Chapter5Semantics
1. Definition
1.命名论The naming theory
Proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for, so words are just names or labels for things.(缺点：仅限于名词)
2.意念论The conceptualist view Ogden and Richards
It holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather, intheinterpretationof meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.
3.语境论Conceptualism
It’sbasedonthepresumptionthatonecanderivemeaning fromorreducemea ningtoobservablecontexts.Herearetwokindsofcontext:thesituationalandt helinguisticcontext.
4.行为主义论Behaviorism
It refers to the attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer. This theory somewhat close to conceptualism emphasizes on the psychological response.
2.Lexicalmeaning:
Sense:itisconcernedwithinherentmeaningoflinguisticform;itisthecollectio
nofallfeaturesoflinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualized. Reference:itmeansthelinguisticformreferstothereal,physicalworld.Itdeals withtherelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticwo rldofexperience.
3. Main sense relations
1.同义词Synonymy Itreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaningorwecansaythatwordsa recloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.
(1)Dialectal synonyms—synonyms used in different regional dialects（方
言）
British America
autumnfall
flatapartment
(2)Stylistic synonyms---Synonyms differing in style（文体）
Old man daddy father male parent
(3)Synonyms that different intheiremotive or evaluative meaning（情感）Collaborator VS Accomplice
(4)Collocational synonyms（搭配）
Accuse VS Charge（accuse…of; charge…with）
Rotten tomatoes VS Addled eggs
(5)Semantically different synonyms（语义）
AmazeVSAstound
Itreferstodifferentwordsmayhavethesameorsimilar meaning;thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.
Ball:1. anroundobjectusedingame.
2.alargeformalsocialeventatwhichpeopledance.
3.同音(形)异义Homonymy
It refers to the phenomenon that words have different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.
1). Homophones同音异义
It refers to two words are identical in sound. E.g. rain/reign.
2).Homographs同形异义
It refers to two words are identical in form.E.g. tear v. /tear n.
3). Complete homonyms同形同音Itreferstowordsthatarebothidenticalinsoundandspelling.E.g.tearv.
/tearn.
4.上下义关系Hyponymy
Itreferstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusive wordandamorespecificword.Thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaningis calledsuperordinate,andthemorespecificwordsarecalleditshyponyms. Superordinate:animal
Subordinate:cat,dog,tiger,lion,wolf,elephant,fox,bear,
It is the term used for oppositeness of meaning on different dimension.
a) gradable:等级反义词old-young
b) complementary：互补反义词male-female
c) relational:关系反义词father-son buy-sell
4.Sentencesenserelations:
1）.X is synonymous with Y（同义）
E.g. He is a bachelor all his life.
He never married all his life.
2）. X is inconsistent with Y（不一致/反义）
E.g. John is married
John is a bachelor.
3）.X entails Y. (Y is an entailment of X)（包含于）
E.g. He has been to France.
He has been to Europe.
4）. X presuppose Y（Y是X的先决条件）
E.g.John’s bike needs repairing.
John has a bike.
5）. X is a contradiction（X是一个矛盾句）
E.g. My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.
6). X is semantically anomalous.（语义异常）
E.g. The table has bad intensions.
5.Analysisofmeaning
1. Componential Analysis成分分析法----分析词汇抽象意义
It’s awayproposedbythestructuralsemanticiststoanalyzewordmea ning.Thisapproachisbaseduponthebeliefthatmeaningofawordcanbedis sectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures.
E.g.Man=Adult+Male+Animate+Human
2. Predication Analysis述谓结构分析(由British Linguist G.Leech提出)
It’s a new approach for sentential meaning analysis. Predication is usually considered an important common category shared by propositions, questions, commands etc.(通过对论元argument和谓语predicate的分析，达到对句子意义进行分析的许多模式中的一种.)
3.先设前提Presupposition
It’s a semantic relationship or logical connection. A presupposes B.
4.蕴涵Entailment
Entailmentcanbeillustratedbythefollowingtwosentencesinwhichsent enceAentailssentenceB.
A:Markmarriedablondeheiress.
B:Markmarriedablonde.
第6章pragmatics
本章要点：
1.speech act theory言语行为的理论
2. cooperative principle and its maxims合作原则及其准则
3.Grice an theory of conventional implicature格莱斯会话含义理论本章考点：语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（发话行为、行事行为和取效行为）；合作原则。实例分析言语行为、合作原则的违反和会话含义。
本章内容索引：
1．PragmaticsDefinitionPragmatics&semanticsContext
Sentencemeaningvsutterancemeaning
2．Speech act theory
Austin’smodelofspeechacts
Searl’sclassificationofspeechacts
Indirectspeechacts
3．Principle of conversion
Cooperative principle and its maxims Violation of the maxims 4．Conversational implicature
Definition:
CharacteristicsofconversationalimplicativeCalculabilityCancellabilityN on-detachabilityNon-conventionality
5．Cross-cultural pragmatics failure
1．Pragmatics
Definition：It is the study of speakers of a language use
sentences to effect successful communication.
Pragmatics & semantics
If the context was taken into the study of meaning, then the study calls pragmatics.
Context
A: Definition:It is generally considered as the knowledge that shared by the speaker and hearer.
B: Significance:It determines the speaker’suse of language and the hearer’s interpretation of what is said to him. With context, the communication would achieve satisfactory result.
Sentence meaning vs Utterance meaning 句子意义和话语意义Sentence meaning: abstract and de-contextualized.
Utterance meaning: concrete and context dependent, and based on sentence meaning.
2．Speech act theory
Austin’s model of speech acts为)：
A: an act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. Literal meaningby means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.
B: An illocutionary act(言外行为)：an act of expressing the speaker’s intention.
C: An perlocutionary act(言后行为)：an act of performed by or resulting from saying something; the consequence or change brought
about by the utterance;
Searl’s(瑟尔) classification of speech acts
A: Representatives(阐述类): stating or describing, saying something what the speaker believes to be true. 陈述，相信，发誓Eg: I swear I have never seen the man before.
B: directive(指令类)：Trying to get the hearer to do something.advise，ask，beseech，command，demand，order，request，tell，urge.E.g.：open the door!
C: Commissives(承诺类)：committing the speaker himself to some future course of https://www.doczj.com/doc/fc2932107.html,mit，consent，guarantee，offer，pledge，promise，refuse，threaten. E.g.：I promise to come!
D: Expressives(表达类)：expressing the feeling or attitude towards an existing state. apologize，boast，congratulate，deplore，regret，thank，welcomeEg：I am sorry for the mess I have made. about immediate change by saying something.
E: Declarations(宣告类)：bring about immediate change by saying something.appoint，bless，christen，declare，name，nominate，resign. E.g.: I fire you.
Indirect speech acts (developed by Searl)
Two speech acts:
The primary: speaker’s goal of communication
The second: means by which he achieves his goal.
3．Principle of conversion
Cooperative principle and its maxims (Paul Grice)
A: the maxim of quantity量的准则: (you are what you say)
Make your contribution informative as required, not more informative than required.
B: the maxim of quality质的准则: Tautologies(意思重复)
Do not say something you believe is false, or something is lake of evidence.
C: the maxim of relation关系准则:
Be relevant.
D: the maxim of manner方式准则:
Avoid obscurity, ambiguity, be brief and orderly.
Violation of the maxims 通过实例分析违反准则。
4．Conversational implicature
Definition: Characteristics of conversational implicative
●Cancellability/defeasibility
This means that an implicature can be cancelled. The feature allows the speaker to imply something and then deny that implicature.
A: Let's have a drink.
B: It's not one o'clock yet. (Implying we can drink after one o'clock)
A: I didn't say that you could drink after one o'clock. I said that you couldn't drink before. (theimplicature disappears)
●Non-detachability
This means that an implicature is attached to the semantic content of what is said, not to linguistic form. Therefore implicatures cannot be detached from an utterance simply by changing the words for synonyms or in other words by relexicalization or reformulation.
For example, if everyone knows that Bob is an idiot, saying "Bob is a genius" to convey the opposite meaning "Bob is terribly foolish, he can choose any of the following synonymous expressions to maintain the same implicature:
a) Bob is a mental prodigy.
b) Bob is an exceptionally clever human being.
c) Bob is an enormous intellect.
d) Bob is a big brain.
●Calculability/derivability
This means that an implicature is calculable, that is to say, it can be worked out from the literal meaning or the sense of the utterance on the one hand, and the Cooperative Principle and its maxims on the other hand.
●Non-conventionality
This is to say that conversational implicatures are not conventional, that is, not part of the conventional meaning of linguistic expressions.
But we should notice that what begins as a conversational
implicature may become the meaning of a lexical item or linguistic expression. For example:
"Go to the bathroom" originally meant Going to WC as an euphemism, but now has become conventionalized. We don’t have to derive the implicature by the CP but by convention.
5．Cross-cultural pragmatics failure
第7章language changes 语言变化
本章要点：
1．Phonological change 音系变化
2．Morphological and syntactic change 形态和句法变化3．Lexical and semantic change词汇和语义变化
本章考点：新词的增加：创新词，缩略词，紧缩词，词首字母缩略词，逆构词法；词义的变化：词义扩大，缩小，意义的转换。
1.Definition of historical linguistics 历史语言学的定义
A branch of linguistics. It concerned with the description and explanation of language changes that occurred over the time.
2. Phonological change
Phonological change tends to be systematic. It is possible to see a regular pattern of pronunciation changes throughout the history of English language.
3. Morphological and syntactic change Addition of affixes 词汇的增加
In English many affixes are borrowed. Eg the suffix –ment in French.
Lost of affixes
Some affixes fade out of use
Changes for word order
Case marking lost, subject-object-verb fixed.
Change in negation rule Eg. I love thee not.
>I do not love thee.
4 lexical and semantic change
(1)Addition of new words 新词的增加
A: coinage/invention
A new word can be coined outright to fit some purpose. Eg: walkman, Kodak, Ford
B: clipped words
Clipping refers to the abbreviation of longer words or phrase. Eg gym-gymnasium Expo- exposition Memo-memorandum Disco-discotheque
C: blending
A blend is a word formed by combining parts of other words. Eg smog = smoke+fog Motel
Brunch = breakfast+lunch
D: Acronyms
Acronyms are word derived from the initials of several words. Eg BBC VOA
E: Back-formation Deleting the affixes.
E.g. to automate 自动化←automation to legislate 立法←legislation F: Functional shift
Word-class shift from one to another. Eg noun-verb love
G：Borrowing 借词法
(2)Loss of words 词汇的废弃Eg beseem –to be suitable Wot –to know Gyve–a fetter
(3) change in the meaning of words Semantic broadening 词义扩大Holiday 原形是holy day 神圣的宗教节日，现在指不用上班的时间。Semantic narrowing 词义的缩小
Hound 曾经用来指Dog 的总称，现在缩小为指某一种特殊的狗。Semantic shift 词义转换
Inn 原本指小旅馆小酒吧，现在指非常有名的好旅馆。
5 Some recent trends
A: moving to greater informality. Ain’t can’t didn’t’t 出现在文章中。B: the influence of American English
随着政治经济文化的发张，美国的影视，报纸，杂志，广播和电视对世界文化造成很大的影响。
C: the influence of technology and science 新的技术科技的发展创造出新的词汇和表达
D: Space travel
Space suit, heat-shield splash-down
E: computer and internet language Program input output
F: Ecology 生态学环境保护和资源保护。
6 causes of language change 语言变化的原因经济政治文化发展。
第8章sociolinguistics
1 the scope of sociolinguistics
The definition of sociolinguistics定义: It is a branch of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and social structures in which the users of language live.
The relatedness between the language and society 相关性
The main function of language is communication, but it also use to establish and maintain social relationship.
Users of the same language may speak differently because their different social background.
Speech community and speech variety 言语团体与言语变体
Speech community: the social special study.
Speech variety: any distinguishable form of language used by a speaker or a group of speakers. Speech features can be found at the lexical, the phonological, morphological, or the syntactical level of the language. Two approaches to sociolinguistics studies
Macro-sociolinguistics or the sociology of language :宏观社会语言学或者语言社会学View the society as a whole and consider how language
function s in it andhow it reflect the social differentiations.
Micro-sociolinguistics or sociolinguistics proper: 微观社会语言学或严格意义的社会语言学：point of view of an individual member within it.
2 varieties of language: Dialectal varieties Regional dialect Definition: refers to the language used by people living in the same geographical region. Features:
(1) Regional dialect boundaries are often coinciding with geographical boundaries.
(2) In most cases, the regional dialect in two neighboring area are mutually
intelligible to a great extent, and the change from one dialect to another is gradual.
(3) Reasons: The geographic barriers; loyalty to the on e’s native speech; physical andpsychological resistance to the change.
Sociolect
(1) Definition: social-class dialect refers to the characteristics of a particular social class.
(2) Features: two people from the same geographic may speak differently because of their socialfactors, such as background influence which influence linguistic form.
(3): Ascent is an important maker of sociolect.
Language and gender(标准，语调，词汇，礼貌)
a) The language of woman is more standard than that of man.
b) Woman has wider range of intonation.
c) Woman tend to use adjectives of evaluation d) Woman tends to be more polite than man. Language and age (词汇差异)
A) the language used by the old generation and the younger generation is different, especially in the lexical level.Idiolect (个人语言)
Refers to personal dialect that was decided by his social background, gender, age and so on.
Ethnic dialect
It is usually used by the underprivileged population that has experienced some form of racial discrimination and segregation.
Features of black English (非
1. mainly used by the non-middle-class Blacks
2. the simplification of the consonant clusters.(语音上)
3. deletion of ―be‖（句法上）
4. the use of double negation structure：he don’t know nothing. Register 语域
选择与情景类型相适应的语言类型就是语域
The type of language selected that is appropriate to the situation is a register.
a) field语场：refers to what is going on. The operation of the language activity
b) Tenor 语旨：refers to the relationship in the situation in question.
c) Mode 语式：refers to the means of communication.
Eg: a lecture on biology in a college could be identified as:
Field: scientific (biology)
Tenor: teacher and students (formal and polite)
Mode: oral (academic lecture) Degree of formality
Language used on different occasions differs in different degree of formality, which is determined by the social variables.
Intimate casual consultative formal frozen.
3 standard dialect
Definition: the standard variety is particularly prestigious and superimposed dialect of a language. 通常为政府，媒体，教育行业所使用。
Nature: 标准方言是语言变体的一种特殊变体，因为它不与任何特定语言使用者群体都无关。而是一个语言社团的任何成员都可能使用的变体，无论其社会和地理背景。性别年龄如何。
Features: selected variety of a language, which used by the nation’s political.
4 pidgin and Creole Pidgin：
Definition: is a language variety that mixes different language for the special use, like trading.
Origin: 起源于几种不同语言的使用。
特点：词汇有限，语法结构非常简单，没有曲折变化，词性和格的消失。
Creole：克里奥耳语
Definition：当洋泾滨语成为某一特殊团体使用时，就成为了洋泾滨语。Features: 洋泾滨语的结构得以拓展；词汇量被极大的丰富。
5 choosing a code
Dislossia双语变体：A situation where two varieties of a language exits side by side throughout the https://www.doczj.com/doc/fc2932107.html,ed by Ferguson in 1959. Features: 两种语言变体功能的具体化。
Bilingualism and multilingualism 双语现象和多语现象Bilingualism: a situation where two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play. 例如：加拿大魁北（英语和法语）Code-switching 语码转换
A change made by speaker or writer from one language or language variety to another one.
a)the situational Code-switching: speak one language in situation and
another in a different one.
6. linguistic taboos and euphemisms
第九章language and culture
本章要点：The relationship between language and culture 语言和文化得关系Sapir-Whorf hypothesis 萨丕尔-沃尔夫的假说Linguistic evidence of cultural differences 文化差异的语言证据
1. the definition of culture 名词解释
广义上：total way of life of a people, including belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques and language characterize the life of human community.
狭义上：refers to the specific practice , customs, or beliefs, which can be found in folk culture, or food culture.
2.语言和文化之间的关系分析异同点
A：对个人而言：Language permeates his thinking and viewing, it also expresses and embodies its cultural reality.
B: 对社会而言：language helps perpetuate the culture, and the changes in language reflects the changes in culture.
3. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: language helps to shape our ways of thinking, and consequently language reveals our unique ways of understanding the world.
The strong version: (linguistic determination): 语言决定论Language determines our thinking patterns.
The weak version: (linguistic relativity):语言相对主义Similarity between languages is relative. For two languages, the greater the structural differentiations are, the more diverse the conceptualization will be. Different languages offer people different ways of expressing the world around, they think and speak differently, this is known as linguistic relativity
4. 文化差异的语言证据：
Any linguistic sign consists of three layers of meaning:
A: denotative meaning: the meaning given in a dictionary B: connotative meaning：the associative meaning C: iconic meaning: the images or icon invoked to people.
(1)greetings and terms of address
there are a dozen different greetings in English for people tochoose. (2): gratitude and compliments
例如相对于中国人，西方人tend to verbalize their gratitude and compliment and tend to accept thanks and compliments more frankly and directly.
(3): colour words:
不同的语言含有不同的与色彩相关的联想。
(4) privacy and taboos
西方人及其看中隐私，像年龄，家庭背景，薪水等。
(5) rounding off numbers: 数字处理西方人不喜欢数字13
(6) Words and cultural-specific connotations Semantic deffernce:
A: 一门语言中的语言术语在另一门语言中可能找不到想对应的counterpart。
(7) 与文化相关的idioms, proverbs and metaphors. Lucky dog: a lucky person
(8) Culture contact, culture overlap and culture diffusion. 文化接触，重
一、课程性质及其设置目的与要求 （一）课程性质和特点 《英语语言学概论》课程是我省高等教育自学考试英语专业（本科段）的一门重要的专业理论课程，其任务是培养应考者系统地学习英语语言学的基本知识，掌握语言系统内部语言学各分支之间的关系和各分支的重要概念和基本理论，了解语言学在其它学科领域的应用，熟悉现代语言学重要的流派及其代表人物；通过该课程的学习，考生可以从不同的角度了解语言（的性质），了解语言学习和语言教学，为日后进一步学习语言学、从事语言教学实践和语言学研究打下扎实基础。本课程的特点是：专业术语多，概念多，内容抽象，所以，考生最好在学习本课程之前先学习提高语言读写能力的课程，如高级英语、泛读（三）、写作等，这样可以减少语言障碍，有利于学好语言学的理论知识。 （二）本课程的基本要求 本课程共分为本书共分四编，计十三章。第一编（一至二章）介绍了语言和语言学；第二编（三至八章）介绍了语言学的主要分支—语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学；第三编（九至十二章）为跨学科领域与应用—话语分析、社会语言学、心理语言学，以及语言学理论与外语教学；第四编（十三章）介绍了现代语言学流派。通过对本书的学习，要求应考者对英语语言学有一个全面和正确的了解。具体应达到以下要求： 1、掌握语言的性质、功能，以及语言学的研究范围、语言学的分支和重要的语言学概念； 2、掌握语言系统内部语言学各分支之间的关系和各分支的重要概念和基本理论； 3、了解语言学在其它学科领域的应用； 4、熟悉现代语言学重要的流派及其代表人物。 （三）本课程与相关课程的联系 英语语言学概论是一门基础理论课程，其含盖范围很广，既涉及语言系统内部的语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学，又涉及许多交叉学科，如话语分析、社会语言学、心理语言学、应用语用学（包括语言学理论与外语教学），以及本教程未涉及的神经认知语言学、计算机语言学、人工智能与机器翻译等。语言学的进一步研究甚至会涉及到哲学、逻辑学等领域。 在自考课程中，词汇学与语言学关系最为密切，词汇学的许多概念、理论和研究方法都来源于语言学。高级英语、泛读（三）、写作、翻译等课程则是学好语言学的基础。文学与语言学并非对立的关系，这两个领域的研究方法可以互相补充、互相借鉴，日后无论从事语言学还是文学研究，这两个领域都必须同时涉猎。 二、课程内容与考核目标
1、How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: linguistics is the scientific study of language. It is a scientific studies because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, what the linguist has to do first is to collect and observe language facts, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. But the hypotheses, thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation; that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things. 2、The design/defining features of human language (Charles Hockett) (1) Arbitrariness ----No logical (motivated or intrinsic) connection between sounds and meanings. ----- No natural and inevitable link between the sound and the meaning Exception: Onomatopoeic words and Some compound words. (2) Productivity/creativity We can speak an endless number of sentences with a limited vocabulary and one sentence can expand into endless theoretically possible sentences in the way of recurring Exception: and bee dancing is used only to indicate food sources, which is the only kind of message that can be sent through the dancing. (3) Duality
《英语语言学概论》精选试题1 1. Which of the following statements about language is NOT true A. Language is a system B. Language is symbolic C. Animals also have language D. Language is arbitrary 2. Which of the following features is NOT one of the design features of language A. Symbolic B. Duality C. Productive D. Arbitrary 3. What is the most important function of language A. Interpersonal B. Phatic C. Informative D. Metalingual 4. Who put forward the distinction between Langue and Parole A. Saussure B. Chomsky C. Halliday D. Anonymous 5. According to Chomsky, which is the ideal user's internalized knowledge of his language A. competence B. parole C. performance D. langue 6. The function of the sentence "A nice day, isn't it" is . A. informative B. phatic C. directive D. performative 7. Articulatory phonetics mainly studies . A. the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech B. the perception of sounds C. the combination of sounds D. the production of sounds 8. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in . A. the place of articulation B. the obstruction of airstream C. the position of the tongue D. the shape of the lips 9. Which is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription A. Phonetics B. Phonology C. Semantics D. Pragmatics 10. Which studies the sound systems in a certain language A. Phonetics B. Phonology C. Semantics D. Pragmatics 11. Minimal pairs are used to . A. find the distinctive features of a language B.find the phonemes of a language C. compare two words D. find the allophones of language 12. Usually, suprasegmental features include ___ ,length and pitch. A. phoneme B. speech sounds C. syllables D. stress 13. Which is an indispensable part of a syllable A. Coda B. Onset C. Stem D. Peak 三、判断
《英语语言学概论》课程教学大纲 一、课程说明: 《语言学概论》课程是英语专业本科阶段的一门必修课。 《语言学概论》研究始于20 世纪初，其目的是揭示人类深层结构，对语言和语言交际作出客观、科学描述。现已形成了语音学、音系学、形态学、句法学、语义学、语用学等一系分支学科。语言学研究社会学等人文学科的结合逐步形成了社会语言学这样的交叉学科。 对于主修语言学的学生来说，了解语言学的知识和语言理论是完全必要和有益的。 本课程的对象是英语专业高年级学生，在本科阶段第6学期和第7 学期开设。其中第一、二、三、四、五、七、八、十一章为必修，其余章节为选修。 二、教学目的及要求: 本课程的具体要求是：比较全面，系统地了解《语言学概论》这一领域的研究成果，以及一些最主要、最有影响的语言理论和原则，从而加深对人类语言这一人类社会普遍现象的理性认识，并具备一定的运用语言学理论解释语言现象、解决具体语言问题的能力。 本课程是一门知识性比较强的课程。在教学过程中，应重点讲授主要理论、原则、和研究方法，使学生着重掌握基本概念和基本理论，在理解消化的基础上记忆。 本课程的对象是英语专业学生，在讲解过程中原则上采用英语范例，但不排除一些有助于学习者理解的、针对性强的汉语例子。应鼓 励学生结合自己的语言实践提供更多的例子来解释相关理论，以达到理论和实践相结合的目的。
三、教学重点与难点: 本课程的教学重点是语言学的基本知识和基本理论，语音学、词汇学、句法学、语义学和语用学这些语言学的核心内容。 本课程的教学难点是音韵学理论、句法结构和各个语言学流派的理论观点及其局限性。 四、与其它课程的关系: 本课程是一门主干性课程。与其相关的课程，如语法学、词汇学和语体学等都是语言学的分支，属于选修课程。 五、学时与学分: 学时：72学时 学分：4学分 六、教学内容： 第一章绪论 本章主要教学内容: 1．语言学习的意义 2．语言的定义。 3．语言的定义特征 4．语言的起源。 5．语言的功能。 6．语言学的定义。 7．语言学的核心内容。 8．宏观语言学的定义及分支。
Chapter 4 Phonology(音位学) 4.1 phonetics and phonology:语音学与音位学的区分 Both phonetics and phonology are concerned with speech.语音学和音位学都士对语音的研究。 定义区别 -Phonetics is a study of the production, perception and physical properties of speech sounds. 语音学是研究语音的生产、感知和物理性质的。 -Phonology studies how speech sounds are combined，organized，and convey meanings in particular languages.研究语音如何在在特定的语言中结合、组织和表达含义。 ---Phonology is language-specific.it is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural languages.音位学是特定于语言的。它的研究对象是自然语言中的声音是如何组织和使用的。 ---Phonetics is a study of speech sounds while phonology is a study of the sound syst em of a language.语音学是一个研究语音的然后音位学是研究一种语言的声音系统的学科。 4.2 Phonemes，phones and allophones 音位、音子、音位变体 Different languages have different phonological systems.不同的语言有不同的语音系统。 定义： ①Phones are the smallest identifiable phonetic unit or segment found in a stream of speech. 音子就是在连续的发音中可辨认的最小语音单位或片段。 ②Allophones are the phones which represent a phoneme in a language and cannot change word meaning by substituting any of the set for another.音位变体是指代表语言中音位的音子，即使以一个取代另一个也不改变词义。 ③Phonemes are the minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.音位是语言系统中最小的独特的单位。 Allophones are the realization of a particular phoneme while phones are the realizatio n of phonemes in general.音位变体是一个特定音素的认知而音子则是一般的音素。 4.3Minimal pairs 最小对立体 The phonologist is concerned with what difference are significant or technically speaki ng, distinctive. Minimal pair---a pair of words which differ from each other by one sound. Three conditions（情况）: 1）the two froms are different in meaning意义不同 2）the two forms are different in one sound segment声音片段不同 3）the different sounds occur in the same position of the two words.不同声音发生在两个单词的相同位置 Minimal set: a group of words can satisfy（满足）the three conditions . Minimal pairs help determine phonemes. 最小对立体用来定义音位。 4.4 identifying phonemes 识别音素 4.4.1 contrastive distribution，complementary distribution and free variation 对比分布，互补分布和自由变异 The distribution of a sound refers to the collective environments in which the sound concerned may appear.一个声音的分布是指其有关的声音可能出现的集体环境。 1）contrastive distribution对比分布 If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of on
一、定义 1.语言学Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。 4.识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。 Arbitrariness任意性 Productivity多产性 Duality双重性 Displacement移位性 Cultural transmission文化传递 ⑴arbitrariness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it
《英语语言学概论》复习纲要 1.复习的基本原则：第一，理解和吃透各章的重点内容。第二，以 各章的题目为统领，理解各章节下的具体内容。第三，动手书写和记忆重要内容，部分语言学理论会应用到实际中。 2.各章节复习要点如下 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics Definitions of the following terms: language, linguistics, arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, descriptive VS prescriptive, synchronic VS diachronic, langue VS parole, competence VS performance Study of the origin of language What are the functions of language Which subjects are included in macrolinguistics Chapter 2 Speech Sounds Definitions of the following terms: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, auditory phonetics, phonetics, phonology, consonants, vowels, allophones, broad transcription VS narrow transcription Analyze the complementary distribution, free variation with examples The classification of English consonants and English vowels and the features involved in the classification Understand some processes of phonology: nasalization, dentalization, velarization
英语语言学一、名词解释 第一课 共时性 : Said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical“point\A kind”inoftimedescription. which takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind. 语言 : The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community. : Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for human communication. 任意性 : One design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. 第二课 音位 : Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. 音位变体 : The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme. pair 最小对立体 : When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. 第三课 形态学 : Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed . morphemes派生词素: Some morphemes which change the category or grammatical class of words are ca lled morphemes 曲折词素 : Some bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers and signify such concepts as tense, number, case and so on. 第四课 语法句法: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences. categories 句法范畴 : Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories. structure 深层结构 : Formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’ s subcategorizationrties,iscalledprope deep structure or D- structure. structure 表层结构 : Corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called Surface structure or S- structure. 第五课 指称 : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. 同音异义 : Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, . different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. 上下义关系 : Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. 第六课 语用学 : Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. 话语 : a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication. meaning 话语意义 : Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. act 言外行为 : An illocutionary act is the act expressing the speaker it is the’acts performedintention; in saying something.
第一章绪论 1.1什么是语言 1.2语言的性质 （1）语言具有系统性（systematic） （2）语言是一个符号系统 语言符号是一种象征符号。 （3）语言符号的任意性（arbitrariness）与理据性（motivation） （4）口头性 （5）语言是人类特有的 （6）语言是用于交际的 寒暄交谈（phatic communion）马林诺夫斯基提出的，认为语言除了用于表达思想、交流感情外，还可以用语言营造一种气氛或保持社会接触。这种不用于表达思想、交流感情的语言使用，叫寒暄交谈。 1.3语言的起源 1.4语言的分类 1.4.1系属分类（Genetic Classification） 历史比较语言学通过比较各种语言在不同时期语音、词性、曲折变化、语法结构上的相同特点来建立语言族系。 将语言分为语系（family）——语族（group）——语支（branch）——语言 英语、德语属印欧语系日耳曼语族西日耳曼语支。法语属印欧语系罗曼语族中罗曼语支。 汉语属汉藏语系汉语族。 1.4.2 类型分类（Typological Classifacation） 根据词的结构类型，可分为 （1）孤立语（isolating language）又叫词根语，一个词代表一个意思，缺少形态变化，语序和虚词是表达语法意义的主要手段。汉语是典型的孤立语。 （2）粘着语（agglutinative language）简单词组成复合词，而词性和意义不变。在词根前、中、后粘贴不同的词缀实现语法功能。日语、韩语、土耳其语是典型的黏着语。 （3）屈折语（inflectional language）词形变化表语法关系的语言。英语是不太典型的屈折语。 （4）多式综合语（polysynthesis language）把主、宾和其它语法项结合到动词词干上以构成一个单独的词，但表达一个句子的意思。因纽特语是典型的多式综合语。 根据句子的语序类型，可分为SVO、SOV、OSV、OVS等 1.5语言的功能 1.5.1 一般功能 1.5.2元功能（metafunction） 1.6什么是语言学（linguistics）
英语语言文学专业基础 本科目包括英语语言学基础、英美文学基础知识、英语国家概况、英汉互译四部分内容，总分150分，其中英语语言学基础15分，英美文学基础知识70分，英语国家概况15分，英汉互译50分。 I、英语语言学基础（15分） 一、考试要求和内容 该部分主要考查普通语言学的基本概念和基本理论。 二、考试题型 填空题、选择题、判断题、名词解释题。 三、参考书 《新编简明英语语言学教程》，戴炜栋、何兆熊主编，上海外语教育出版社，2002。 II、英美文学基础知识（70分） 一、考试要求 本部分考试旨在考查考生对有关英美文学的基本概念、主要流派、基础知识的理解和掌握情况，以及运用所学的基础理论知识分析、评论简单的文学文本。 二、考试内容 1、英国文学部分 1）古英语诗歌的形成、发展及主要文本。 2）英国中世纪文学的形成和发展、主要诗人及其作品。 3）英国文艺复兴时期的文学：“文艺复兴”产生的历史背景、定义及其主要特征、对英国文学的影响、主要作家及其作品。 4）新古典主义时期（十八世纪）英国文学：启蒙运动形成的原因、启蒙运动的定义、特征及其对英国文学的影响、这一时期主要的作家及其作品。 5）浪漫主义时期（十九世纪早期）英国文学：英国浪漫主义文学形成的历史背景、浪漫主义诗歌的主要作家及其作品、浪漫主义小说的主要作家及其作家品、浪漫主义散文的主要作家及其作品。 6）维多利亚时期（十九世纪中后期）英国文学：英国现实主义文学形成发展的历史背景、这一时期主要的作家及其作品。 7）现代时期（二十世纪）英国文学：英国现代主义文学形成的历史背景、现代主义文学的主要流派、这一时期主要作家及其作品。 2、美国文学部分 1）早期的美国文学：清教主义文学形成与发展、早期美国文学的主要作家及其作品。 2）浪漫主义时期的美国文学：早期浪漫主义文学的主要作家及作品、超验主义时期的主要作家几作品、后期浪漫主义文学的主要作家及作品。 3）现实主义时期的美国文学：美国现实主义文学的形成与发展及主要流派、美国现实主义文学与自然主义文学的异同、这一时期主要的作家及作品。 4）现代时期的美国文学：美国现代主义文学的形成与发展及主要流派、战后美国文学的形成与发展、现代时期美国文学的主要作家及作品。 三、考试题型 填空题、单项选择题、匹配题、名词解释题、文本分析题。 四、参考书 《英国文学简史》（新增订本），刘炳善，河南人民出版社，2007； 《美国文学简史》（第2版），常耀信，南开大学出版社，2003 III、英语国家概况（15分） 一、考试要求 本部分考试旨在考查考生对英美国家的地理、历史、政治、文化、社会习俗、宗教群体、价值观念以及该国人民的思想态度和生活方式的掌握情况。 二、考试题型 填空题、判断题、名词解释题。 三、参考书 《英美概况》（上、下册），张奎武主编，吉林科学技术出版社，2003 IV、英汉互译（50分）
《英语语言学概论》课程复习题集(1-6章) 2013-6-1 Chapter I Introduction2012 I. Decide whether each of the following statements is TRUE or FALSE: T1. Linguistics is the scientific study of language. F2. Competence and performance is distinguished by Saussure. F3. A synchronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history. T4. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. F5. Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general. F6. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks. T7. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts. T8. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole. T9. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study. T10. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication. F11. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences. T12. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology. F13. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences. T14. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics. T15. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings. T16. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context. T17. Social changes can often bring about language changes. T18. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society. T19. The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an
英语语言学基础知识 一、绪论语言学的定义语言的定义语言学的研究范畴语言的甄别特征 几对基本概念 (2) a large amount of communication is carried out in speech than in writing What is linguistics? 什么是语言学？ (3) speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language Language and parole 语言与言语 Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general. 语言学是对语言科学地进行研究的学科。语言学所要 研究的不是某一种特定的语言，Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. 而是人类所有语言的特性。 Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use The scope of linguistics 语言学研究的范畴 Competence and performance 能力与运用 Phonetics语音学\Phonology音系学\Morphology形态学\Syntax句法学\Semantics语义学\Pragmatics语用学Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users’ knowledge of the rules of his language \Sociolinguistics社会语言学\Psycholinguistics心理语言学\Applied linguistics应用语言学 Performance: The actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Prescriptive vs. descriptive 规定性与描述性 What is language? 什么是 语言？ Descriptive：A linguistic study describes and analyzes the
《英语语言学概论》重、难点提示 第一章语言的性质 语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。 第二章语言学 语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。 第三章语音学 发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。 第四章音位学 音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等. 第五章词法学 词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。 第六章词汇学 词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。第七章句法 句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。 第八章语义学 语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。 第九章语言变化 语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）； 第十章语言、思维与文化 语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。 第十一章语用学 语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原 320240*********