Journal of Economic Surveys, 2006, 11: 24-25.
Green Barriers Trade and its Influences on China's
Foreign Trade
Thomas J. Sargent
ABSTRACT
In recent years, green consumption has become a main trend of the consumption in many developed countries and these countries began to make strict standards to restrict the entry of foreign products below their standards of environmental protection.
Key words：Green Barriers; products; Trade
In recent years, green consumption has become a main trend of the consumption in many developed countries and these countries began to make strict standards to restrict the entry of foreign products below their standards of environmental protection. These regulations have many unfavorable influences on the export of developing countries and are generally known as "Green Barriers to trade". In accordance with the provisions of the Agreement on Green Barriers to Trade of WTO, "Green Barriers to Trade" is defined as the compulsory and arbitrary Green regulations, standards and conformity assessment procedures of the importing countries in the name of the protection of human health and environment that actually form barriers to trade with an aim to protect its home market and domestic products.
1. Analysis on the causes of formation of "Green Trade Barriers"
Firstly, the worsening of ecology is the major reason for "Green Barriers". With the development of industry and technology, the economy increases very fast and the human life has been improved. But at the same time, the development of economy is at a cost of the destruction of environment. The environmental problems have aroused public attention and the international society has begun to make laws to protect environment. In June, 1972, the United Nations published the Stockholm Declaration and stressed the importance of the protection of environment. From then on, more and more people concern about the environmental problems. The concept of environment has influenced the life of humankinds in every layer and the developed countries began to make very strict
environmental protection rules under the pressure of public, which forms a barrier to the international trade.
Secondly, the differences between countries in technology, environmental standards and investment directly cause the "Green Trade Barriers". As we know, developed countries surpass the developing countries in science and technology. Even if they make very strict environmental standards, their domestic products can reach the requirements of strict environmental standards while such standards may constitute barriers to products from developing countries. In fact, these standards may become discriminations against products from the developing countries and constitute a means of arbitrary or unjustifiable discrimination between country.
Thirdly, the rise of protectionism in some developed countries contributes much to the formation of Green barriers. In modern market economy, competition is more severe than before. The domestic industries are directly facing competition from the products of other countries, and they will urge their governments to take effective measures to protect them from the foreign products. While because of the multilateral negotiations of WTO, the tariffs have been greatly cut down and the use of non-tariff measures has also been restricted. Therefore, many developed countries have to resort to some legal restrictions of importation such as Green barriers to protect their home industries, which gives rise to the increase of Green barriers.
2. The main forms of Green barriers trade
In accordance with the related provisions of WTO Agreement on Green Barriers to Trade, the Green barriers are usually in the forms as follows:
2.1Green Tariff
Some developed countries would impose import surtax on products that may cause pollution or harms to the environment. If such measure is abused, it will constitute a Green barrier to trade.
2.2Green Standards
Green standards refer to those compulsory Green standards provided through legislation. With their superiority in economy and technology, developed countries tend to make higher Green standards with no consideration on the interests of the developing countries. Such high Green standards will in fact constitute a barrier to the products from
developing countries which are inferior in technology.
2.3 Package Requirements
Certain developed countries stress too much on the protection of environment and require the products should be packed with materials that will have no harm to the environment. If the products are not packed in this way, they will not be allowed to sell in the developed countries. If such requirements are unnecessarily strict, they will be a barrier to the international trade.
2.4 Sanitary and quarantine inspection system
On the excuse of the protection of the health of human, animals and plants, developed countries tend to use very strict sanitary and quarantine inspection to restrict the importation of the products from the developing countries and protect their domestic industries.
3. Influences of Green barriers on China's foreign trade
China has suffered great loss due to the "Green barriers". In 2002, vegetables from Taizhou were prevented from entering Japan because of Japanese strict inspection and the price was greatly cut down. Also in 2002, the aquatic products from Ningbo were restricted by European Union (EU) because they could not reach the sanitary standards of EU. Due to Green trade barriers, 60 kinds of Chinese agricultural chemists were banned by EU because they could not reach the Green standards of EU. In accordance with the statistics of United Nations, China has suffered a loss of $7.4 billion in 2002 due to "Green barriers trade". China's export to EU, Japan, Korea and other countries decreases notably. Generally speaking, agricultural products and foodstuff, textile products and mechanical and electronic products are the three main industries which suffer great loss because of the strict Green barriers. Since these three products constitute the majority of Chinese exportation, we can easily draw a conclusion: "Green barriers to trade" has become one of the major obstacles in Chinese exportation.
4. Countermeasures to the Green barriers of the developed countries
As mentioned above, it is a fact that the Chinese export products are facing Green
barriers of the developed countries and has suffered great loss. Therefore Chinese exporters should think carefully about the countermeasures to eliminate the unfavorable influences of such measures. First, we should make full use of the preferential treatment to the developing countries stipulated in the Agreement of Green trade barrier. According to the provisions of the Agreement of Green trade barrier, developed countries should take account of the special development, financial and trade needs of developing country members with a view to ensuring that such Green regulations, standards and conformity assessment procedures do not create unnecessary obstacles to exports from developing countries. So, as a developing member of WTO, China is entitled to such preferential treatment. Secondly, China should make use of the Dispute Settlement System of WTO to protect her interests. Different from GATT, WTO has set up a powerful dispute settlement system to solve the disputes between the members of WTO. So, if our interests are harmed by the unfair Green barriers of other WTO members, we can resort to Dispute Settlement Body to settle this dispute and urge other members to change their unfair practices so as to protect our interests. Thirdly, China should stress the protection of environment and take measures to improve the quality and Green level of her export products to meet higher Green standards, which will fundamentally solve the problem of Green barriers.
References
[1]John, Smith. 2007, Green trade protectionism to Chinese agricultural product export influence Economics ,4,34-56.
[2] Anderson, J.L., 2001, The Greening of World Trade Issues, Journal of Marketing Research, 24, 347-356.
[3] Gallagher, R., 2003, International Trade in Agricultural Products, Journal of General Management, 3, 1, 43-62.
经济研究杂志, 2006, 11: 24-27.
绿色贸易壁垒及其对中国对外贸易的影响
萨金特
莱斯大学经济管理学院
摘要：近年来，绿色消费在许多发达国家中已成为一个主要的消费趋势，这些发达国家开始采取严格的措施来限制一些国家的产品进入其国内市场。这些国家主要是其产品低于发达国家制定的环境保护标准。
关键词：绿色壁垒；产品；贸易
近年来，绿色消费在许多发达国家中已成为一个主要的消费趋势，这些发达国家开始采取严格的措施来限制一些国家的产品进入其国内市场。这些国家主要是其产品低于发达国家制定的环境保护标准。这些规定对发展中国家的出口有许多不利的影响，这些规定一般被称为“绿色贸易壁垒”。绿色贸易壁垒的有关规定与世界贸易组织的有关协议相一致。绿色贸易壁垒的定义是：以保护整个人类赖以生存的自然环境和保护人体健康为的名义，制定一系列的规则条款，以达到发达国家保护其国内市场和国内产品的目的。
一、分析绿色贸易壁垒的形成原因
首先，生态环境的恶化是绿色贸易壁垒形成的主要原因。随着工业和技术的发展，社会经济飞速发展，人民生活水平得到显著改善。但与此同时，经济的发展也以生态环境的破坏为代价。环境问题已经引起社会公众的注意而且国际社会也已开始制定法律来保护生态环境。在1972年6月，联合国发表的斯德哥尔摩宣言，强调了保护环境的重要性。从那时起，越来越多的人开始关注的环境问题。环境的概念应景影响人类生活的各个层面，在社会公众的压力下发达国家开始制定严格的措施来保护生态环境。这也就逐渐形成了国际贸易的绿色壁垒。
其次，国与国之间在技术水平，环境标准和对外直接投资等方面的差异导致了绿色贸易壁垒的形成。正如我们所知，发达国家在社会整体水平和科学技术水平上远远领先发展中国家。即使他们作出非常严格的环境保护标准，其国内的产品可以达到严格的环境保护标准的要求，而这些标准则可能对来自发展中国家的产品构成障碍。事实上，这些标准有可能成为对来自发展中国家产品歧视的一种手段，并构成国与国之间任意或不合理的歧视。
第三，在一些发达国家，贸易保护主义的抬头，是形成绿色贸易壁垒的一个很重要的原因。在现代市场经济条件下，竞争与以前相比是越来越激烈了。国内产业直接面临来自其他国家产品的强有力的竞争，他们将敦促各国政府采取有效措施，以保护他们自己免受来自外国产品的冲击。然而由于世界贸易组织的多边谈判，关税已大大降低，使用非关税措施也受到限制。因此，许多发达国家采取的一些法律限制进口，
如绿色壁垒，以保护本国产业，从而引起绿色贸易壁垒的增加。
二、绿色贸易壁垒的主要形式
根据世界贸易组织有关绿色贸易壁垒的有关规定，绿色贸易壁垒通常有如下几种形式：
（一）绿色关税
一些发达国家对其他国家强加进口附加税，这些国家主要是其产品可能会造成污染或损害环境的国家。如果这种措施被滥用，这将构成绿色贸易壁垒。
（二）绿色标准
绿色标准是指那些强制性的通过立法规定的环保标准。发达国家往往凭借其在经济和技术上的优势地位而制定更高要求的绿色标准，没有考虑对发展中国家的利益。如此高的绿色标准实际上是对技术上没有任何优势的发展中国家够了绿色贸易壁垒。
（三）包装要求
某些发达国家过于强调环境保护而且要求用对环境没有任何损害的材料来包装物品。如果产品没有按照发达国家的要求进行包装，他们将不会被允许在发达国家市场上出售。如果这种严格的要求是不必要的，它们将阻碍国际贸易的进一步发展。
（四）卫生和检验检疫制度
借口保护人类健康，动物和植物，发达国家往往使用非常严格的卫生和检疫限制发展中国家产品进入其本国市场从而达到保护其国内产业和国内市场的目的。
三、绿色贸易壁垒对中国对外贸易的影响
由于绿色贸易壁垒，中国对外贸易额遭受了巨大的损失。2002年，因为日本严格的检查和要求价格的大幅度降低，台州蔬菜被阻止进入日本市场。还是在2002年，因为宁波市水产品不能达到欧盟所要求的卫生标准而被限制进入欧洲联盟（欧盟）。由于绿色贸易壁垒，60种中国农药被禁止进入欧盟市场，因为他们不能达到欧盟的绿色标准。根据联合国统计，由于“绿色贸易壁垒”，在2002年这一年中国遭受损失74亿美元。中国出口到欧盟，日本，韩国和其他国家的跌幅尤其明显。一般而言，由于严格的绿色壁垒，农产品和食品，纺织产品和机电产品的三个主要行业遭受损失最为严重。由于这三大类产品是中国出口最多的产品，我们可以很容易地得出一个结论：“绿色贸易壁垒”已成为限制中国产品出口的一个主要障碍。
四、应对发达国家绿色贸易壁垒的主要对策
如上所述，这是一个事实即中国出口产品遭受发达国家绿色壁垒的严重限制，遭受了巨大损失。因此，中国出口商应该仔细考虑对策，以消除绿色贸易壁垒不利影响。首先，我们应该充分利用的优惠待遇来减少绿色贸易壁垒对发展中国家的限制。根据协议对绿色贸易壁垒的有关规定，发达国家应当充分考虑到发展中国家的特殊发展，确保发展中国家在财政和贸易需要等方面不受绿色贸易壁垒的限制，确保绿色条款，标准和合格评定程序不给发展中国家带来不必要的麻烦，从而保证发展中国家的正常出口。因此，作为世界贸易组织中的一个发展中国家，中国有权享受这种优惠待遇。其次，中国应利用世界贸易组织的争端解决机制来保护自己的利益。不同于关贸总协定，世贸组织已成立了一个更有力的争端解决机制来解决世贸组织的成员之间的纠纷。因此，如果我们的利益受到其他世贸组织成员不公平的绿色贸易壁垒的损害，我们可以诉诸争端解决机构来解决这一争端，并敦促其他成员改变其不公正的做法，以保护我们的利益。第三，中国应强调保护环境，并采取措施提高产品质量和水平，多出口达到绿色出口水平的产品，以满足更高的环保标准，这将从根本上解决我过所遭受绿色贸易壁垒这个问题。
参考文献
[1] 约翰?史密斯.2007,绿色贸易壁垒对中国农产品出口的影响,经济学家, 4,34-56.
[2] 安德森, J.L., 2001,绿色贸易壁垒问题,市场研究, 24, 347-356.
[3] 加拉格尔, R, 2003,农产品的出口贸易研究,管理, 3, 1, 43-62.
外文翻译 原文 World Trade and International Trade Material Source:https://www.doczj.com/doc/fc3127737.html, Author: Ted Alax In today’s complex economic world, neither individuals nor nations are self-sufficient. Nations have utilized different economic resources; people have developed different skills. This is the foundation of world trade and economic activity. As a result of this trade and activity, international finance and banking have evolved. For example, the United States is a major consumer of coffee, yet it does not have the climate to grow any or its own. Consequently, the United States must import coffee from countries (such as Brazil, Colombia and Guatemala) that grow coffee efficiently. On the other hand, the United States has large industrial plants capable of producing a variety of goods, such as chemicals and airplanes, which can be sold to nations that need them. If nations traded item for item, such as one automobile for 10,000 bags of coffee, foreign trade would be extremely cumbersome and restrictive. So instead of batter, which is trade of goods without an exchange of money, the United State receives money in payment for what it sells. It pays for Brazilian coffee with dollars, which Brazil can then use to buy wool from Australia, which in turn can buy textiles Great Britain, which can then buy tobacco from the United State. Foreign trade, the exchange of goods between nations, takes place for many reasons. The first, as mentioned above is that no nation has all of the commodities that it needs. Raw materials are scattered around the world. Large deposits of copper are mined in Peru and Zaire, diamonds are mined in South Africa and petroleum is recovered in the Middle East. Countries that do not have these resources within their own boundaries must buy from countries that export them. Foreign trade also occurs because a country often does not have enough of a particular item to meet its needs. Although the United States is a major producer of sugar, it consumes more than it can produce internally and thus must import sugar.
Statistical hypothesis testing Adriana Albu，Loredana Ungureanu Politehnica University Timisoara,adrianaa@aut.utt.ro Politehnica University Timisoara,loredanau@aut.utt.ro Abstract In this article,we present a Bayesian statistical hypothesis testing inspection, testing theory and the process Mentioned hypothesis testing in the real world and the importance of, and successful test of the Notes. Key words Bayesian hypothesis testing; Bayesian inference;Test of significance Introduction A statistical hypothesis test is a method of making decisions using data, whether from a controlled experiment or an observational study (not controlled). In statistics, a result is called statistically significant if it is unlikely to have occurred by chance alone, according to a pre-determined threshold probability, the significance level. The phrase "test of significance" was coined by Ronald Fisher: "Critical tests of this kind may be called tests of significance, and when such tests are available we may discover whether a second sample is or is not significantly different from the first."[1] Hypothesis testing is sometimes called confirmatory data analysis, in contrast to exploratory data analysis. In frequency probability,these decisions are almost always made using null-hypothesis tests. These are tests that answer the question Assuming that the null hypothesis is true, what is the probability of observing a value for the test statistic that is at [] least as extreme as the value that was actually observed?) 2 More formally, they represent answers to the question, posed before undertaking an experiment,of what outcomes of the experiment would lead to rejection of the null hypothesis for a pre-specified probability of an incorrect rejection. One use of hypothesis testing is deciding whether experimental results contain enough information to cast doubt on conventional wisdom. Statistical hypothesis testing is a key technique of frequentist statistical inference. The Bayesian approach to hypothesis testing is to base rejection of the hypothesis on the posterior probability.[3][4]Other approaches to reaching a decision based on data are available via decision theory and optimal decisions. The critical region of a hypothesis test is the set of all outcomes which cause the null hypothesis to be rejected in favor of the alternative hypothesis. The critical region is usually denoted by the letter C. One-sample tests are appropriate when a sample is being compared to the population from a hypothesis. The population characteristics are known from theory or are calculated from the population.
外文翻译 原文 Firms in International Trade Material Source: https://www.doczj.com/doc/fc3127737.html, Author: Andrew B. Bernard For most of its lengthy history the field of international trade largely ignored the role of the firm in mediating the flow of goods and services. Traditional trade theory explained the flow of goods between countries in terms of comparative advantage, that is, variation in the opportunity costs of production across countries and industries. Even the research focusing on differentiated varieties and increasing returns to scale that followed Helpman and Krugman continued to retain the characterization of the representative firm.?However, the assumption of a representative firm, while greatly enhancing the tractability of general equilibrium analysis, is emphatically rejected in the data. My research over the past decade has been an attempt to explore international trade from below: to understand the decisions of heterogeneous firms in shaping international trade and their effects on productivity growth and welfare. Firm Heterogeneity and Trade My early work with J. Bradford Jensen was motivated by a simple question: what do we know about firms that trade? The answer at the time was "very little" and our initial efforts focused on locating firm-level data and describing the world of exporting firms. Our first study compared exporters and non-exporters for the entire U.S. manufacturing sector and established a set of facts about exporting plants and firms.?Two major results stand out. First, only a small fraction of firms are exporters at any given time. Even in sectors where the United States is thought to have comparative advantage, such as Instruments, a majority of firms produce only for the domestic market. Similarly, some firms are exporting even in net import sectors such as Textiles and Apparel. Second, exporters are substantially and significantly different than non-exporters, even in the same industry and region. Exporters are dramatically larger, more productive, pay higher wages, use more skilled workers, and are more technology- and capital-intensive than their non-exporting counterparts. In related
Inventory management Inventory Control On the so-called "inventory control", many people will interpret it as a "storage management", which is actually a big distortion. The traditional narrow view, mainly for warehouse inventory control of materials for inventory, data processing, storage, distribution, etc., through the implementation of anti-corrosion, temperature and humidity control means, to make the custody of the physical inventory to maintain optimum purposes. This is just a form of inventory control, or can be defined as the physical inventory control. How, then, from a broad perspective to understand inventory control? Inventory control should be related to the company's financial and operational objectives, in particular operating cash flow by optimizing the entire demand and supply chain management processes (DSCM), a reasonable set of ERP control strategy, and supported by appropriate information processing tools, tools to achieved in ensuring the timely delivery of the premise, as far as possible to reduce inventory levels, reducing inventory and obsolescence, the risk of devaluation. In this sense, the physical inventory control to achieve financial goals is just a means to control the entire inventory or just a necessary part; from the perspective of organizational functions, physical inventory control, warehouse management is mainly the responsibility of The broad inventory control is the demand and supply chain management, and the whole company's responsibility. Why until now many people's understanding of inventory control, limited physical inventory control? The following two reasons can not be ignored: First, our enterprises do not attach importance to inventory control. Especially those who benefit relatively good business, as long as there is money on the few people to consider the problem of inventory turnover. Inventory control is simply interpreted as warehouse management, unless the time to spend money, it may have been to see the inventory problem, and see the results are often very simple procurement to buy more, or did not do warehouse departments . Second, ERP misleading. Invoicing software is simple audacity to call it ERP, companies on their so-called ERP can reduce the number of inventory, inventory control, seems to rely on their small software can get. Even as SAP, BAAN ERP world, the field of
吉林化工学院理学院 毕业论文外文翻译English Title（Times New Roman ，三号） 学生学号：08810219 学生姓名：袁庚文 专业班级：信息与计算科学0802 指导教师：赵瑛 职称副教授 起止日期：2012.2.27～2012.3.14 吉林化工学院 Jilin Institute of Chemical Technology
1 外文翻译的基本内容 应选择与本课题密切相关的外文文献（学术期刊网上的），译成中文，与原文装订在一起并独立成册。在毕业答辩前，同论文一起上交。译文字数不应少于3000个汉字。 2 书写规范 2.1 外文翻译的正文格式 正文版心设置为：上边距：3.5厘米，下边距：2.5厘米，左边距：3.5厘米，右边距：2厘米，页眉：2.5厘米，页脚：2厘米。 中文部分正文选用模板中的样式所定义的“正文”，每段落首行缩进2字；或者手动设置成每段落首行缩进2字，字体：宋体，字号：小四，行距：多倍行距1.3，间距：前段、后段均为0行。 这部分工作模板中已经自动设置为缺省值。 2.2标题格式 特别注意：各级标题的具体形式可参照外文原文确定。 1．第一级标题（如：第1章绪论）选用模板中的样式所定义的“标题1”，居左；或者手动设置成字体：黑体，居左，字号：三号，1.5倍行距，段后11磅，段前为11磅。 2．第二级标题（如：1.2 摘要与关键词）选用模板中的样式所定义的“标题2”，居左；或者手动设置成字体：黑体，居左，字号：四号，1.5倍行距，段后为0，段前0.5行。 3．第三级标题（如：1.2.1 摘要）选用模板中的样式所定义的“标题3”，居左；或者手动设置成字体：黑体，居左，字号：小四，1.5倍行距，段后为0，段前0.5行。 标题和后面文字之间空一格（半角）。 3 图表及公式等的格式说明 图表、公式、参考文献等的格式详见《吉林化工学院本科学生毕业设计说明书（论文）撰写规范及标准模版》中相关的说明。
Advantages of Managed Code Microsoft intermediate language shares with Java byte code the idea that it is a low-level language witha simple syntax , which can be very quickly translated intonative machine code. Having this well-defined universal syntax for code has significant advantages. Platform independence First, it means that the same file containing byte code instructions can be placed on any platform; atruntime the final stage of compilation can then be easily accomplished so that the code will run on thatparticular platform. In other words, by compiling to IL we obtain platform independence for .NET, inmuch the same way as compiling to Java byte code gives Java platform independence. Performance improvement IL is actually a bit more ambitious than Java bytecode. IL is always Just-In-Time compiled (known as JIT), whereas Java byte code was ofteninterpreted. One of the disadvantages of Java was that, on execution, the process of translating from Javabyte code to native executable resulted in a loss of performance. Instead of compiling the entire application in one go (which could lead to a slow start-up time), the JITcompiler simply compiles each portion of code as it is called (just-in-time). When code has been compiled.once, the resultant native executable is stored until the application exits, so that it does not need to berecompiled the next time that portion of code is run. Microsoft argues that this process is more efficientthan compiling the entire application code at the start, because of the likelihood that large portions of anyapplication code will not actually be executed in any given run. Using the JIT compiler, such code willnever be compiled.
Positioning in Practice Strategic Role of Marketing For large firms that have two or more strategic business units (SBUs), there are generally three levels of strategy: corporate-level strategy, strategic-business-unit-level (or business-level) strategy, and marketing strategy. A corporate strategy provides direction on the company's mission, the kinds of businesses it should be in, and its growth policies. A business-level strategy addresses the way a strategic business unit will compete within its industry. Finally, a marketing strategy provides a plan for pursuing the company's objectives within a specific market segment. Note that the higher level of strategy provides both the objectives and guidelines for the lower level of strategy. At corporate level, management must coordinate the activities of multiple strategic business units. Thus the decisions about the organization's scope and appropriate resource deployments/allocation across its various divisions or businesses are the primary focus of corporate strategy.Attempts to develop and maintain distinctive competencies tend to focus on generating superior financial, capital, and human resources; designing effective organizational structures and processes; and seeking synergy among the firm's various businesses. At business-level strategy, managers focus on how the SBU will compete within its industry. A major issue addressed in business strategy is how to achieve and sustain a competitive advantage. Synergy for the unit is sought across product-markets and across functional department within the unit. The primary purpose of a marketing strategy is to effectively allocate and coordinate marketing resources and activities to accomplish the firm's objectives within a specific product-market. The decisions about the scope of a marketing strategy involve specifying the target market segment(s) to pursue and the breadth of the product line to offered. At this level of strategy, firms seek competitive advantage and synergy through a well-integrated program of marketing mix elements tailored to the needs and wants of customers in the target segment(s). Strategic Role of Positioning Based on the above discussion, it is clear that marketing strategy consists of two parts: target market strategy and marketing mix strategy. Target market strategy consists of three processes: market segmentation, targeting (or target market selection), and positioning. Marketing mix strategy refers to the process of creating a unique
附录 F.1英文参考资料及中文翻译 F. 1 .1international trade documents role General international trade documents (international trade documents) is the international trade of use all the documents, documents and certificates collectively. Usually with international trade documents to deal with in and out of delivery of the goods El, transportation, insurance, inspection and quarantine, customs declaration, the settlement of exchange, etc. Special international trade documents usually refers to the settlement documents, especially the l/c under the way of settlement of documents. International trade documents and the use of import and export trade program closely related, the documents in the import and export enterprise work throughout the export, purchase, transportation, the whole process of the proceeds, the effort is big, timeliness strong, is broad, in addition to import and export enterprise internal between various departments the cooperation with the outside, still must and bank, customs, transportation department, insurance companies, the inspection and quarantine agencies and the relevant administrative authorities happen various contact, linked together, mutual influence, also are conditions. International trade documents for the performance of a contract is necessary means International trade is the transnational goods business, due to the particularity of the multinational business, which is the purchase and sale of the different departments are located in different countries, are remote, in most cases, the goods and payment can't perform simple direct exchange, but only as the medium of exchange with documents means. The international trade of the documents that sales of goods through the documents realization sale, the seller should not only will the actual delivery of goods export shipment, and should submit to the buyer include the title to the goods vouchers, complete documents to show real assignment. The seller/p means that the delivery of the goods, and the buyer payment is get to buy goods on behalf of property rights certificate, the deal is no longer with the goods as the core, but with documents as the core. Documents and payment of the convection principle has become the international trade of general principles of the commodity business. As international trade experts "; m Cardiff in the export trade in his book mentioned: "from a business perspective, can say CIF the purpose of the contract is not the buying and selling of goods itself, but the documents relating to the goods business." What say here "documents" is the international trade of documents. International trade documents many kinds, every kind of documents has its
软件专业毕业论文外文文献中英文翻译 Object landscapes and lifetimes Tech nically, OOP is just about abstract data typing, in herita nee, and polymorphism, but other issues can be at least as importa nt. The rema in der of this sect ion will cover these issues. One of the most importa nt factors is the way objects are created and destroyed. Where is the data for an object and how is the lifetime of the object con trolled? There are differe nt philosophies at work here. C++ takes the approach that con trol of efficie ncy is the most importa nt issue, so it gives the programmer a choice. For maximum run-time speed, the storage and lifetime can be determined while the program is being written, by placing the objects on the stack (these are sometimes called automatic or scoped variables) or in the static storage area. This places a priority on the speed of storage allocatio n and release, and con trol of these can be very valuable in some situati ons. However, you sacrifice flexibility because you must know the exact qua ntity, lifetime, and type of objects while you're writing the program. If you are trying to solve a more general problem such as computer-aided desig n, warehouse man ageme nt, or air-traffic con trol, this is too restrictive. The sec ond approach is to create objects dyn amically in a pool of memory called the heap. In this approach, you don't know un til run-time how many objects you n eed, what their lifetime is, or what their exact type is. Those are determined at the spur of the moment while the program is runnin g. If you n eed a new object, you simply make it on the heap at the point that you n eed it. Because the storage is man aged dyn amically, at run-time, the amount of time required to allocate storage on the heap is sig ni fica ntly Ion ger tha n the time to create storage on the stack. (Creat ing storage on the stack is ofte n a si ngle assembly in structio n to move the stack poin ter dow n, and ano ther to move it back up.) The dyn amic approach makes the gen erally logical assumpti on that objects tend to be complicated, so the extra overhead of finding storage and releas ing that storage will not have an importa nt impact on the creati on of an object .In additi on, the greater flexibility is esse ntial to solve the gen eral program ming problem. Java uses the sec ond approach, exclusive". Every time you want to create an object, you use the new keyword to build a dyn amic in sta nee of that object. There's ano ther issue, however, and that's the lifetime of an object. With Ian guages that allow objects to be created on the stack, the compiler determines how long the object lasts and can automatically destroy it. However, if you create it on the heap the compiler has no kno wledge of its lifetime. In a Ianguage like C++, you must determine programmatically when to destroy the