Climbing Robots in Natural Terrain
Timothy Bretl, Teresa Miller, and Stephen Rock Jean-Claude Latombe
Aerospace Robotics Lab Robotics Laboratory
Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics Computer Science Department
Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305 {tbretl, tgmiller, rock}@https://www.doczj.com/doc/f214047856.html, latombe@https://www.doczj.com/doc/f214047856.html, Keywords Motion planning, climbing, robotics,
legged robots, high-risk access, natural terrain.
Abstract
This paper presents a general framework for plan-
ning the quasi-static motion of climbing robots. The
framework is instantiated to compute climbing motions
of a three-limbed robot in vertical natural terrain. An
example resulting path through a large simulated
environment is presented. The planning problem is one
of five fundamental challenges to the development of
real robotic systems able to climb real natural terrain.
Each of the four other areas—hardware design,
control, sensing, and grasping—is also discussed.
1Introduction
The work described in this paper is part of an effort to develop critical technologies that will enable the design and implementation of an autonomous robot able to climb vertical natural terrain. To our knowl-edge, this capability has not been demonstrated previously for robotic systems. Prior approaches have dealt with artificial terrain, either using special “grasps” (e.g., pegs, magnets) adapted to the terrain’s surface or exploiting specific properties or features of the terrain (e.g., ducts and pipes) [1-12].
Developing this capability will further our under-standing of how humans perform such complex tasks as climbing and scrambling in rugged terrain. This may prove useful in the future development of sophisticated robotic systems that will either aid or replace humans in the performance of aggressive tasks in difficult terrain. Examples include robotic systems for such military and civilian uses as search-and-rescue, reconnaissance, and planetary exploration. Many issues need to be addressed before real robots can climb real, vertical, natural terrain. This paper considers five of the most fundamental of these issues: hardware design, control, sensing, planning, and grasping. One of these issues in particular, the motion-planning problem, is described in more detail.A general framework for climbing robots is presented and this framework is instantiated to compute climbing motions of the three-limbed robot shown in Figure 1. Simulation results are shown for the robot in an example vertical environment.
2Motivation
The results of research in this area will benefit a number of applications and have implications for several related research areas.
2.1Applications
This paper is motivated by a need for robotic sys-tems capable of providing remote access to high-risk natural environments.
There are many terrestrial applications for these systems, such as search-and-rescue, cave exploration, human assistance for rock and mountain climbing, and tactical urban missions. Each of these applications requires climbing, descending, or traversing steep slopes and broken terrain, and thus involves consider-able human risk.
Several space applications could also benefit from these aggressive robotic systems. For example, sites on Mars with potentially high science value have been identified on cliff faces [13]. Often, it is neither
practical nor feasible for flying robots to access these Fig 1. A three-limbed climbing robot moving vertically on natural surfaces.
locations. Therefore, to reach these sites, robots must climb, descend, or traverse steep slopes. Future goals for exploration on other planetary bodies may require access to equally rugged terrain.
2.2Implications
In addition to furthering the development of a climbing robot for vertical natural terrain, the results of research in this area could provide fundamental insight into several related research areas. For example, this study could lead to the development of better strategies for robotic walking or dexterous manipulation. Human climbers often comment on an increase in balance and an expanded range of movement in everyday activity as they become more proficient at the sport. This enhanced mobility is often referred to as “discovering new degrees of freedom,” and is related to the idea of discovering useful new modes of mobility for ex-tremely complicated humanoid robots or digital actors. Also, the development of planning algorithms for climbing robots could lead to a better set of criteria for the design of these types of robots. These algorithms could be applied to candidate designs in simulation to determine the capabilities of the resulting robots, and thus to select a design.
3Fundamental Issues
There are five fundamental issues involved in climbing steep natural terrain: hardware design, control, sensing, grasping, and planning. A substantial amount of work needs to be done in each of these areas in order to develop a real climbing robot. This section describes the challenges involved in the first four of these areas; the planning problem will be discussed in more detail in Section 4.
3.1Hardware Design
A good hardware design can increase the perform-ance of the robot, and often can make each of the other fundamental issues easier to deal with. However, past use of hardware solutions in maintaining equilibrium generally resulted in a fundamental limitation on the terrain that could be traversed.
Wheeled robotic systems have been used to ascend and traverse natural slopes of up to 50 degrees, to descend slopes of up to 75 degrees, and to climb over small obstacles in rough terrain. These systems either use some form of active or rocker-bogie suspension as in [12, 14-16], or use rappelling as in [1]. Similar results have been obtained using legged rappelling robots [3, 17] and a snake-like robot [4].
The terrain that these rovers can traverse robustly is impressive, but none of the existing systems has been shown to be capable of climbing natural slopes of 90 degrees or higher. Wheeled rovers and snake-like robots have an inherent grasping limitation that prevents their use in ascending sustained near-vertical or descending sustained past-vertical natural slopes. Existing legged robotic systems do not have this limitation, but still have bypassed the issue of main-taining contact with the slope by using rappel tethers. Reliance on these tethers prohibits initial cliff ascent, and limits the slope grade on cliff descent to below 90 degrees.
A wide variety of robots capable of climbing vertical artificial surfaces is available. Most of these robots exploit some property of the surface for easy grasping. For example, some of these robots use suction cups or permanent magnets to avoid slipping [5-8]. Others take advantage of features such as balcony handrails [9] or poles [10]. However, the surface properties that are exploited by these robots generally are not available in natural terrain.
In contrast, the simpler hardware designs used by [2, 11] had no such limitations. It is expected that solutions to the planning problem such as the one presented in this paper will allow basic natural vertical terrain to be climbed by similar systems, in addition to the ducts and pipes climbed by existing systems, and will suggest design modifications for better perform-ance.
Future studies could address the use of other types of tools for grasping vertical natural surfaces, such as tools for drilling bolts or placing other types of gear in rock. The use of these tools would allow more challenging climbs to be accomplished, in the same way that “aid” helps human climbers [18, 19]. However, these tools bring an increase in weight and complexity, slowing movement and limiting potential applications.
3.2Control
There are three primary components of the control problem for a climbing robot: maintenance of equilib-rium, endpoint slip control, and endpoint force control. These three components are tightly related. In order to maintain balance, both the location of the center of mass of the robot and the forces from contacts with natural features must be controlled. Control of slip at these contacts is directly related to the direction and magnitude of the contact forces.
Existing control techniques such as those based on the operational space formulation [20] could form a baseline approach to the design of a control architec-ture for a climbing robot. However, these techniques could be extended in a number of different ways to achieve better performance. For example, future research might address the design of an endpoint slip controller that is stable with respect to the curvature of a contact surface, rather than with respect to a point contact only.
3.3Sensing
For control and grasping, the robot must be capable of sensing the orientation of its body with respect to
the gravity vector, the location of its center of mass, the relative location of contact surfaces from its limb endpoints, and the forces that it is exerting at contacts with natural features. For planning, the robot must additionally be able to locate new holds and generate a description of their properties, possibly requiring a measurement of levels of slip at contact points. Sensor integration, in order to acquire and use this information with algorithms for control, grasping, and planning, is a challenging problem.
Existing engineering solutions are available which can lead to the development of a baseline approach in each case. For example, sensors such as those de-scribed in [21, 22] can provide basic endpoint force and slip measurements, an inertial unit and magnetic compass can provide position information, an on-board vision system can provide a rough characterization of hold locations and properties, and encoders can provide the location of the center of mass. However, the improvement of each of these sensors—in terms of performance, mass reduction, or cost reduc-tion—presents an open area for research.
Although the performance of the planning frame-work that will be presented in Section 4 would be improved with better sensor information, it does not depend on a perfect model of the environment a priori. Since the framework leads to fast, online implementa-tion, plans can be updated to incorporate new sensor
information as it becomes available.
3.4Grasping
The performance of a climbing robot is dependent on its ability to grasp “holds,” or features on a steep natural surface. It has already been noted that special-ized grasping schemes, relying on specific properties of the surface such as very smooth textures, pegs, or handles, cannot be used for grasping arbitrary natural features. The problems involved in grasping natural holds will be examined further in this section. Traditionally grasp research has been interested in either picking up an object or holding it immobile (also called “fixturing.”) Research in this subject dates as far back as 1876 it was shown that a planar object could be immobilized using a minimum of four frictionless point constraints [23]. Good overviews of more recent work can be found in [24, 25]. In this field an impor-tant concept is “force-closure,” defined as a grasp that “can resist all object motions provided that the end-effector can apply sufficiently large forces at the unilateral contacts.” [25] Nearly all research on grasps has focused on selecting, characterizing, and optimiz-ing grasps that have the property of force-closure. However, for the task of climbing a grasp need not achieve force-closure to be a useful grasp. For example, a robot may find a shelf-like hold very effective for pulling itself up, even though this grasp would be completely unable to resist forces exerted in other directions. For this reason, the techniques for selecting, characterizing, and optimizing grasps must be expanded significantly to apply to climbing robots. Characterization involves examining the direction and magnitudes of forces and torques (also called wrenches) that can be exerted by the grasp. For example, for one-finger grasps on point holds, an adequate representation of this information is a friction cone, which will be used for the planning algorithm described in Section 4.
The idea of characterization also encompasses a “quality factor.” Measures of grasp quality have been researched extensively and are well reviewed in [26]. This work lists eight dexterity measures that include minimization of joint angle deviations and maximiza-tion of the smallest singular value of the grasp matrix. Other relevant research has been done using the concept of the wrench space. Using this concept, quality is defined as the largest wrench space ball that can fit within the unit grasp wrench space [27]. The volume of the grasp wrench space, or of more specialized task ellipsoids, could be used as a quality measure [28]. These ideas have been expanded to include limiting maximum contact force and applied in a grasp simulator to compute optimal grasps with various hands in 3D [29, 30].
However, the concept of grasp quality is ill defined for grasps that do not provide force-closure. Depend-ing on the direction that a climber wishes to go, different grasps may be of higher quality. Furthermore, grasp quality generally includes a concept of security or stability, and this too is ill defined for
non-force-
(a)
(b)
Fig. 2. Four different human climbing grasps, the (a) open grip, (b) crimp, (c) finger-lock, and (d) hand jam.
closure grasps. Again, depending on the direction of applied forces, the security of a grasp may change. The concept of hold quality must be defined before useful optimization is possible. Also, an efficient way of transmitting this information to a controller or planner is necessary to accomplish the climbing task.
A qualitative classification of different types of grasps already exists in the literature for human climbers [19, 31]. In this classification, grasps are first broken into two categories, those meant for pockets, edges, and other imperfections on otherwise unbroken vertical rock faces, and those meant for sustained vertical cracks. Several examples of different face and crack grasps are shown in Figure 2. The literature gives a rough idea of the quality and use of each type of grasp in terms of criteria such as a perceived level of security, the amount of torque that can be exerted on a hold, and the amount of friction at the “power point.”Not only is this expert intuition qualitative, but also
it is clear that human climbers need to perform additional grasp planning for specific cases. As put by Long, “There are as many different kinds of holds as there are ways to grab them [31].” However, this intuition can be used as a starting point for determining meaningful quantitative criteria for grasp selection and optimization.
A comparison of the climbing literature with past work on robotic grasp planning reveals several other fundamental differences between the two applications that may become important in future research. For example, many climbing holds are very small, so the fingers used in a climbing grasp often have large diameters relative to the object to be grasped. Litera-ture on robotic grasping primarily considers the case where the fingers have small diameters relative to the object. In addition, some climbing grasps, as men-tioned above and shown in Figure 2, are based on jamming fingers in a crack. This technique is very different from one a robot might use to pick up an object, and requires a high degree of flexibility and small degrees-of-freedom in order to “un-jam” the fingers. Clearly, continued work on climbing robots eventually will lead to the consideration of a wealth of new issues in grasping.
4Planning
The planning problem is the fifth fundamental challenge for climbing robots in natural terrain. Details of the motion-planning framework presented in this section are given in [32].
4.1Challenges
The planning problem for a climbing robot consists of generating a trajectory that moves the robot through a vertical environment while maintaining equilibrium. This problem is challenging even for human climb-ers! Climbing is described by Long as a “singular
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 3. Three different human climbing “moves,” the (a) back-step, (b) stem, and (c) high-step.
challenge, where each ‘route’ up the rock is a mental and physical problem-solving design whose sequence and solution are unique. Every climb is different [31].”Much of the sequence for a particular route might be composed of one of a variety of different types of “moves,” such as a back-step, stem, mantel, high-step, counterbalance, counterforce, lie-back, down-pressure, or under-cling. Some of these moves are shown in Figure 3. Each “move” is a learned technique for maintaining balance that may seem counterintuitive. In addition to these heuristics, movement through a large number of other very specific body positions might be necessary to progress towards the top of a climb.
The importance of planning a sequence of moves before actually climbing is emphasized by Graydon and Hanson [19], who recommend that climbers “identify and examine difficult sections before [they] get to them, make a plan, and then move through them quickly.” The human motivation for this approach is primarily to minimize the effort required for each move and to conserve energy, since most people have hard strength and endurance limits.
The planning problem for a climbing robot is quite similar. The robot likely will be equipped with actuators that can exert high torques only for short amounts of time, so planning a sequence of moves before climbing is important for a robotic system as well. Likewise, a climbing robot will be subject to the same hard equilibrium constraints, and will need to select between a similarly wide range of possible motions. Therefore, the development of a planning algorithm for an autonomous climbing robot is a very challenging problem.
4.2Related Work
The search space for a climbing robot is a hybrid space, involving both continuous and discrete actions. Many different methods are available for motion planning through continuous spaces, including cell decomposition, potential field, and roadmap algo-rithms [33]. Discrete actions can be included in these methods directly, for example at the level of node expansion in roadmap algorithms, but this approach generally leads to a slow implementation that is specific to a particular system.
Previous work on motion planning for legged robots has developed tools for addressing these hybrid search spaces for some systems. This work can be categorized by whether or not the planning is done offline, in order to generate a reactive gait, or online, in order to allow non-gaited motion specific to a sensed environment. Gaited planners generate a predefined walking pattern offline, assuming a fairly regular environment. This pattern is used with a set of heuristics or behav-iors to control the robot online based on current sensor input. Gaited planning was used by [2, 11], for example, to design patterns for climbing pipes and ducts. Other methods such as [34] are based on the notion of support triangles for maintaining equilib-rium. Stability criteria such as the zero-moment-point have been used to design optimal walking gaits [35]. Dynamic gaiting and bounding also have been demonstrated [36-38]. Recent work [39, 40] has attempted to provide unifying mathematical tools for gait generation. Each of these planning algorithms would be very effective in portions of a natural climbing environment with a sustained feature such as a long vertical crack of nearly uniform width. How-ever, something more is needed for irregular environ-ments such as the one studied in this paper, where the surfaces on which the robot climbs are angled and placed arbitrarily.
Non-gaited planners use sensed information about the environment to create feasible motion plans online. Most previous work on non-gaited motion planning for legged robots has focused on a particular system model, the spider robot. The limbs of a spider robot are assumed to be massless, which leads to elegant representations of their free space for quasi-static motion based on support triangles [41-43]. These methods have been extended to planning dynamic motions over rough terrain [44, 45]. The analysis used in these methods breaks down, however, when considering robots that do not satisfy the spider-robot assumption. For example, additional techniques were necessary in [46, 47] to plan non-gaited walking motions for humanoids, which clearly do not satisfy this assumption. To address the high number of degrees of freedom and the high branching factor of the discrete search through possible footsteps, these techniques were based on heuristic discretization and search algorithms. This paper considers a robot with fewer degrees of freedom in a more structured search space where it is possible to achieve much better performance than with these heuristic methods. Similar issues were addressed by [48] in designing a motion-planning algorithm for character animation, although this algorithm was meant to create “realistic,” rather than strictly feasible, motion.
There is also some similarity between non-gaited motion planning for legged locomotion and for grasping and robotic manipulation, particularly in the concept of a manipulation graph [24, 49-51]. Both types of planning require making discrete and continuous choices.
None of these existing planning techniques is suffi-cient to address even the simplest version of the climbing problem in natural vertical environments, in which quasi-static motion, perfect information, and one-finger grasps on point holds are assumed. The problem becomes even more complicated if the quasi-static and perfect information assumptions are relaxed, and if more complicated grasps are considered.
4.3Planning Framework
In this section, we will describe our planning framework in the context of a specific climbing robot,
shown in Figure 1. This robot consists of three limbs. Each limb has two joints, one located at the center of the robot (called the pelvis) and one at the midpoint of the limb. Motion is assumed to be quasi-static (as is usually the case in human climbing) and to occur in a vertical plane, with gravity. The low complexity of this robot’s kinematics makes it suitable for studying the planning of climbing motions.
The terrain is modeled as a vertical plane to which is attached a collection of small, angled, flat surfaces, called “holds,” that are arbitrarily distributed. The endpoint of each robot limb can push or pull at a single point on each hold, exploiting friction to avoid sliding.
A climbing motion of the robot consists of succes-sive steps. Between any two consecutive steps, all three limb endpoints achieve contact with distinct holds. During each step, one limb moves from one hold to another, while the other two endpoints remain fixed. The robot can use the degrees of freedom in the linkage formed by the corresponding two limbs to maintain quasi-static equilibrium and to avoid sliding on either of the two supporting holds. In addition, during a step, the torque at any joint should not exceed the actuator limits and the limbs should not collide
with one another. These constraints define the feasible subset of the configuration space of the robot in each step. A path in this subset defines a one-step motion. The overall planning problem is the following: given a model of the terrain, an initial robot configuration where it rests on a pair of holds, and a goal hold, generate a series of one-step motions that will allow the robot to move in quasi-static equilibrium from the initial configuration to an end configuration where one limb endpoint is in contact with the goal hold.
In [32] we presented the details of a framework to address this planning problem. This framework can be summarized as follows.
First, we presented a detailed analysis of one-step motion for the three-limbed climbing robot. The properties of the continuous configurations at which the robot is in equilibrium were established, and were used to define the feasible set of robot configurations at each pair of holds. In particular, it was shown that the connectivity of the four-dimensional continuous feasible space of the robot could be preserved when planning in a two-dimensional subspace. This result reduced the complexity of the one-step planning problem and led to a fast, online implementation. Then, the overall planner combined this “local planner” with a heuristic search technique to determine a sequence of holds from the initial configuration to the goal hold. The heuristic methods were based on observation of the way in which human climbers plan their motion.
4.4Results
Our work in [32] presented only one set of simula-tion results, for a particular vertical environment. This paper presents a second set of results, for a more challenging environment. This environment, as shown in Figure 4, contains 50 arbitrarily placed and angled holds. The robot is initially located on the two holds at the bottom of the environment, and is required to reach the top two holds.
A plan was found in 3.0 seconds using a 450 MHz PowerPC processor, which is typical for an environ-ment containing 50 holds. Planning times for smaller environments are on the order of 0.1 seconds.
A representative continuous configuration from each one-step motion in the planned sequence is shown in Figure 5. Many of these configurations are remarkably similar to human configurations. For example, the configuration shown in Figure 5(a) is similar to the “stem” shown in Figure 3(b). Likewise, Figures 5(i) and 5(n) depict configurations similar to the “back-step” of Figure 3(a) and the “high-step” of Figure 3(c), respectively.
Each frame of Figure 5 also shows the equilibrium region for the current pair of holds on which the robot is standing. This is the region over which the center of mass of the robot can move while remaining in quasi-static equilibrium without slipping, and is a complete specification of the equilibrium constraint on the robot. Notice that in each configuration shown, the center of mass of the robot lies within the equilibrium region, as expected.
More results, including animated 3D-visualizations, are available online at https://www.doczj.com/doc/f214047856.html,/~tbretl/.
5Conclusion
This paper described the challenges to developing an autonomous climbing robot and presented a framework
for addressing the planning problem.
Fig. 4. An example vertical environment for the three-limbed climbing robot.
Current work deals with the application of the planning framework to a real robotic system, using real hardware. As part of this effort, the framework is being extended to handle additional motion constraints, more complicated robot geometries, imperfectly known environments, and three-dimensional terrain.
Future work will address the other four fundamental issues—hardware design, control, sensing, and grasping—and their relationship to the planning problem.
Acknowledgements T. Bretl is partially supported by an
NDSEG fellowship through ASEE and by a Herbert Kunzel Fellowship. The authors would also like to thank D. Halperin for his helpful comments.
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雅思历年真题口语题目汇总 version 01old person describe an old man influenced you 1.who was he 2.when did you know him 3.what he did and explain why he influenced you part3 1.老人的经验有什么问题存在? 2.喜欢什么艺术品? 3.给老人拍照片时候注意什么呢? 4.你们国家对老年人是什么态度？ 5.你认为这个社会在哪些方面对老年人不太好？ 6.老人在你们家有什么影响？ 7.你认为老年人在看问题的时候跟年轻人有什么不一样？ 8.他们对大家有什么影响？ version 02 city 1.where it is located? 2. what special for you? 3. why you want to stay there? part 3 1.please compare 100 hundred years old city and modern city and what predict about the city in the future. 2.上海是个怎样的城市 3.都有那些著名建筑
4.你想为这个城市做些什么？ 5.有哪些现象有待提高或者那些提倡 version 03 room part2: 1.what's your favorite room in your home 2.what it likes you live 3.what you do in the room normally and explain why you like it part3: 1.你认识你的邻居吗？ 2.城市里的房子和乡村有什么不同？ 2003年9月换题后的口语topic Old person Describe a older person you know You should say:Who he or she is How you know him or her How he or she is And explain what infection he or she give you and in what aspect Further question： 1、你们国家对老年人是什么态度？ 2、你认为这个社会在哪些方面对老年人不太好？ 3、老人在你们家有什么影响？ 4、你认为老年人在看问题的时候跟年轻人有什么不一样？ 5、他们对大家有什么影响？
英语语法大全 初中英语语法 学习提纲 一、词类、句子成分和构词法： 1、词类：英语词类分十种： 名词、形容词、代词、数词、冠词、动词、副词、介词、连词、感叹词。 1、名词(n.)：表示人、事物、地点或抽象概念的名称。如：boy, morning, bag, ball, class, orange. ：who, she, you, it . 主要用来代替名词。如)： 2、代词(pron.3、形容词(adj..)：表示人或事物的性质或特征。如：good, right, white, orange . 4、数词(num.)：表示数目或事物的顺序。如：one, two, three, first, second, third, fourth. 5、动词(v.)：表示动作或状态。如：am, is,are,have,see . 6、副词(adv.)：修饰动词、形容词或其他副词,说明时间、地点、程度等。如：now, very, here, often, quietly, slowly. 7、冠词(art..)：用在名词前,帮助说明名词。如：a, an, the. 8、介词(prep.)：表示它后面的名词或代词与其他句子成分的关系。如in, on, from, above, behind. 9、连词(conj.)：用来连接词、短语或句子。如and, but, before . 10、感叹词(interj..)表示喜、怒、哀、乐等感情。如：oh, well, hi, hello. 2、句子成分：英语句子成分分为七种：主语、谓语、宾语、定语、状语、表语、宾语补足语。 1、主语是句子所要说的人或事物,回答是“谁”或者“什么”。通常用名词或代词担任。如：I'm Miss Green.(我是格林小姐) 2、谓语动词说明主语的动作或状态,回答“做(什么)”。主要由动词担任。如：Jack cleans the room every day. (杰克每天打扫房间) 3、表语在系动词之后,说明主语的身份或特征,回答是“什么”或者“怎么样”。通常由名词、 代词或形容词担任。如：My name is Ping ping .(我的名字叫萍萍) 4、宾语表示及物动词的对象或结果,回答做的是“什么”。通常由名词或代词担任。如：He can spell the word.(他能拼这个词) 有些及物动词带有两个宾语,一个指物,一个指人。指物的叫直接宾语,指人的叫间接宾语。间接 宾语一般放在直接宾语的前面。如：He wrote me a letter . (他给我写了 一封信) 有时可把介词to或for加在间接宾语前构成短语,放在直接宾语后面,来强调间接宾语。如：He wrote a letter to me . (他给我写了一封信)
主谓一致详解 【基础知识】 主谓一致指“人称”和“数”方面的一致关系。对大多数人来说，往往会在掌握主语和随后的谓语动词之间的一致问题上遇到困难。一般情况下，主谓之间的一致关系由以下三个原则支配： 语法一致原则(grammatical concord) 意义一致原则(notional concord) 就近原则(principle of proximity) （一）语法一致原则 用作主语的名词词组中心词和谓语动词在单、复数形式上的一致，就是语法一致。也就是说，如果名词中心词是单数，动词用单数形式；如果名词中心词是复数，动词用复数形式。例如： This table is a genuine antique. Both parties have their own advantages. Her job has something to do with computers. She wants to go home. They are divorcing each other. Mary was watching herself in the mirror. The bird built a nest. Susan comes home every week-end. （二）意义一致原则 有时，主语和谓语动词的一致关系取决于主语的单、复数意义，而不是语法上的单、复数形式，这样的一致关系就是意义一致。例如： Democratic government gradually take the place of an all-powerful monarchy. A barracks was attacked by the guerilla. Mumps is a kind of infectious disease. The United States is a developed country. It is the remains of a ruined palace. The archives was lost.
山东中纤越弘化工科技有限公司5万吨/年硼酸及副产品 3.5万吨/年硝酸钠项目安全设施设计专篇 修改说明 序 号 专家评审意见对应修改情况 1 纠正设计专篇首页及页眉的项目标题错误；明 确设计范围。 已修改首页及页眉的项目标题错误， 改为5万吨/年硼酸及副产品3.5万吨 /年硝酸钠项目；P9对设计范围进行了 修改，明确为生产一车间两条生产线。 2 设计依据补充法律、法规、文件年号；纠 正引用GB50058 等标准、规范的错误；补充《危 险化学品名录》 (2015版)、《化学工业建构筑 物抗震设防分类标准》等依据、HG20571-2014， 依据《危险化学品名录》 (2015版)对涉及的危 险化学品进行辨识及分析；表4.2.3依据标准 按GB50016-2014进行设计；专篇中不应引用《安 全生产法》老版有关规定(P92)。 GB50058去掉爆炸和；对危险化学品辨 识依据改为《危险化学品名录》（2015 版）；表 4.2.3中依据标准改为 GB50016-2014；P95-96对涉及的《安 全生产法》按新条款进行了修改。 3 补充项目距离东侧高压线、闲置房防火距 离分析；核实主要建筑物平面布置距离表中生 产车间距离西侧、南侧围墙距离及符合性分析； 补充硝酸罐与道路的间距分析；确定厂内主、 次要道路的宽度。 P28补充与高压线、闲置房的距离及符 合性分析；P55-56对车间距离围墙间 距符合性进行了分析说明；表 4.2.3 补充硝酸罐与道路的间距分析； P56-57对主、次要道路宽度进行说明。 4 核实硝酸用量与储存能力匹配性说明；核 实表2.3中硼酸的存储方式；补充硝酸分解出 二氧化氮气体毒性分析。 P20对硝酸用量与储存能力匹配性进 行了修改说明；修改了表2.3中硼酸 的储存方式为袋装；P40补充了硝酸分 解产生二氧化氮气体的毒性分析。 5 应急救援器材配备表中不应列入个体劳动 防护用品；纠正项目安全生产管理人员设置的 错误。 P87修改了应急器材配备表，删去工作 服等；P80对安全生产管理人员数量进 行修改为专职安全员4人。 6 安全设施一览表中不涉及项目不应下符合 性结论，纠正对安全带数量的统计错误(p117)， 明确液位计选型，安全阀、淋洗器数量。补充 腐蚀性管道法兰处防喷溅措施。 P113修改安全设施一览表；补充、修 改安全带数量4条，液位计选型改为 磁翻板液位计、安全阀、淋洗器改为4 个；补充腐蚀性管道法兰处防喷溅措 施（安装防喷溅罩）。 7 纠正工艺流程简述中的错误叙述内容；补 充项目物料平衡设计数据；反应方程式说明吸 放热。 P11修改了工艺流程错误叙述；P13补 充项目物料平衡表；P12反应方程式补 充吸热内容。 8 设计图纸的凉水塔、消防水等公用工程与 设计叙述内容不一致，需核实纠正其错误；补 充消防水管网设计描述，补充事故污水池的设 计叙述内容；补充项目用电负荷设计；补充硝 酸钠仓库的防雷设计。 总平图设计凉水塔两套；P84补充消防 水管网设计描述；P93对事故污水池设 计进行了叙述；P63对用电负荷进行了 说明；P64防雷设计中补充了硝酸钠仓 库防雷内容。
IELTS SPEAKING TEST Part 1 Work or study 1.Do you work or are you a student? 2.What subject(s) are you studying? 3.Why did you choose to study that subject? 4.(For high school) Why did you choose those subjects? 5.Is that a popular subject (to study) in your country? 6.Do you think it's popular because people want to gain knowledge or is there some other reason? 7.What are the most popular subjects (= university degree courses = majors) in China? 8.Did your family help you choose that course? 9.What school (or university) do you go to? 10.Why did you choose that university (or, school)? 11.Do you have any recreational or entertainment activities at your school/university? 12.How do you like your subject? 13.What do you like about your subject? 14.Do you think it's important to choose a subject you like? (Why?) 15.(For university students) What are your favourite classes/ courses/ subjects at university? 16.(For high school students) What's your favourite subject at school? 17.Is your subject interesting? (Why? / Why not?) 18.Do you think it's important to choose a subject you are interested in? (Why?) 19.What's the most interesting part of your subject? 20.(For high school) What's the most interesting of your subjects at school? 21.What are your future work plans? (after you graduate) 22.Do you think what you are studying now will be very useful (or, relevant or, important) for this type of work? 23.How will you (or, how do you plan to) get the job you want? 24.Do you think it will be easy to find that kind of work? 25.Why are you taking the IELTS test? 26.In addition to gaining knowledge, what other ways have you benefited from your school/university experience? Accommodation 1.What kind of housing/accommodation do you live in? 2.Who do you live with? 3.How long have you lived there? 4.Do you plan to live there for a long time? 5.Can you describe the place where you live? 6.Which room does your family spend most of the time in? 7.What do you usually do in your house/flat/room? 8.Are the transport facilities to your home very good? 9.Do you prefer living in a house or a flat? 10.Please describe the room you live in. 11.Is there anything you don't like about the place where you live?
雅思历年真题口语题目汇总 version01old person describe an old man influenced you 1.who was he 2.when did you know him 3.what he did and explain why he influeced you part3 1.老人的经验有什么问题存在? 2.喜欢什么艺术品? 3.给老人拍照片时候注意什么呢? 4.你们国家对老年人是什么态度？ 5.你认为这个社会在哪些方面对老年人不太好？ 6.老人在你们家有什么影响？ 7.你认为老年人在看问题的时候跟年轻人有什么不一样？ 8.他们对大家有什么影响？ version02city 1.where it is located? 2.what special for you? 3.why you want to stay there? part3 1.please compare100hundred years old city and modern city and what predict about the city in the futu re. 2.上海是个怎样的城市 新东方批改网（https://www.doczj.com/doc/f214047856.html,）,在线雅思作文批改，雅思口语批改。语法纠错、恶补，制定考试计划，
3.都有那些著名建筑 4.你想为这个城市做些什么？ 5.有哪些现象有待提高或者那些提倡 version03room part2: 1.what's your favorite room in your home 2.what it likes you live 3.what you do in the room normally and explain why you like it part3: 1.你认识你的邻居吗？ 2.城市里的房子和乡村有什么不同？ 2003年9月换题后的口语topic Old person Describe a older person you know You should say:Who he or she is How you know him or her How he or she is And explain what infection he or she give you and in what aspect Further question： 1、你们国家对老年人是什么态度？ 2、你认为这个社会在哪些方面对老年人不太好？ 3、老人在你们家有什么影响？ 新东方批改网（https://www.doczj.com/doc/f214047856.html,）,在线雅思作文批改，雅思口语批改。语法纠错、恶补，制定考试计划，
六年级语法总复习 一、词汇 （一）一般过去时态 一般过去时态表示在过去的某个时间发生的动作或存在的状态，常和表示过去的时间状语连用。例如yesterday, last weekend ,last Saturday ,等连用。基本句型：主语+动词的过去式+其他。例句——What did you do last weekend?你上周做什么了？ ——I played football last weekend.我踢足球了。 ★规则动词过去式的构成 ⒈一般在动词原形末尾加-ed。例如：play—played ⒉词尾是e的动词直接加-d。例如：dance—danced ⒊末尾只有一个辅音字母的重读闭音节词，先双写这个辅音字母，再加-ed。例如stop（停止）--stopped ⒋结尾是“辅音字母+y”的动词，变“y”为“i”，再加-ed，例如：study--studied ★一些不规则变化的动词过去式 am/is—was are—were go—went swim—swam fly—flew do—did have—had say—said see—saw take—took come—came become—became get—got draw—drew hurt—hurt read—read tell—told will—would eat—ate take—took make—made drink—drank sleep(睡觉)—slept cut（切）--cut sit(坐)—sat begin(开始)—began think—thought find—found run(跑)---ran buy—bought win—won give(给)—gave sing—sang leave—left hear（听）--heart wear—wore （二）一般现在时态 一般现在时态表示包括现在时间在内的一段时间内经常发生的动作或存在的状态，表示习惯性或客观存在的事实和真理。常与often ,always ,usually ,sometimes ,every day等连用。基本句型分为两种情况： ●主语（非第三人称）+动词原形+其他。例句：——What do you usually do on the weekend?——I usually do my homework on the weekend. ●主语（第三人称）+动词的第三人称单数形式+其他。例句： ——What does Sarah usually do on the weekend?萨拉通常在周末干什么？ ——She usually does her homework on the weekend.她通常在周末做她的家庭作业。 ★动词第三人称单数形式的变化规则 ⒈一般直接在动词词尾加-s.例如：play—plays ⒉以s ,x ,ch,sh结尾的动词加-es。例如：watch—watches ⒊以辅音字母加y结尾的动词，变y为i，再加es,例如：fly—flies ⒋个别不规则变化动词，需单独记忆，例如：do—does go—goes （三）现在进行时态 现在进行时态表示说话人现在正在进行的动作。基本句型：主语+be+动词的-ing+其他。 例如:——What are you doing ?你在干什么？ ——I am doing my homework..我正在做作业。 ★动词现在分词的变化规则 ⒈一般直接在词尾加ing ，例如;wash—washing ⒉以不发音e字母结尾的动词，去掉e ,再加ing.例如：make—making ⒊末尾只有一个辅音字母的重读闭音节词，要双写最后一个辅音字母再加ing.例如swim—swimming （四）一般将来时态 一般将来时态表示将来某一时间或某一段时间内发生的动作或存在的状态。常与表示将来的时间如tomorrow ,next weeken ,this afternoon 等连用。我们通常用will,be going to+动词原形来表示一般将来时态。
主谓一致的讲解 主谓一致是指： 1）语法形式上要一致，即名词单复数形式与谓语要一致。 2）意义上要一致，即主语意义上的单复数要与谓语的单复数形式一致。 一、并列结构作主语时的主谓一致 1.由and 连接主语时 And 连接的两个或多个单数可数名词、不可数名词或代词作主语时根据意义或概念确定谓语用单数或复数 1)并列主语表示不同的人、物或概念时谓语动词用复数 Li Ming and Zhang Hua are good students. Like many others, the little tramp and the naughty boy have rushed there in search of gold. 小流浪汉和调皮的小男孩也赶到那里寻找金子 Both rice and wheat are grown in this area. 2)并列主语表示同一个人、物或概念时，谓语动词用单数形式。 The professor and writer is speaking at the meeting. 那位教授兼作家正在会上发言 A journalist and authour lives on the sixth floor. 一位新闻记者兼作家 His lawyer and former college friend was with him on his trip to Europe. 他的律师兼大学时代的朋友陪他去欧洲旅行 The Premier and Foreign Minister was present at the state banquet. 总理兼外长 比较：the writer and the educator have visited our school. the writer and educator has visited our school. His lawyer and his former college friend were with him on his trip to Europe. 注意：指同一个人或物时，并列主语前只用一个冠词，指不同的需要分别加冠词，但两个名词具有分别的对立的意思时只需要一个冠词即可 A boy and girl are playing tennis. 3)并列主语前有each, every, many a , no 等修饰时谓语动词用单数 Each doctor and (each) nurse working in the hospital was asked to help patients. Every man, woman and child is entitled to take part in the activity. 有权参加 Every boy and (every) girl admires him for his fine sense of humour. Many a boy and (many a ) girl has made the same mistake No boy and no girl is there now.没有任何男孩和女孩在那里 注意：many a 跟单数可数名词但是表示复数意义翻译为很多 Many a student was disappointed after seeing the movie. 4)并列主语为不可分的整体时，谓语动词用单数 A law and rule about protecting environment has been drawn up. 关于保护环境的法律法规已经起草完成。 The knife and fork has been washed 刀叉已经被洗好 War and peace is a constant theme in history 战争与和平是历史永恒的主题 注意;常被视为主体的结构 A cup and saucer 一副杯碟 A horse and cart 马车 A knife and fork 一副刀叉
先进封装用关键材料球形硅微粉的产业化建设项目 环境影响报告表技术评估会评估意见 武汉新江城环境事务咨询有限责任公司于2011年9月7日在主持召开了《先进封装用关键材料球形硅微粉的产业化建设项目环境影响报告表》（以下简称《报告表》）技术评估会。参加会议的有武汉市环保局东湖新技术开发区分局、、武汉帅尔光电子新材料有限公司（建设单位）、湖北天泰环保工程有限公司（评价单位）等单位的代表共计人。会议邀请位专家（名单附后），负责技术评估。 与会专家和代表踏勘了建设项目厂区及周边环境，会上建设单位和评价单位分别汇报了项目建设的有关情况和《报告表》的主要技术内容，会议经过质询、充分讨论和认真评估，形成以下专家组技术评估意见： 一．项目概况 二．建设内容 三．环保措施及环境影响分析 （1）施工期 （2）运营期 ①废水 ②废气 ③噪声 ④固体废物 ⑤其他影响分析
四．评估结论 项目选址符合武汉市城市规划要求，项目建设符合国家有关产业政策要求。 项目通过环境影响评价，针对该工程实施可能产生的环境问题，提出了相应的污染防治措施，在建设单位确保环保资金投入、严格执行“三同时”制度，全面落实修改完善报批后的《报告表》所确定的各项环保措施，并加强施工期的环境管理工作，将能有效地控制和减缓工程实施可能产生的环境影响。从环境保护角度分析，项目建设可行。 五．《报告表》编制质量 《报告表》编制规范，评价内容较全面。建设项目基本情况、工程建设内容及环境现状阐述较清楚，工程分析基本体现了行业特点，环境保护措施有一定针对性，评价结论总体可信。《报告表》按评估意见进一步修改、完善，并经评估机构出具评估意见后可呈报武汉市环保局东湖新技术开发区分局审批。 六．《报告表》修改、完善时应重点考虑以下问题：
PART1 Names 1.Who gave you your name? The name was given by my parents. 2.Does your name have any particular (or special meaning? I don’t know about that. 3.Do you like your name? I guess yes. 4.In your country do people feel that their name is very important? Most of people think so, because names are the first impression to other people. 5.Would you like to change your name? I don’t think it’s necessary. 6.Is it easy to change your name in your country? Maybe there will be some procedures to do. 7.Who usually names babies in your country? Parents or grandparents. 8.Do you have any special traditions about naming children? It depends on the tradition of the hometown. 9.What names are most common in your hometown?
【雅思口语预测】雅思口语话题题库范文 雅思口语精准预测刘薇简介环球雅思北京学校副校长最受欢迎口语教师授课时激情中透着温婉幽默里渗入励志秉承让学生 "轻松复习事半功倍"的教学理念。 从事雅思教学多年北京大学传播学硕士曾学术访问哈佛大学 耶鲁大学等世界顶尖名校。 著作《雅思九天口语高分之路》、《剑桥雅思全真试题原版解析8》。本月预测重点本预测适用于xx年4月雅思考试超高频和重回题库考题、一级重点、都是重点类别需要考生准备细致答案。二级重点考生考生准备思路即可。 Part 1 分类汇总一基本信息类 1. Name 什么名字，中文名含义，未来换吗 2. Study or work 上班还上学上学问专业或最喜欢学科上班工作内容，参加过培训吗，未来换工作吗 3. Hometown 家乡哪里，有什么特别的地方，未来想居住的地方 4. Weather 喜欢什么天气家乡天气，家乡天气今年的变化 5. Family 家庭情况，家庭时间如何度过，全家人喜欢一起做什么二衣食住行类 1. Living 住flat还是house，最喜欢的房间，如果重装修会怎么做 2. Building 喜欢什么建筑，你们国家的人更喜欢传统还是时尚建筑，未来建筑的发展 3.
Countryside 喜欢郊区吗，郊区与城市的区别，什么人喜欢郊区 4. Transport 家乡交通特点，公共交通和私人交通的优缺点，未 来如何改善 5. Boating 划过船吗，坐过船吗，好处，你们国 家水运多吗 6. Clothes and fashion 喜欢什么衣服，喜欢时 尚吗，时尚对生活的影响 7. Bags 平时背包包吗，什么类型的 宝宝，知道哪些包包，丢过包包吗 8. Keeping healthy and fit 如何保持健康，如何保持身材 9. Daily routine and favorite time in a day 典型的一天，一天中最喜欢的时间段 10. Sleeping 几点睡几点起，睡不着怎么办，如何培养好的睡眠习惯 三娱乐休闲 1. Music 喜欢什么类型音乐，喜欢在家听还是concert hall。会乐器吗，什么乐器。 2. dancing 会舞蹈吗，中国人喜欢什么舞蹈，传统舞蹈得到了 传承吗 3. photography 喜欢摄影吗，喜欢给别人拍还是别人 给你拍，喜欢收藏照片吗 4. painting 会画画儿吗，小孩子学 习绘画的好处，有什么绘画技巧吗 5. sport 最喜欢什么运 动，好处 6. museum 喜欢去博物馆吗，好处，博物馆该收费吗7. leisure and relaxation 喜欢什么休闲活动，跟谁，在哪 儿，好处，中国人都喜欢什么休闲 8. weekends 如何度过周 末，周末加班吗，老板应该给发工资吗 9. postcards 喜欢 ___吗，发给别人或者收到过吗，跟email的区别 10. public park 喜欢去公园吗，做什么，应该有更多公园吗四科技生活
2019年9-12月雅思口语Part 2新题预测：有意义的 歌 有意义的歌 P2 Describe a song that is meaningful to you. You should say： what song it is; when you first heard it; what the song is about; and explain why it is meaningful to you. P3 1.Is it good for children to learn music? 2.How do Chinese people learn music? 3.Do men and women play different kinds of musical instruments? 4.what's the status of traditional music now? 5.Do all grades have music class? 6.Is music class important? 7.What kind of music do children like? 8.Why would some parents force their children to learn some musical
instruments? 解析 题目要求考生描述“一首对你有意义的歌”。作答要点包括：是什么歌、什么时候第一次听到、歌是关于什么的，并说明为什么这首歌对你有特殊意义。 范文 Three years ago, a song came out that celebrated being young and relaxed and I was instantly crazy about it. It was called ‘Young for you’ and the beat and melody were off the hook! The song became a massive hit across China that year and you could hear it being played everywhere. When I listen to the song now it immediately takes me back to my youth. I first heard the song playing in a shopping mall and was instantly drawn to it. The singer's voice was like no other I had ever heard before and the melody was haunting and sad. I stopped shopping and used an app on my phone to identify the tune. I immediately downloaded the album off iTunes.
小学英语语法知识点汇总！ 01 人称代词 主格：I we you she he it they 宾格：me us you her him it them 形容词性物主代词：my our your her his its their 名词性物主代词：mine ours yours hers his its theirs 02 形容词和副词的比较 (1) 一般在形容词或副词后+er older ,taller, longer, stronger (2) 多音节词前+more more interesting, etc. (3) 双写最后一个字母，再+er bigger fatter, etc. (4) 把y变i，再+er heavier, earlier (5) 不规则变化： well-better, much/many-more, etc. 03 可数词的复数形式 Most nouns + s abook –books
Nouns ending in aconsonant +y - y+ ies a story—stories Nouns ending in s,sh, ch or x + es a glass—glasses a watch-watches Nouns ending in o+s or +es a piano—pianos a mango—mangoes Nouns ending in for fe - f or fe +ves a knife –knives a shelf-shelves 04 不可数名词（单复数不变） bread, rice, water ,juice等。 05 缩略形式 I’m= I a，you’re = you are，she’s= she is，he’s = he is it’s= it is，who’s =who is，can’t =can not，isn’t=is not等。 06 a/an a book, a peach an egg，an hour 07 Preposition on, in ,in front of, between, next to, near, beside, at,behind. 表示时间：at six o’clock, at Christmas, at breakfast
高中英语主谓一致知识点讲解 本文主要讲解主谓一致，并列结构作主语时谓语用复数主谓一致中的靠近原则谓语动词与前面的主语一致 等常见考点。 主谓一致是指： 1）语法形式上要一致，即单复数形式与谓语要一致。 2）意义上要一致，即主语意义上的单复数要与谓语的单复数形式一致。 3）就近原则，即谓语动词的单复形式取决于最靠近它的词语， 一般来说，不可数名词用动词单数，可数名词复数用动词复数。例如： There is much water in the thermos. 但当不可数名词前有表示数量的复数名词时，谓语动词用复数形式。例如： Ten thousand tons of coal were produced last year. 并列结构作主语时谓语用复数，例如： Reading and writing are very important. 读写很重要。 注意：当主语由and连结时，如果它表示一个单一的概念，即指同一人或同一物时，谓语动词用单数，and 此时连接的两个词前只有一个冠词。例如： The iron and steel industry is very important to our life. 钢铁工业对我们的生活有重要意义。 典型例题 The League secretary and monitor ___ asked to make a speech at the meeting. A. is B. was C. are D. were 答案B. 注：先从时态上考虑。这是过去发生的事情应用过去时，先排除A.，C。本题易误选D，因为The League secretary and monitor 好象是两个人，但仔细辨别，monitor 前没有the，在英语中，当一人兼数职时只在第一个职务前加定冠词。后面的职务用and 相连。这样本题主语为一个人，所以应选B。
雅思口语考试形式及内容全面解析 雅思口语考试是考生与考官之间进行一对一交流的形式，考官对考生的英语口语水平进行考察。雅思口语考试分为三个部分，考生可以以此使用不同的口语表达技能。雅思考试口语部分将被录音。下面就和大家分享，来欣赏一下吧。 雅思口语考试形式及内容全面解析 雅思口语Part 1 雅思口语考试形式：考官会向考生进行自我简介，并核对考生的身份。之后，考官会就考生熟悉的话题(如朋友、兴趣习惯或者食物) 进行询问。为保证题目的一致性，这些问题都是从一个事先拟定的范围内抽取的。 考试时间有多长：4-5分钟。 这部分考察的是什么技能：这部分考察的是考生就日常性的观点和信息、常见的生活经历或情形以回答问题的形式进行交流的能力。 雅思口语Part 2 雅思口语考试形式：这部分为考生作个人陈述。考官会交给考生一个答题任务卡、铅笔和草稿纸做笔记。答题任务卡上会给
出一个话题和需要在个人陈述中包含的要点，并在最后提示考生解释这个话题的某一个方面。有效地使用答题任务卡上的提示可以帮助考生思考讲述的话题、组织内容、并持续地陈述2分钟时间。在准备时间内做一些笔记也可以帮助考生安排好陈述的结构。考生有一分钟的准备时间，之后考官会要求考生就相关内容讲述1-2分钟。考官会在2分钟后打断考生，并在最后提问一两个问题作为结束语。 考试时间有多长：3-4分钟。 这部分考察的是什么技能：这部分考察得是考生(在没有任何其它提示的情况下)就一个特定的话题进行较长时间的陈述的能力，考察考生是否能恰当地运用语言、是否能连贯地组织自己的观点。考生有可能需要联系自己的经历来完成这部分内容。 雅思口语Part 3 雅思口语考试形式：在这部分考试中，考官和考生将对第二部分中涉及的话题进行讨论，讨论将为更加广泛和抽象，在恰当的时候还会更加深入。 考试时间有多长：4-5分钟。 这部分考察的是什么技能：这部分考察的是考生表达和论述看法、分析、讨论以及深入思考问题的能力。 雅思口语范文：describe something made you laugh
剑桥雅思9口语真题+解析Test3-Part3 摘要：剑桥雅思9口语真题+解析Test3-Part3，剑桥雅思9Test3口语Part3讨论话题举例：Reasons for daily travel，有需要的同学抓紧时间下载吧! Discussion topics: Reasons for daily travel Example questions: · Why do people need to travel every day? 为什么人们每天都需要出行? 笨鸟雅思口语名师点题 本题询问人们为什么每天穿梭于各地。通常针对询问people的问题，可以相应列举出不同人群，如上班的人、上学的人、走亲访友的人、旅游的人等，同时针对某类人群适当进行拓展。 高分示例 People need to travel for lots of different reasons. Almost everybody has to travel to work, so they can earn money and provide for their families. If a person is lucky, then they will live very close to the place where they work, so they can travel on foot or by bicycle. Sometimes, however, people live very far away, so they must travel by bus, train, car, or even sometimes by plane or boat! Lots of people also travel to see friends and family members, who might live in a different city, or even a different country. But often people just like to travel for fun, to go to somewhere new, or to see a famous tourist site or place of natural beauty. 参考译文 人们有各种各样的理由来来往往。几乎每个人都要去上班，这样才能赚钱养家。幸运的人住的地方离工作单位很近，可以步行或者骑车去上班。但是，有时候，住的地方比较远的人就必须坐公交车、坐火车、开车，甚至坐飞机、坐船去上班。大部分人都会去异地甚至异国拜访朋友、看望家人。但是人们经常是出去玩，去探索新的地方，去看看著名的景点，去看看自然美景。 亮点表达 earn money 赚钱 tourist site 旅游景点 provide for 供养