process must have three aspects to it: a set of sounds to undergo the process; a set of sounds produced by the process; a set of situations in which the process applies.
We can represent the process by mans of an arrow: voiced fricative →voiceless / __________ voiceless. This is a phonological rule. The slash (/) specifies the environment in which the change takes place. The bar (called the focus bar) indicates the position of the target segment. So the rule reads: a voiced fricative is transformed into the corresponding voiceless sound when it appears before a voiceless sound.
2.9.3 Rule ordering
[No much to say, so omitted – icywarmtea]
2.10 Distinctive features
Distinctive feature: A particular characteristic which distinguishes one distinctive sound unit of a language from another or one group of sounds from another group.
Binary feature: A property of a phoneme or a word which can be used to describe the phoneme or word. A binary feature is either present or absent. Binary features are also used to
describe the semantic properties of words.
2.11 Syllables
Suprasegmental features: Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are syllables, stress, tone, and intonation.
Syllable: A unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.
Open syllable: A syllable which ends in a vowel.
Closed syllable: A syllable which ends in a consonant.
Maximal onset principle: The principle which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda. E.g. The correct syllabification of the word country should be / /. It shouldn’t be / / or / / according to this principle.
Chapter 3 Lexicon
3.1 What is word?
1. What is a lexeme?
A lexeme is the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other similar units. It is an abstract unit. It can occur in many different forms
in actual spoken or written sentences, and is regarded as the same lexeme even when inflected. E.g. the word “write” is the lexeme of “write, writes, wrote, writing and written.”
2. What is a morpheme?
A morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. E.g. the word “boxes” has two morphemes: “box” and “es,” neither of which permits further division or analysis shapes if we don’t want to sacrifice its meaning.
3. What is an allomorph?
An allomorph is the alternate shapes of the same morpheme. E.g. the variants of the plurality “-s” makes the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map –maps, mouse –mice, ox – oxen, tooth – teeth, etc.
4. What is a word?
A word is the smallest of the linguistic units that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance in speech or writing.
3.1.1 Three senses of “word”
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics 1.3 Design features of language The features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication. 1.3.1 Arbitrariness Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings. 1.3.2 Duality Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. 1.3.3 Creativity Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences. 1.3.4 Displacement Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation. 加1 Each sound in the language is treated as discrete. 加2 the direct/non-arbitrary/non-symbolic relation between meaning and form. There are resemblances between the language form and what they refer to. That relationship is called icon. Iconicity exists in sounds, lexicons and syntax. It is the motivation between language forms and meanings. It is a relation of resemblance between language form and what they refer to. 1.5 Functions of language As is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions: 1. Referential: to convey message and information; 2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake; 3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions; 4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties; 5. Phatic: to establish communion with others; 6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings. three metafunctions: 1. function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is
Chapter 2 Speech sounds Contents ?How sounds are made? ?Consonants and vowels ?Phonological processes, phonological rules and distinctive features ?Suprasegmentals 超音段 ?Two major areas for studying speech sounds: phonetics and phonology ?Phonetics: it studies how speech sounds are made, transmitted and perceived. ?Three branches of phonetics: ?Articulatory phonetics发声语音学 is the study of the production of speech sounds. ?Acoustic phonetics声学语音学 is the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech. Auditory phonetics听觉语音学 is concerned with the perception of speech sounds ?Phonology：it deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme 音素 as the point of departure. ?It studies the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. ?Ultimately it aims to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages. How speech sounds are made? ? speech organs 言语器官 ?Speech organs are also known as vocal organs（发音器官）. ?Parts of human body involved in the production of speech sounds: lungs, trachea (windpipe) 气管, throat, nose, mouth ? organs of speech (Figure 2.2, p.26 on our books)
语言是一种社会现象：语言是一种社会现象，和人类社会有着十分紧密的联系，没有人类社会，就没有语言，人类社会以外的社会无所谓语言。语言不是自然现象：第一，与社会有着紧密联系；第二，从音义关系看也不是，不然世界上的语言应该是一样的，同样的语言有不同的方言；第三，社会发展变化对语言影响，随社会而分化或统一。特殊：语言既不属于经济基础，也不属于上层建筑，这两者的变化都不会从本质上影响语言。所以，从本质上看，语言是人类共同的交际工具，不分阶级、阶层，一视同仁地为全社会的成员服务，没有阶级性，具有全民性特点。 语言没有阶级性：可从这样几个方面思考，首先是看语言工具的服务对象，是为特定的阶级服务还是为大众服务。其次是结合语言自身的结构考察，观察语言在哪一方面体现成了阶级性特征没有。再次是看语言产生的社会环境，语言产生于没有阶级的社会，社会上连阶级都没有，语言作为社会的产物更谈不上有阶级性了。当然，语言没有阶级性，用语言表达的思想是有阶级性的。 1．组合关系：就是两个同一性质的结构单位，按照线性的顺序组合起来的关系。2．聚合关系：在语言的组合结构的某一个位置上能够互相替换的几个具有相同作用的符号之间的关系就是聚合关系。这些具有相同功能的单位聚合在一起，它们就形成了聚合关系。组合规则使得语言符号的结构呈现出有序性，聚合规则为句子的生成提供了无数的可能。语音的四要素：音质、音高、音重和音长。 元音的音色是由舌位的前后、舌位的高低、圆唇与否三个方面决定的。辅音发音部位：发辅音时，气流通过口腔受到阻碍的部位就是发音部位，辅音的发音方法主要有塞音、檫音、塞檫音、鼻音、边音、颤音、闪音，汉语普通话有前五种发音方法。此外，根据发音时声带是否振动，辅音还分清音和浊音两类，根据发音时呼出的气流的强弱把辅音分为送气音和不送气音两类音位的对立和互补是划分音位的重要的原则。对立：是指两个或几个音素如果出现在相同的语音环境中，相互替换后会产生意义上的差别，那么这里互相替换的几个音素，例如普通话音节[p‘à] 和[pà]中的两个辅音。互补：指几个音素不能出现在相同的语音环境中，它们的出现环境各有分工。互补关系中的音素，每个音素都不是独立的音位，它们可以共同归纳为一个音位，因为它们之间没有对立关系，不能构成对立，互相可以替换，在相同的语音环境中替换以后不影响一个音节所代表的意义。“互补”是对“对立”原则的补充。音位变体就是同一个音位的不同的变异形式，是音位在特定语音环境中的具体体现或具体代表。如bi.zi.zhi中的i。是一种互补的关系，互相替换后不影响意义，属于同一个音位的各个音素，就是这个音位的变体。条件变体：条件变体指属于一个音位的各个变体，其出现的场合要受一定条件限制，必须具备一定的语音条件才出现，例如普通话的/a/音位，有/Θ/、/α/、/A/、/?/等变体，但它们各有不同的出现条件，所以这四个音位就是音位/a/的条件变体。自由变体：指处于同一位置上的几个音素相互可以自由替换，没有条件限制，这样的几个音素就是同一音位的自由变体。例如普通话以u 开头的音节，如uei、uang、uan、uo 语法单位：凡是能在组合的某一位置上被替换下来的片段都是语法单位。语素、词、词组和句子是不同结构层面上的语法结构单位。句子：句子是语言中最大的语法单位，又是交际中基本的表述单位。从形式上看，句子的最大特点是有一个完整的语调。句子按语气可以分为陈述句、疑问句、祈使句、 1
Literary linguistics studies the language of literature. It focuses on the study of linguistic features related to literary style. 9.1 Theoretical background
9.2.1 Foregrounding and grammatical form 9.2.2 Literal language and figurative language Simile Metaphor Metonymy Synecdoche 9.2.3 The analysis of literary language
9.3.1 Sound patterning 9.3.2 Different forms of sound patterning Rhyme Alliteration Assonance Consonance Reverse rhyme Pararhyme Repitition
-Metre(Dimetre, Trimetre, Tetrametre, Hexametre, Heptametre, Octametre) -Foot (Iamb, Trochee, Anapest, Dactyl,Spondee, Pyrrhic) 9.3.4 Conventional forms of metre and sound Couplets Quatrains Blank verse Sonnet 9.3.5 The poetic functions of sound and metre 9.3.6 How to analyse poetry?
语言学纲要》练习题参考答案 导言部分 （一）名词解释 1 ?语言：语言是一个音义结合的符号系统，是人类独有的、最重要的交际工具，同时也是思维工具。 2 ?语言学：语言学是以人类语言作为研究对象的学科，研究人类语言的性质、结构、发展 及其在社会生活中的运用以及语言研究成果的应用问题，等等。分理论语言学和应用语言 学两个领域。 3 ?语文学：人类最早的语言研究是从解释古代文献开始的，是为了研究哲学、历史和文学 而研究语言的。我们把这种依附于其他学科存在的语言研究成为语文学。 4?小学”：在中国古代，小学先从教授字的形（六书）、音、义开始，就把研究文字、训诂、音韵方面的学问统称为小学。小学一直是经学的一部分，包括音韵学、训诂学、文字学三个分支学科。5?理论语言学：普通语言学的一个部分，与应用语言学相对。主要以语言系统的描写、语言运用机制、语言能力以及语言发展的历史为主要的研究对象。 （二）填空 1 ?古印度、古代中国、古希腊具有悠久的历史文化传统，是语言学的三大发源地。 2?文言是我国古代的书面语，用它写成的文章称为文言文。 3 ?文字学、音韵学、训诂学是我国传统的语文学。 4 ?研究语言的结构，主要是研究语音、词汇、语法三个部分。 5 ?运用语言传递信息的过程，可以分为编码、发送、传递、接收、解码五个阶段。 第一章语言的社会功能
一、名词解释 1. 语言的两个有限 任何一种语言都是一个音义结合的符号系统，其中作为基本符号的语素和词在数量上是有 限的，把语素或词组合起来构成词组或句子的规则也是有限的。语言的这两个有限性是区 别言语活动的基本特征。 2. 言语活动的两个无限 言语活动是以语言为工具展开的交际或思维活动，其中作为这个活动的最基本的单位一- 句子，在理论上可以是无限长的，在数量上可以是是无限多的。 3. 大脑左右半球分工 人类大脑左右半球分工不同，左脑主管语言、逻辑、书写及右侧肢体运动，而右脑主管色彩、空间感、节奏和左侧肢体运动。大脑两半球分工是人类特有的，但出生婴儿大脑两半球没有分工。 4. 非语言交际工具或副语言交际工具 人们在运用语言进行交际的时候，不但动嘴，而且脸部的表情、手的动作、乃至整个躯体的姿态等非语言的东西也都参加进来。我们这些非语言的交际工具称为副语言交际工具。副语言交际工具的使用范围非常有限，只能起辅助性的交际作用，以补充语言交际的某些 不足。 5. 辅助性交际工具 指的文字、旗语、电报代码等在语言的基础上产生的交际工具。这些交际工具若离开语言 就不能独立存在。其特点是：都有特殊的服务领域，使用的范围相当狭窄。
第11章第二语言和外语教学 11.1 复习笔记 本章要点： 1. The relation between linguistics and language teaching 语言学与语言教学之间的关系 2. Grammar, input and language learning 语法、输入与语言学习 3. Interlanguage in language teaching 语言教学中的中介语 4. Linguistics and syllabus design 语言学与教学大纲设计 5. Contrastive analysis and error analysis 对比分析与错误分析 6. Corpus linguistics and language teaching 语料库语言学与语言教学 常考考点： 语言学与语言教学的关系；语言学与语言学习；语言学与教学大纲设计；二语学习者的主要障碍；对比分析与错误分析；中介语；语料库语言学与语言教学等。
本章内容索引： I. Definition of Applied Linguistics II. The Relation between Linguistics and Language Teaching III. Linguistics and Language Learning 1. Grammar and Language Learning 2. Input and Language Learning 3. Interlanguage in Language Learning IV. Linguistics and Language T eaching 1. The discourse-based view of language teaching 2. The universal grammar (UG) and language teaching V. Syllabus Design 1. Syllabus and curriculum 2. Theoretical views behind syllabus design 3. Types of syllabus (1) The structural syllabus (2) The situational syllabus (3) The communicative syllabus (4) The task-based syllabus 4. Current trends in syllabus design (1) The co-existence of the old and the new (2) The emphasis on the learning process
英语语言学教程（胡壮麟版） Chapter one. Invitation to Linguistic. 1.What is language? “Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in French, “shu” in Ch inese. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific. 2.Design Features of Language. “Design features” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability (1)Arbitrariness: By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. (2)Duality: The property of having two levels of structures (phonological and grammatical), units of the primary level being composed of elements of the secondary level and each level having its own principles of organization. (3)Productivity: Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. The property that enables native speakers to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of utterances, including utterances that they have never previously encountered. (4)Displacement: “Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. (5)Cultural transmission: This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. (6)Interchangeability: Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. 3.Functions of Language. Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative. (1)Phatic function: The “phatic function” refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. (2)Directive function: The “directive function” means that language may be used to get the hearer
《语言学纲要》考研修订版考研复习笔记和真题 0-1复习笔记 ―、语言学的对象和学科住质 (一)语言学的研究对象 语言学是研究语言的科学，语言是语言学的研究对象。 L语言现红 语言现象是人类社会普迴具有的现象，它是G早纳人人类研究视野的现象之一。 (1)人类对于世界上的齐种自然现象和社会现象的理性认识以及相关的许多抽象观念, 是在各个古典文明形成的时期出现的。有关语言的理性思考也是从这一时期开始的’ (2)中国先秦时期的思想家、古希腊的竹学家.古代印度的思想家等，都提岀了对语言的一股看法，并且对后人产生/?深远影响，这是对语言的最早的理性认识。 2.语言学的发展过程 (])语言甞的三大发源地 在齐个文明的发展过程?l', I l f代文化典籍的传欣成为文化发展延续的重要途径。这些政 治、哲学、宗教、历史、文学等方面的经典若作要得到学习和继承，郁需姿语言方而的分析和解 释。这样，在许多有若悠久历史文化传统的地区都出现了语文学研究，这是语言的系统研究的开 始。中国、印度和希腊一罗马在传统语文学的研究上都取得了辉煌成就，足语言学的三大发源地＞ (2)语苜学三大发源地的成就 ①中国传统语言研究 3.先秦时期已经出现大域的文化典籍，它们所使用的古代书面语体被后人学习继承，称作文言文Q宜至20世纪初，正式的书而语一直使用这种文言文的形式。 b?屮国传统的语言研究主要是围绕解读文言文典籍的需要进行的，主要是分析汉字的形体,探求它的古代读音和意义,形成了统称“小学"的文字、音韵、训诂之学,也就是中国传统的语文学。 ②古代印度语言研究 a.在印度，文化经典主要是宗教典鉛，所川的语言是古代的梵语。最初这些经典是靠口耳相传，后来由文字记载下来。 b?占代印度的语言研究主要是对这些宗教经典的解读C占代印度的学者在对语言般件质的认识以及具体的语音和语法研究等方面都有卓越建树?对世界其他地区的语言研究也产生了深远影响C
英语语言学教程(胡壮麟版) Chapter one. Invitation to Linguistic. 1. What is language? “ Languageis system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains a is explained by the fact that different languages have different “ books ”“:book ”in English, “ livre in” French, “shu” ii n eCseh. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “ human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific. 2. Design Features of Language. “ Design features ” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability (1) Arbitrariness: By “ arbitrariness ”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. (2) Duality: The property of having two levels of structures (phonological and grammatical), units of the primary level being composed of elements of the secondary level and each level having its own principles of organization. (3) Productivity: Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one?s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. The property that enables native speakers to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of utterances, including utterances that they have never previously encountered. (4) Displacement: “ Displacement ”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. (5) Cultural transmission: This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. (6) Interchangeability: Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. 3. Functions of Language. Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative. (1) Phatic function: The “ phaticfunction r”efers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. (2) Directive function: The “ directive function ”thamt laenagnusage may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function, e. g., “Tell me the res you finish. ” (3) Informative function: Language serves an “ informational function ”when used to tell something, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labeled as true (truth) or false (falsehood). (4) Interrogative function: When language is used to obtain information, it serves an “ interrogat
语言学概论试题(1) 一、填空１５% 1、语言中最单纯、最常用、最原始和最能产的词是根词。 2、语言是人类最重要的交际工具，文字是最重要的辅助交际工具。 3、我国古代学者为读懂古书而建立的训诂学、文字学、音韵学组成了我国的语文学，通称为“小学”。 4、英语属于印欧语系的日耳曼语族的西部语支。 5、语音可以从生理角度分析它的产生方式，从物理角度分析它的表现形式（传递过程），从社会功能角度分析它的功能作用。 6、是否能够独立（自由）运用，是区分词和语素的根本特点。 7、现代大多数国家的拼音文字的字母，大多直接来源于拉丁字母。 8、具有不同功能的三种最基本的语法单位是语素、词、句子。 9、语言发展的主要特点是渐变性和不平衡性。 10、我国宪法（１９８２年）第１９条明确规定“国家推广全国通用的普通话”。 二、选择题１０% 1 、中国的传统语文学研究的薄弱环节是（D ） Ａ、文字学Ｂ、语音学Ｃ、词汇学Ｄ、语法学 2、汉语属于（B ） Ａ、屈折语Ｂ、词根语Ｃ、多式综合语Ｄ、粘着语 3、一种语言中数量最少的是（B ） Ａ、音素Ｂ、音位Ｃ、语素Ｄ、音节 4、文字的前身是（C ） Ａ、结绳记事Ｂ、手势Ｃ、图画记事Ｄ、实物记事 5、派生词中包含（B ） Ａ、词尾Ｂ、词根Ｃ、虚词Ｄ、根词 6、语音和语义结合的最小的语言单位是（C ） Ａ、音素Ｂ、义素Ｃ、语素Ｄ、音位 7、汉语单词“忽然”出现的位置是（C ） Ａ、主语位置Ｂ、谓语位置Ｃ、状语位置Ｄ、定语位置 8、以下各种语言变体中，属于社会方言的是 （D ） Ａ、土话Ｂ、客家话Ｃ、客套话Ｄ、黑话 9、下列语素中属于自由语素的是（C ） Ａ、初Ｂ、视Ｃ、人Ｄ、民 10、在语言结构的某一环节上能够互相替换，具有某种相同作用的各个单位之间所形成的关系叫（D ） Ａ、转换关系Ｂ、组合关系Ｃ、层级关系Ｄ、聚合关系 三、名词解释２０% 1、专语语言学: 以具体语言作为研究对象的语言学。 2、组合关系: 指两个以上相连续的语言符号组合而成的线性关系。 3、语流音变:语流中的某些音由于相互影响而发生临时性的变化，这种变化就叫语流音变。 4、语义场: 由具有某些共同义素的一群词类聚而成的场。 5、语法范畴: 把同一性质的语法意义综合和概括所形成的语法意义的类别 四、试以国际音标标出下列各词的读音１０% 1、优秀 2、维持 3、宏观 4、精神 5、离开 五、用义素分析法分析下列各组词9％ 瞻仰[+用眼+往一定方向+崇敬地] 1、｛
第12章现代语言学理论与流派 12.1 复习笔记 本章要点： 1. The Prague School and Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) 布拉格学派与功能句子观 2. The London School and context of situation 伦敦学派与语境观 3. Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar 韩礼德与系统——功能语法 4. Bloomfield and American Structuralism 布隆菲尔德与美国结构主义 5. Chomsky and Transformational-Generative Grammar 乔姆斯基与转换——生成语法 常考考点： 各流派的代表人物、理论基础、特点、主要观点、重要概念；语言普遍性和人类行为关系等。 本章内容索引：
I. Saussure and modern linguistics II. The Prague School 1. Main points and contribution 2. Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) 3. Communicative Dynamism (CD) III. The London School 1. Introduction 2. Malinowski’s theories 3. Firth’s theories 4. Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar 5. Systemic grammar and Functional grammar (1) Systemic grammar (2) Functional grammar IV. American Structuralism 1. Introduction 2. Three stages of the development V. Transformational-Generative Grammar 1. Introduction 2. The Innateness Hypothesis 3. Generative Grammar 4. Stage of development of TG Grammar 5. Main features of TG Grammar
语言学：It studies how speech sounds are produced,transmitted,and perceived.研究语音的发生、传递和感知 2. Articulatory phonetics发音语言学: the study of production of speechsounds.研究语言的发生 phonetics声学语言学：is the study of physical properties of speech sounds.研究语音的物质特征 or Auditory phonetics感知语音学或听觉语音学：is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.研究语音的感知 音系学is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.研究各种语言的语音模式和语音系统 6. IPA国际音标表: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet 变音符:are additional symbols or marks used together with the consonant and vowel symbols to indicate nuances of change in their pronunciation.是与元音或辅音符号结合使用的一些附加符号或记号，用于表示元音或辅音在发音上的微小变化 辅音: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.声道紧闭，或声道变窄的程度达到无法 9. Vowl元音:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.气流可以相对不受阻碍的从口腔或鼻腔中排出