A Longitudinal Investigation into L2 Learners’ Cognitive Processes during Study Abroad

评析二语习得认知派与社会派20年的论战作者：文秋芳， WEN Qiufang作者单位：北京外国语大学中国外语教育研究中心刊名：中国外语英文刊名：ZHONGGUO WAIYU年，卷(期)：2008,5(3)被引用次数：31次1.Bailey N;Madden C;Krashen S Is there a "natural sequence" in adult second language learning?1974(02)2.Block D Not so fast! Some thoughts on theory culling,relativism,accepted findings and the heart and the soul of SLA 1996(01)3.Block D The rise of identity in SLA research,post Firth and Wagner,(1997) 2007(05)4.Breen M The social context for language learning:A neglected situation?[外文期刊] 1985(01)5.Brown R A First Language 19736.Canagarajah S Lingua Franca English,multilingual communities,and language acquisition 2007(05)7.Chomsky N A review of B.E Skinner's Verbal Behavior 1959(01)8.Corder P The significance of learner's errors 1967(01)9.Dulay H;Burt M Natural sequences in child second-language acquisition?[外文期刊] 1974(01)10.Ellis N Constructions,chunking,and connectionism:The emergence of second language structure 200311.Ellis R Task-based research and language pedagogy 2000(03)12.Firth A;Wagner J On discourse,communication and,(some) fundamental concepts in SLA research[外文期刊] 1997(02)13.Firth A;Wagner J Second/Foreign language learning as a social accomplishment:Elaborations on a reconceptualized SLA 2007(05)14.Frawley W;Lantolf J P Second language discourse:A Vygotskyan perspective[外文期刊] 1985(01)15.Gass S M Apples and oranges:Or,why apples are not oranges and don't need to be 1998(01)16.Gass S M;Lee J;Roots R Firth and Wagner,(1997):New ideas or a new articulation? 2007(05)17.Gregg K R SLA theory:Construction and assessment 200318.Kasper G"A" stands for acquisition 1997(02)19.Kramsch C Whiteside Three fundamental concepts in second language acquisition and their relevance in multilingual contexts 2007(05)fford B A Second language acquisition reconceptualized? The impact of Firth and Wagner,(1997) 2007(05)ntolf J P Sociocultural Theory and Second Language Learning[Special issue] 1994(04)ntolf J P SLA theory building:"Letting all the flowers bloom." 1996(04)ntolf J E Sociocultural theory and L2:State of the art 2006(01)ntolf J P Extending Firth and Wagner's,(1997) ontological perspective to L2 classroom Praxis and teacher education 2007(05)ntolf J P;Appel G Vygotskian Approaches to Second Language Research 1994ntolf J P;Frawley W Proficiency:Understanding the construct 1988(01)rsen-Freeman D Second language acquisition and applied linguistics 2000(01)rsen-Freeman D Reflecting on the cognitivesocial debate in second language acquisition 2007(05)29.Long M H Assessment strategies for second language acquisition theories 1993(02)30.Long M H Construct validity in SLA research 1997(02)31.Long M H Problems in SLA 200732.Long M H;Doughty C J SLA and cognitive science 200333.Mori J Border crossing? Exploring the intersection of second language acquisition,conversation analysis,and foreign language pedagogy 2007(05)34.O'Grady W The radical middle:Nativism without universal grammar 200335.Poulisse N Some words in defense of the psycholinguistic approach 1997(02)36.Skehan P A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning 199837.Selinker L Interlanguage 1972(01)38.Swain M Languaging,agency and collaboration in advanced second language learning 200639.Swain M;Deters P"New" mainstream SLA theory:Expanded and enriched 2007(05)40.Tarone E Sociolinguistic approaches to second language acquisition research-1997-2007 2007(05)41.Valdman A Introduction 2002(01)42.van Lier L Forks and hope:Pursuing understanding in different ways 1994(02)43.Watson-Gegeo K A Mind,language,and epistemology:Toward a language socialization paradigm for SLA 2004(02)44.Zuengler J;Miller E R Cognitive and sociocultural perspectives:Two parallel SLA world? 2006(01)1.张凤娟.刘永兵社会认知主义视角对二语习得研究的启示[期刊论文]-东北师大学报（哲学社会科学版）2012(3)2.熊媛不同国籍留学生汉语习得研究[期刊论文]-学园 2011(6)3.孟宏最近发展区理论在国内的应用现状与思考[期刊论文]-阜阳师范学院学报（社会科学版） 2011(2)4.牛瑞英信息处理理论和社会文化理论在解释二语习得中的互补——基于理论和实证的多维度探讨[期刊论文]-英语教师 2013(8)5.郑淑艳交互假设在二语学习中的作用探析[期刊论文]-才智 2013(28)6.柳爱群社会文化理论视角下的第二语言习得过程管窥[期刊论文]-湖北广播电视大学学报 2012(12)7.姜峰社会文化视角下的语言学习策略实证研究——以德国某大学中国留学生为例[期刊论文]-东北大学学报（社会科学版） 2013(6)8.梅进丽大学英语课堂教学个案设计与研究——基于“体验式”语言教学理论[期刊论文]-湖北科技学院学报2012(11)9.段玲琍社会文化理论与语用习得理论框架的构建[期刊论文]-江南大学学报：人文社会科学版 2012(3)10.高一虹.周燕二语习得社会心理研究:心理学派与社会文化学派[期刊论文]-外语学刊 2009(1)11.丁毅伟基于图式理论的阅读理解研究[期刊论文]-黑龙江高教研究 2009(11)12.王静社会文化理论与英语教学研究[期刊论文]-湖北科技学院学报 2012(11)13.李棠社会文化理论在国内二语习得领域研究十年回顾[期刊论文]-科技信息 2012(5)14.杜军主体间性视阈中的大学英语听说能力实效性研究[期刊论文]-遵义师范学院学报 2011(1)15.江洁基于期刊与作者共被引分析法的二语习得领域研究——学科知识图谱绘制实例[期刊论文]-中国科技期刊研究 2011(3)16.盛仁泽显性、隐性学习视野下认知派与社会文化派之比较[期刊论文]-外国语文（四川外语学院学报）2012(2)17.李倩英语课堂学生话语研究综述[期刊论文]-时代教育（教育教学版） 2012(3)18.罗海燕基于CL和SA相结合的英语阅读教学的实证研究[期刊论文]-滁州学院学报 2011(3)19.刘永兵西方二语习得理论研究的两种认识论取向——对我国外语研究的启示[期刊论文]-东北师大学报（哲学社会科学版） 2010(4)20.刘永兵.赵杰布迪厄文化资本理论——外语教育研究与理论建构的社会学视角[期刊论文]-外语学刊 2011(4)21.贾冠杰社会文化视角下的二语习得活动论[期刊论文]-中国海洋大学学报（社会科学版） 2010(4)22.段玲琍社会文化理论与语用习得的理论基础[期刊论文]-外国语言文学 2013(2)23.刘姬Atkinson的二语习得社会认知视角及其启示[期刊论文]-广西师范大学学报（哲学社会科学版） 2009(1)24.刘永兵.张会平社会认知主义视域下的外语教学与传统外语教学的关系思考与定位[期刊论文]-中国外语：中英文版 2011(4)25.刘东楼.王祥德二语习得的社会认知视角[期刊论文]-当代外语研究 2013(4)26.谭芳.刘永兵语言、文化、自我——论巴赫金与维果斯基理论核心思想之"殊途同归"[期刊论文]-外语研究2010(3)27.王立非.袁凤识.朱美慧.魏梅体验英语学习的二语习得理论基础[期刊论文]-中国外语 2009(5)28.王立非.袁凤识.朱美慧.魏梅体验英语学习的二语习得理论基础[期刊论文]-中国外语 2009(5)29.陈力外语教学法的"后方法"时代[期刊论文]-山东师范大学外国语学院学报（基础英语教育） 2009(3)30.董哲.高瑛外语教学中的“关注形式教学”[期刊论文]-教学研究 2013(5)31.高瑛认知与社会文化视域下的课堂互动话语研究述评[期刊论文]-外语教学理论与实践 2009(4)32.田剪秋移动语言学习的发展现状和趋势[期刊论文]-外语电化教学 2009(2)33.谭芳.刘永兵对话与习得——巴赫金的语言符号理论与二语习得研究[期刊论文]-外语研究 2011(3)本文链接：/Periodical_zhonggwy200803003.aspx。

第一页，编辑于星期六：十八点 二十七分。
Learner processes
The universal Hypothesis and Second Language Acquisition
What is the universal Hypothesis? The ‘universal hypothesis’ states that language
insufficient匮乏
第十一页，编辑于星期六：十八点 二十七分。
What exactly are the ‘general principles that apply to all language’?
substantive universals
内容普遍现象
Universal Grammar
第八页，编辑于星期六：十八点 二十七分。
Noam Chomsky(乔姆斯基）
The year 1957 saw the publication of Noam Chomsky’s book Syntactic Structures, which started a revolution in the linguistic world and ushered in a new school--- the transformational generative linguistics
The role of linguistic universals in SLA
effect on grammar formation
effect on L1 transfer
The problems of the Universal Hypothesis
第五页，编辑于星期六：十八点 二十七分。

队列研究（cohort study 或panel study），又译为群组研究、定群研究、追踪研究、梯次研究等，是在医学、社会科学、精算学、生态学等领域中使用的一种纵向研究（longitudinal study）。

它是对风险因子的分析手段，通过对未患某一特定疾病的人群在一定时间内的观察，根据相关性来确定被观察对象患病的风险。

它是一种临床研究设计，应与横向研究（cross-sectional study）相互参照。

队列研究的对象大多是有特定生活经历的人群及其中的个人。

队列（cohort或panel）是指一群在特定时期内有共同特征或经历的人，如在某一时期出生或在暴露于某因素（如一种药物、疫苗、污染物或经历特定的医疗过程等）的人。

那些出生于某一天或某一特定时期的人被称为出生队列（birth cohort）。

与其作比较的对照组可以是普通人群，也可以是没有暴露（或少量暴露）于所研究因素的人群。

此外，队列中还可划分为小群以互相比较。

队列研究可以是前瞻性或回顾性的。

A cohort study is a form of longitudinal study（纵向研究） (a type of observational study) used in medicine, social science, actuarial science（精算学）, business analytics（商业分析）, and ecology（生态学）. For instance in medicine, it is an analysis of risk factors and follows a group of people who do not have the disease, and uses correlations（统计）to determine the absolute risk of subject contraction. It is one type of clinical（临床）study design and should be compared with a cross-sectional study（横向研究）Cohort studies are largely about the life histories of segments（片段）of populations, and the individual people who constitute these segments.A cohort is a group of people who share a common characteristic or experience within a defined period (e.g., are born, are exposed to a drug or vaccine or pollutant, or undergo a certain medical procedure). Thus a group of people who were born on a day or in a particular period, say 1948, form a birth cohort. The comparison group may be the general population from which the cohort is drawn, or it may be another cohort of persons thought to have had little or no exposure to the substance under investigation, but otherwise similar. Alternatively, subgroups within the cohort may be compared with each other.Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) are a superior methodology in the hierarchy of evidence in therapy, because they limit the potential for any biases by randomly assigning one patient pool to an intervention and another patient pool to non-intervention (or placebo). This minimizes the chance that the incidence of confounding (particularly unknown confounding) variables will differ between the two groups. However, it is important to note that RCTs may not be suitable in all cases and other methodologies could be much more suitable to investigate the study's objective(s).Cohort studies can either be conducted prospectively, or retrospectively from archived records.Cohort (statistics统计学)In statistics and demography, a cohort is a group of subjects who have shared a particular event together during a particular time span(e.g., people born in Europe between 1918 and 1939; survivors of an aircrash; truck drivers who smoked between age 30 and 40). Cohorts may be tracked over extended periods in a cohort study. The cohort can be modified by censoring, i.e. excluding certain individuals from statistical calculations relating to time periods (e.g. after death) when their data would contaminate the conclusions.The term cohort can also be used where membership of a group is defined by some factor other than a time-based one: for example, where a study covers workers in many buildings, a cohort might consist of the people who work in a given building.Demography often contrasts cohort perspectives and period perspectives. For instance, the total cohort fertility rate is an index of the average completed family size for cohorts of women, but since it can only be known for women who have finished child-bearing, it cannot be measured for currently fertile women. It can be calculated as the sum of the cohort's age-specific fertility rates that obtain as it ages through time. In contrast, the total period fertility rate uses current age-specific fertility rates to calculate the completed family size for a notional woman were she to experience these fertility rates through her life.In medicine, a cohort study is often undertaken to obtain evidence to try to refute the existence of a suspected association between cause and effect; failure to refute a hypothesis often strengthens confidence in it. Crucially, the cohort is identified before the appearance of the disease under investigation. The study groups follow a group of people who do not have the disease for a period of time and see who develops the disease (new incidence). The cohort cannot therefore be defined as a group of people who already have the disease. Prospective (longitudinal) cohort studies between exposure and disease strongly aid in studying causal associations, though distinguishing true causality usually requires further corroboration from further experimental trials.The advantage of prospective cohort study data is that it can help determine risk factors for contracting a new disease because it is a longitudinal observation of the individual through time, and the collection of data at regular intervals, so recall error is reduced. However, cohort studies are expensive to conduct, are sensitive to attrition and take a long follow-up time to generate useful data. Nevertheless, the results that are obtained from long-term cohort studies are of substantially superior quality to those obtained from retrospective/cross-sectional studies. Prospective cohort studies are considered to yield the most reliable results in observational epidemiology. They enable a wide range of exposure-disease associations to be studied.Some cohort studies track groups of children from their birth, and record a wide range of information (exposures) about them. The value of a cohort study depends on the researchers' capacity to stay in touch with all members of the cohort. Some studies have continued for decades.In a cohort study, the population under investigation consists of individuals who are at risk of developing a specific disease or health outcome.[4]An example of an epidemiological（流行病学的）question that can be answered using a cohort study is: does exposure to X (say, smoking) associate with outcome Y (say, lung cancer)? Such a study would recruit a group of smokers and a group of non-smokers (the unexposed group) and follow them for a set period of time and note differences in the incidence of lung cancer between the groups at the end of this time. The groupsare matched in terms of many other variables such as economic status and other health status so that the variable being assessed, the independent variable (in this case, smoking) can be isolated as the cause of the dependent variable (in this case, lung cancer). In this example, a statistically significant increase in the incidence of lung cancer in the smoking group as compared to the non-smoking group is evidence in favor of the hypothesis. However, rare outcomes, such as lung cancer, are generally not studied with the use of a cohort study, but are rather studied with the use of a case-controlstudy.Shorter term studies are commonly used in medical research as a form of clinical trial, or means to test a particular hypothesis of clinical importance. Such studies typically follow two groups of patients for a period of time and compare an endpoint or outcome measure between the two groups.Randomized controlled trials, or RCTs are a superior methodology in the hierarchy of evidence, because they limit the potential for bias by randomly assigning one patient pool to an intervention and another patient pool to non-intervention (or placebo). This minimizes the chance that the incidence of confounding variables will differ between the two groups.Nevertheless, it is sometimes not practical or ethical to perform RCTs to answer a clinical question. To take our example, if we already had reasonable evidence that smoking causes lung cancer then persuading a pool of non-smokers to take up smoking in order to test this hypothesis would generally be considered quite unethical.Two examples of cohort studies that have been going on for more than 50 years arethe Framingham Heart Study and the National Child Development Study (NCDS), the most widely-researched of the British birth cohort studies. Key findings of NCDS and a detailed profile of the study appear in the International Journal of Epidemiology.The largest cohort study in women is the Nurses' Health Study. Started in 1976, it is tracking over 120,000 nurses and has been analyzed for many different conditions and outcomes.The largest cohort study in Africa is the Birth to Twenty Study, which began in 1990 and tracks a cohort of over 3,000 children born in the weeks following Nelson Mandela's release from prison.Other famous examples are the Grant Study tracking a number of Harvard graduates from ca. 1950.77, the Whitehall Study tracking 10,308 British civil servants, and theCaerphilly Heart Disease Study, which since 1979 has studied a representative sample of 2,512 men, drawn from the Welsh town of Caerphilly.。

McLaughlin cont’d

Learning involves restructuring representations of knowledge Provides one explanation for U-shaped curve Provides one explanation for fossilization McLaughlin perceives his theory as a “partial account” of SLA--one which needs to be complemented by a linguistic theory which constrains the developing grammatical system
ACT*

Some criticisms:

Most people agree that not all knowledge must initially be “declarative:” knowledge seems to also be acquired “implicitly” through either languagespecific mechanisms or other general cognitive systems (pattern recognition, etc) How can you tell when a process is automatic?


Ex: learning to drive a car with a standard transmission
McLaughlin cont’d

The car example provides an example of learning in this information processing model

Factors Contributing to Fossilization IntroductionIn the past decades, many researchers and scholars in linguistic circle and the interrelated fields have done a lot of studies of fossilization from different perspectives to discover the causes of fossilization, and a number of different theories have been proposed, among which Selinker’s five psycholinguistic processes, and three models (the biological, interactional and acculturation model), one principle (the multiple effects principle) and Krashen’s in put hypothesis are worth mentioning. To be specific, these theories include:1. Selinker’s five central processesSelinker’s(1972)early explanation of the causes of fossilization consists of five central processes:Language transfer: Learners’IL systems are greatly influenced by their first language, and they cannot produce correct L2 output. Selinker regarded language transfer as the most decisive factor in leading to fossilization.Transfer of training: L2 learners may have done excessive training on certain IL structures that they cannot successfully continue to develop new structures. For instance, if a learner has too much training on the structure containing the verb “be”, he may form the habit of using “be”when it is not necessary.Inappropriate learning strategies: Learners may use inappropriate strategies in their learning progress and thus cause the fossilization in IL, such as translating L1 sentences into L2 sentences directly, etc. Inappropriate communication strategies: When learners are communicating in L2, they may apply some inappropriate strategies so as not to influence the fluency or effect of communication, such as avoidance, simplification, reduction of lexicon.Overgeneralization: This type of fossilization consists mainly of the overgeneralization of some target language rules, like “goed”“teached”.2. The biological causesOne of the most remarkable representatives is Lenneberg. Lenneberg advanced Critical Period Hypothesis in his monumental, The Function of Language, in 1967, believing that there was a neurologically based critical period, ending around the onset of puberty, beyond which complex mastery of a language, first or second, was not possible. Besides Lenneberg, many scholars, including Scovel(1988), Long(1990), Patkowski(1994)are supportive of the biological theory.Lamendella used “sensitive period”to explain the acquisition of second language. Lamendella(1977)also proposed another concept of infrasystem. He holds that while L1 acquisition calls for an infrasystem, L2 acquisition also requires its corresponding infrasystem. If a learner has not developed the infrasystem for acquiring a second language or if thisinfrasystem is underdeveloped, then he or she has to turn to the already-developed infrasystem for mother tongue to acquire the second language. However, the infrasystem for mother tongue is not appropriate for acquiring the second language, after the close of the critical period for primary language acquisition, the L2 learner stands a greater chance of fossilizing far from target-language norms.The Critical Period Hypothesis mostly explains the fossilization of L2 pronunciation, as the available evidence suggests that children do better than adult L2 learners in pronunciation and speaking tests, while adolescent and adult L2 learners are similar to or better than children in the acquisition of grammar and morphemes.3. Social and cultural causesL2 learner’s lack of desire to acculturate is also the reason for fossilization. Schumman(1981)proposed the Acculturation Hypothesis to interpret fossilization from a social-psychological perspective.According to Schumman, acculturation means the social and psychological integration of the learner with the target language group. In Schumman’s Acculturation Hypothesis,acculturation is seen as the determining variable in the sense that it controls the level of linguistic success achieved by second language learners. Stauble(1980)also affirmed the essential roles of social and psychological distance in second language acquisition.4. Vigil&Oller’s interactional modelVigil&Oller presented an early model of fossilization which focused on the role of extrinsic feedback. They expounded their opinions in the following:(1)When the language learners communicate with their teachers and classmates, some incorrect language output sometimes plays the role of input which leads to the learners’ language fossilization.(2)The information transmitted in interpersonal communication includes two kinds of information: one is cognitive information and another is affective information. The former contains facts, assumptions, and beliefs which are expressed in language. The latter is expressed in the form of facial expressions, intonation and gestures etc.Vigil&Oller argued that the interactive feedback received by a learner has a controlling influence on fossilization. Certain types of feedback were said to prompt learners to modify their knowledge of the L2, while other types encouraged learners to stand pat. They suggested that there were cognitive and affective dimensions to feedback. In this scheme, a combination of positive cognitive feedback and negative affective feedback was most likely to promote fossilization, while negative cognitive and positive affective feedback combined to cause learners to modify their linguistic knowledge.According to Han, one problem found in the interactional models isthat there is no way to determine what percentage of cognitive feedback needs to be positive in order to trigger fossilization. Another problematic aspect is the question of whether negative cognitive feedback destabilizes all the rules used to assemble the utterance.5. Krashen’s input hypothesisKrashen believes that most adult second-language learners “fossilize”. He concluded 5 possible causes of fossilization:(1)Insufficient quantity of inputKrashen claims that insufficient input is the most obvious cause of fossilization. Some second-language performers may cease progress simply because they have stopped getting comprehensible input.(2)Inappropriate quality of inputInappropriate quality of input, which means input of the wrong sort, or input filled with routines and patterns, a limited range of vocabulary, and little new syntax, is more subtle than insufficient quantity of input.(3)The affective filterComprehensible input is not sufficient for full language acquisition. To acquire the entire language, including late-acquired elements that do not contribute much to communication, a low affective filter may be necessary. The affective filter is a block that prevents input from reaching the Language Acquisition Device (LAD),and affects acquisition, preventing full acquisition from taking place.(4)The output filterThe output filter is a device that sometimes restrains second-language users from performing their competence (Krashen, 1985).(5)The acquisition of deviant formsThis may occur in two different kinds of situation, both of which are characterized by beginners being exposed nearly exclusively to imperfect versions of the second language. The first situation can be called the “extreme foreign-language” situations. The second situation is that of the performer in the informal environment, where he has communication demands that exceed his second-language competence, and is faced witha great deal of incomprehensible input.6. Multiple effects principleIn a later study, Selinker and Lakshmanan (1992 emphasize the importance of the role of language transfer in fossilization. They raise the question of why “certain linguistic structures become fossilized while others do not” They suggest that the multiple effects principle (MEP) may help explain this. The MEP states that two or more SLA factors, working in tandem, tend to promote stabilization of interlanguage forms leading to possible fossilization. Among various possible SLA factors that have fossiling effects language transfer has been singled out as the principal one.In their paper,Han and Selinker(1997)described a longitudinal case study they made to prove the MEP prediction. We may take what they said in the conclusion par as a summary of the main points of the MEP: What is showed in the case study “brings direct corronoration to the MEP in that language transfer functions as a co-factor in setting multiple effects, and that when it conspires with other SLA processes, there is a greater chance of stabilization of the interlanguage structure”. ConclusionIn summary, factors contributing to language fossilization have been illustrated, whether in terms of empirical studies of not, by different researchers from amount of perspectives This paper has listed a number of reasons from the following six views: Selinker’s five central processes (1972), biologica causes, social and cultural causes, Vigil&Oller’s interactiona model, Krashen’s inpu t hypothesis and Multiple Effects principle.There is no doubt that causes of “cessation” of learners’ might owe to other elements, however, knowing the above six ones, at their least value, inspires some solutions in overcoming the phenomenon of fossilization.References:[1]Selinker.L. Interlanguage[J].International Review of Applied Linguistics,1972.[2]Selinker. L.Fossilization: What we think we know [J].Internet, 1996[3]Lemendella,J.T.General principles of neurofunctional organization and their manifestations in primary and non-primary language acquisition[J]. Language Learning, 1977, (27), 155-196.[4]Vigil,N.&Oller,J. Rule fossilization: A tentative model[J].Language Learning,1976.[5]Ellis，R. The Study of Second Language Acquisition[M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994.[6]Rod Ellis.Underastanding Second Language Acquisition[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,1999.[7]Krashen,S. The Input Hypothesis: Issues and Implication[M].London:Longman,1985.[8]李炯英：中介语石化现象研究30年综观[J]，Foreign Language Teaching Abroad, 2003[9]陈慧媛：关于语言僵化现象起因的理论探讨[J]，外语教育与研究,1999.（3）：21-24[10]牛强：过渡语的石化现象及其教学启示[J]，外语与外语教学,2000（4）：28-31。

divided into two hemispheres, each of which is divided into four lobes.
It is
Cerebrum
Cerebrum
Cerebellum
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• Olfactory Bulb - Cranial Nerve I, Responsible for sensation of Smell
Investigation (Phineas Gage)
Primary Motor Cortex/ Precentral Gyrus
Broca’s Area rbitofrontal Cortex Olfactory Bulb
– Broca’s Aphasia – Results in the ability to comprehend speech, but the decreased motor ability (or inability) to speak and form words.
• Orbitofrontal Cortex – Site of Frontal Lobotomies
Cerebral Features:
• Gyri – Elevated ridges “winding” around the brain. • Sulci – Small grooves dividing the gyri
– Central Sulcus – Divides the Frontal Lobe from the Parietal Lobe
• Fissures – Deep grooves, generally dividing large regions/lobes of the brain

语言迁移与二语习得朱美慧1. 引言语言迁移问题长期以来一直是二语习得研究领域所关注的重要课题（Ellis，2000：299），这个问题贯穿在二语习得研究作为一门独立学科的40年历史中，历经起落，争议不断。

从历史背景来看，语言迁移研究可以一直追溯到几个世纪以前。

如果从其兴衰历程看，随着二语习得研究领域理论模式的转换和发展，语言迁移研究大致经历了三个阶段：第一阶段为20世纪50年代至60 年代的兴盛期，语言迁移研究在结构主义语言学和行为主义心理学的框架下以对比分析假说为主导，在二语习得理论中占据举足轻重的地位。

第二阶段为60 年代末到70 年代的衰落期，受乔姆斯基普遍语法理论的影响和中介语理论提出的影响, 行为主义语言观受到大力抨击，对比分析假设和语言迁移理论遭到抛弃，迁移在二语习得中的作用被贬低，甚至遭到否定。

第三阶段始于80 年代初并一直延续至今，在这一阶段，随着二语习得研究两大对立阵营——认知派和社会派的逐渐形成和发展，语言迁移研究得到全面拓展，从最初只针对语言本体的研究扩展到对语言学习者的研究，从认知心理、语言、社会文化、神经生理等各个角度重新认识迁移在二语学习中的作用，语言迁移研究因此再度崛起。

如果从其主要研究内容和方向来看，语言迁移研究大体可以分为四个阶段（Jarvis & Pavlenko，2008）：第一阶段从19世纪中晚期到约20世纪70年代中期为止。

在这一阶段，语言迁移被视为影响其它过程如二语习得的因素，主要研究内容包括如何确定迁移发生、迁移的范围以及如何量化迁移的影响。

第二阶段从20世纪70年代中期开始持续至今。

在这一阶段，第一阶段的研究主题仍在继续，但增加了许多新的研究内容，如探讨迁移产生的原因，制约迁移的因素，迁移影响的方向性问题等等。

目前很可能正在进行从第二阶段到第三阶段的转变。

第三阶段的重要特点是，研究者开始更感兴趣于构建语言迁移的理论模型和理论框架的建设，并采用实证研究来检验模型和设想。

中英文对照外文翻译(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)Bridge research in EuropeA brief outline is given of the development of the European Union, together withthe research platform in Europe. The special case of post-tensioned bridges in the UK is discussed. In order to illustrate the type of European research being undertaken, an example is given from the University of Edinburgh portfolio: relating to the identification of voids in post-tensioned concrete bridges using digital impulse radar.IntroductionThe challenge in any research arena is to harness the findings of different research groups to identify a coherent mass of data, which enables research and practice to be better focused. A particular challenge exists with respect to Europe where language barriers are inevitably very significant. The European Community was formed in the 1960s based upon a political will within continental Europe to avoid the European civil wars, which developed into World War 2 from 1939 to 1945. The strong political motivation formed the original community of which Britain was not a member. Many of the continental countries saw Britain’s interest as being purelyeconomic. The 1970s saw Britain joining what was then the European Economic Community (EEC) and the 1990s has seen the widening of the community to a European Union, EU, with certain political goals together with the objective of a common European currency.Notwithstanding these financial and political developments, civil engineering and bridge engineering in particular have found great difficulty in forming any kind of common thread. Indeed the educational systems for University training are quite different between Britain and the European continental countries. The formation of the EU funding schemes —e.g. Socrates, Brite Euram and other programs have helped significantly. The Socrates scheme is based upon the exchange of students between Universities in different member states. The Brite Euram scheme has involved technical research grants given to consortia of academics and industrial partners within a number of the states—— a Brite Euram bid would normally be led by partners within a number of the statesan industrialist.In terms of dissemination of knowledge, two quite different strands appear to have emerged. The UK and the USA have concentrated primarily upon disseminating basic research in refereed journal publications: ASCE, ICE and other journals. Whereas the continental Europeans have frequently disseminated basic research at conferences where the circulation of the proceedings is restricted.Additionally, language barriers have proved to be very difficult to break down. In countries where English is a strong second language there has been enthusiastic participation in international conferences based within continental Europe —e.g. Germany, Italy, Belgium, The Netherlands and Switzerland. However, countries where English is not a strong second language have been hesitant participants }—e.g. France.European researchExamples of research relating to bridges in Europe can be divided into three types of structure:Masonry arch bridgesBritain has the largest stock of masonry arch bridges. In certain regions of the UK up to 60% of the road bridges are historic stone masonry arch bridges originally constructed for horse drawn traffic. This is less common in other parts of Europe as many of these bridges were destroyed during World War 2.Concrete bridgesA large stock of concrete bridges was constructed during the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s. At the time, these structures were seen as maintenance free. Europe also has a large number of post-tensioned concrete bridges with steel tendon ducts preventing radar inspection. This is a particular problem in France and the UK.Steel bridgesSteel bridges went out of fashion in the UK due to their need for maintenance as perceived in the 1960s and 1970s. However, they have been used for long span and rail bridges, and they are now returning to fashion for motorway widening schemes in the UK.Research activity in EuropeIt gives an indication certain areas of expertise and work being undertaken in Europe, but is by no means exhaustive.In order to illustrate the type of European research being undertaken, an example is given from the University of Edinburgh portfolio. The example relates to the identification of voids in post-tensioned concrete bridges, using digital impulse radar.Post-tensioned concrete rail bridge analysisOve Arup and Partners carried out an inspection and assessment of the superstructure of a 160 m long post-tensioned, segmental railway bridge in Manchester to determine its load-carrying capacity prior to a transfer of ownership, for use in the Metrolink light rail system..Particular attention was paid to the integrity of its post-tensioned steel elements.Physical inspection, non-destructive radar testing and other exploratory methods were used to investigate for possible weaknesses in the bridge.Since the sudden collapse of Ynys-y-Gwas Bridge in Wales, UK in 1985, there has been concern about the long-term integrity of segmental, post-tensioned concrete bridges which may b e prone to ‘brittle’ failure without warning. The corrosion protection of the post-tensioned steel cables, where they pass through joints between the segments, has been identified as a major factor affecting the long-term durability and consequent strength of this type of bridge. The identification of voids in grouted tendon ducts at vulnerable positions is recognized as an important step in the detection of such corrosion.Description of bridgeGeneral arrangementBesses o’ th’ Barn Bridge is a 160 m long, three span, segmental, post-tensionedconcrete railway bridge built in 1969. The main span of 90 m crosses over both the M62 motorway and A665 Bury to Prestwick Road. Minimum headroom is 5.18 m from the A665 and the M62 is cleared by approx 12.5 m.The superstructure consists of a central hollow trapezoidal concrete box section 6.7 m high and 4 m wide. The majority of the south and central spans are constructed using 1.27 m long pre-cast concrete trapezoidal box units, post-tensioned together. This box section supports the in site concrete transverse cantilever slabs at bottom flange level, which carry the rail tracks and ballast.The center and south span sections are of post-tensioned construction. These post-tensioned sections have five types of pre-stressing:1. Longitudinal tendons in grouted ducts within the top and bottom flanges.2. Longitudinal internal draped tendons located alongside the webs. These are deflected at internal diaphragm positions and are encased in in site concrete.3. Longitudinal macalloy bars in the transverse cantilever slabs in the central span .4. Vertical macalloy bars in the 229 mm wide webs to enhance shear capacity.5. Transverse macalloy bars through the bottom flange to support the transverse cantilever slabs.Segmental constructionThe pre-cast segmental system of construction used for the south and center span sections was an alternative method proposed by the contractor. Current thinkingire suggests that such a form of construction can lead to ‘brittle’ failure of the ententire structure without warning due to corrosion of tendons across a construction joint，The original design concept had been for in site concrete construction.Inspection and assessmentInspectionInspection work was undertaken in a number of phases and was linked with the testing required for the structure. The initial inspections recorded a number of visible problems including:Defective waterproofing on the exposed surface of the top flange.Water trapped in the internal space of the hollow box with depths up to 300 mm.Various drainage problems at joints and abutments.Longitudinal cracking of the exposed soffit of the central span.Longitudinal cracking on sides of the top flange of the pre-stressed sections.Widespread sapling on some in site concrete surfaces with exposed rusting reinforcement.AssessmentThe subject of an earlier paper, the objectives of the assessment were:Estimate the present load-carrying capacity.Identify any structural deficiencies in the original design.Determine reasons for existing problems identified by the inspection.Conclusion to the inspection and assessmentFollowing the inspection and the analytical assessment one major element of doubt still existed. This concerned the condition of the embedded pre-stressing wires, strands, cables or bars. For the purpose of structural analysis these elements、had been assumed to be sound. However, due to the very high forces involved,、a risk to the structure, caused by corrosion to these primary elements, was identified.The initial recommendations which completed the first phase of the assessment were:1. Carry out detailed material testing to determine the condition of hidden structural elements, in particularthe grouted post-tensioned steel cables.2. Conduct concrete durability tests.3. Undertake repairs to defective waterproofing and surface defects in concrete.Testing proceduresNon-destructi v e radar testingDuring the first phase investigation at a joint between pre-cast deck segments the observation of a void in a post-tensioned cable duct gave rise to serious concern about corrosion and the integrity of the pre-stress. However, the extent of this problem was extremely difficult to determine. The bridge contains 93 joints with an average of 24 cables passing through each joint, i.e. there were approx. 2200 positions where investigations could be carried out. A typical section through such a joint is that the 24 draped tendons within the spine did not give rise to concern because these were protected by in site concrete poured without joints after the cables had been stressed.As it was clearly impractical to consider physically exposing all tendon/joint intersections, radar was used to investigate a large numbers of tendons and hence locate duct voids within a modest timescale. It was fortunate that the corrugated steel ducts around the tendons were discontinuous through the joints which allowed theradar to detect the tendons and voids. The problem, however, was still highly complex due to the high density of other steel elements which could interfere with the radar signals and the fact that the area of interest was at most 102 mm wide and embedded between 150 mm and 800 mm deep in thick concrete slabs.Trial radar investigations.Three companies were invited to visit the bridge and conduct a trial investigation. One company decided not to proceed. The remaining two were given 2 weeks to mobilize, test and report. Their results were then compared with physical explorations.To make the comparisons, observation holes were drilled vertically downwards into the ducts at a selection of 10 locations which included several where voids were predicted and several where the ducts were predicted to be fully grouted. A 25-mm diameter hole was required in order to facilitate use of the chosen horoscope. The results from the University of Edinburgh yielded an accuracy of around 60%.Main radar sur v ey, horoscope verification of v oids.Having completed a radar survey of the total structure, a baroscopic was then used to investigate all predicted voids and in more than 60% of cases this gave a clear confirmation of the radar findings. In several other cases some evidence of honeycombing in the in site stitch concrete above the duct was found.When viewing voids through the baroscopic, however, it proved impossible to determine their actual size or how far they extended along the tendon ducts although they only appeared to occupy less than the top 25% of the duct diameter. Most of these voids, in fact, were smaller than the diameter of the flexible baroscopic being used (approximately 9 mm) and were seen between the horizontal top surface of the grout and the curved upper limit of the duct. In a very few cases the tops of the pre-stressing strands were visible above the grout but no sign of any trapped water was seen. It was not possible, using the baroscopic, to see whether those cables were corroded.Digital radar testingThe test method involved exciting the joints using radio frequency radar antenna: 1 GHz, 900 MHz and 500 MHz. The highest frequency gives the highest resolution but has shallow depth penetration in the concrete. The lowest frequency gives the greatest depth penetration but yields lower resolution.The data collected on the radar sweeps were recorded on a GSSI SIR System 10.This system involves radar pulsing and recording. The data from the antenna is transformed from an analogue signal to a digital signal using a 16-bit analogue digital converter giving a very high resolution for subsequent data processing. The data is displayed on site on a high-resolution color monitor. Following visual inspection it isthen stored digitally on a 2.3-gigabyte tape for subsequent analysis and signal processing. The tape first of all records a ‘header’ noting the digital radar settings together with the trace number prior to recording the actual data. When the data is played back, one is able to clearly identify all the relevant settings —making for accurate and reliable data reproduction.At particular locations along the traces, the trace was marked using a marker switch on the recording unit or the antenna.All the digital records were subsequently downloaded at the University’s NDT laboratory on to a micro-computer.（The raw data prior to processing consumed 35 megabytes of digital data.） Post-processing was undertaken using sophisticated signal processing software. Techniques available for the analysis include changing the color transform and changing the scales from linear to a skewed distribution in order to highlight、突出certain features. Also, the color transforms could be changed to highlight phase changes. In addition to these color transform facilities, sophisticated horizontal and vertical filtering procedures are available. Using a large screen monitor it is possible to display in split screens the raw data and the transformed processed data. Thus one is able to get an accurate indication of the processing which has taken place. The computer screen displays the time domain calibrations of the reflected signals on the vertical axis.A further facility of the software was the ability to display the individual radar pulses as time domain wiggle plots. This was a particularly valuable feature when looking at individual records in the vicinity of the tendons.Interpretation of findingsA full analysis of findings is given elsewhere, Essentially the digitized radar plots were transformed to color line scans and where double phase shifts were identified in the joints, then voiding was diagnosed.Conclusions1. An outline of the bridge research platform in Europe is given.2. The use of impulse radar has contributed considerably to the level of confidence in the assessment of the Besses o’ th’ Barn Rail Bridge.3. The radar investigations revealed extensive voiding within the post-tensioned cable ducts. However, no sign of corrosion on the stressing wires had been foundexcept for the very first investigation.欧洲桥梁研究欧洲联盟共同的研究平台诞生于欧洲联盟。

conduct例句1. The company conducted a survey to gather feedback from its customers.2. The police conducted an investigation into the robbery.3. The scientist conducted an experiment to test the new drug.4. The teacher conducted a class discussion on the topicof climate change.5. The conductor conducted the orchestra with passion and energy.6. The researcher conducted interviews with the study participants.7. The coach conducted a training session for the soccer team.8. The committee conducted a review of the company's financial records.9. The psychologist conducted a study on the effects of social media on mental health.10. The university conducted a study to evaluate the effectiveness of the new teaching method.11. The volunteer conducted a survey of homeless individuals in the community.12. The doctor conducted a physical examination of the patient.13. The manager conducted a performance review for the employees.14. The journalist conducted interviews with the candidates for the upcoming election.15. The inspector conducted a thorough inspection of the building.16. The consultant conducted a market analysis for the client.17. The nurse conducted a series of tests on the patientto determine the cause of their symptoms.18. The team conducted a brainstorming session to come up with new ideas.19. The lawyer conducted a deposition of the witness.20. The archaeologist conducted an excavation at the site of the ancient city.21. The pilot conducted a pre-flight check of theaircraft.22. The government conducted a study on the impact of new housing developments on local wildlife.23. The veterinarian conducted a check-up on the sick dog.24. The financial advisor conducted a review of theclient's investment portfolio.25. The teacher conducted a review of the material before the exam.26. The researcher conducted a longitudinal study to track changes over time.27. The technician conducted a diagnostic test on the malfunctioning equipment.28. The chef conducted a cooking demonstration for the guests.29. The librarian conducted a workshop on research skills for the students.30. The principal conducted a meeting with the parents to address concerns about school safety.31. The conductor conducted the choir during the holiday concert.32. The scientist conducted a controlled experiment to test the hypothesis.33. The therapist conducted a therapy session with the client.。

第⼆语⾔习得复习资料★1. SLA (Second language acquisition)is the process by which a language other than the mother tongue is learnt in a natural setting or in a classroom.★2. Acquisition vs. Learning (Krashen1982)Acquisition refers to the learning of a language unconsciously under natural settings where learners pay attention only to the meanings or contents rather than forms or grammars.Learning refers to the learning of a language consciously under educational settings where learners mainly pay attention to forms or grammars.3. The study of second language acquisition is a branch of applied linguistics.It mainly deals with how the second language is acquired. The process not only involves linguistics but also a great many subjects including linguistic physiology, psychology, psycholinguistics, cognitive science and so on.4. Factors affecting SLASocial factors (external factors)Learner factors (internal factors)Social factors (external factors)Social contextLanguage policy and the attitude of the public sector;Social demandWith the trend of globalization of the world economy , it is widely accepted among educators and national leaders that proficiency in another language is an indispensable quality of educated peopleLearner factors (internal factors)MotivationAgeLearning strategy5. Through observations and experiments they have found that children all undergo certain stages of language development. Babbling stage (articulating certain speech sounds)(6 -12)One word or Holophrastic stage (using single words to represent various meanings)（12-18 months)Two –word stage (18-20 months)Telegraphic speech stage (using phrase and sentences composed of only content words.)(2-3 years )6. Language acquisition和Second Language Acquisition之间的关系7.(1) Behaviorist learning theoryBehaviorist learning theory is a general theory of learning (i.e. it applies to all kinds of learning, not just language learning).It views learning as the formation of habits. These arise when the learner is confronted with specific stimuli which lead to specific responses, which are, in turn, reinforced by rewards. Behaviorist learning theory emphasizes environmental factors as opposed to internal, mental factors.(2) The habit-formation theoryThe association of a particular response with a particular stimulus constituted a habit. It is formed when a particular stimulus became regularly linked with a particular response.Two important characteristics of habitsObservable: the true basis for psychological enquiry existed only in objects that could be touched and actions that could be observed. (Watson)Automatic:habits were performed spontaneously without awareness and were difficult to eradicate unless environmental changes led to the extinction of the stimuli upon which they were built.Two means: imitation and practiceImitation and practice play an important role in the process of habit- formation, because the behaviorists maintained that imitation will help learners identify the associations between stimuli and responses while practice will reinforce the associations and help learners to form the new linguistic habits.Theories of habit formation were theories of learning in general.The process of second language acquisition is regarded as a process of habit formation. (The association of a particular response with a particular stimulus constituted a habit.)8. The causes of errors according to behaviorismDifferences between the first and second language create learning difficulty which results in errors.Behaviorist learning theory predicts that transfer will take place from the first to the second language.Transfer will be negative when there is proactive inhibition. In this case errors will result.Errors, according to behaviorist theory, were the result of non-learning,rather than wrong learning.Attitude towards errorErrors should be avoided and should be corrected if they have been made, because they are indication of non-learning and have the danger of becoming bad linguistic habits.Errors could be avo ided by comparing the learner?s native language with the target language, differences could be identified and used to predict areas of potential error.Where are the means used to predict potential errors by behaviorists?The means used to predict potential errors by behaviorists is Contrastive Analysis.9. StructuralismLanguage was viewed as a coded system consisting of structurally related elements (phonemes, morphemes, words, structures and sentence patterns)10. What is contrastive analysis (CA)?Contrastive analysis is an inductive investigative approach based on the distinctive elements in a language. It involves the comparison of two or more languages or subsystems of languages in order to determine both the differences and similarities between them. It could also be done within one language. Contrastive analysis can be both theoretical and applied according to varied purposes.11. Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH)Contrastive analysis is a way of comparing languages in order to determine potential errors for the ultimate purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what does not need to be learned in an L2 situation.12. Contrastive Analysis Assumptions1. Language learning = habit formation2. L1 is major source of error in L2 production/reception3. Errors are accounted for by considering differences between L1 and L24. The greater the differences, the more errors will occur5. Focus on dissimilarities in learning; similarities require little new learning6. Difficulty and ease in predicted by differences and similarities between L1 and L213. Steps for contrastive analysis①Describing L1 and L2②Selecting a linguistic feature③Marking an L1-L2 comparison on this feature④Using the results to predict or explain err ors in learner?s L2 performance.14.The Validity of Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis(正确性)Over-simplification to think that comparing two languages is a straightforward comparison of structures.Other factors such as innate principles of language, attitude, motivation, aptitude, age, other languages known, and so forth. In the 1960s, the behaviorist theory of language and language learning was challenged. Language came to be seen in terms of structured rules instead of habits. Learning was nowseen not as imitation but as active rule formation.Another criticism of the role of CA had to do with the concept of difficulty. Differences are based on formal descriptions of linguistic units –those selected by a linguist, a teacher, or a textbook writer. It is not a real measure of difficulty. (Difference=difficulty=error)too negative about borrowing from L1Ignoring the conditions of interference.Empirical study found that not all actually occurring errors were predicted; not all predicted errors occurred.15.Theoretical Criticisms（批评）Chomsky?s attack on behaviorismRelationship between “difficulty” and “error”Problems concerning the linguistic basis of contrastive analysisNeed to accommodate the variability of learner performance when predicting errors16.“Difficulty” and “Error”There were objections to the validity of equating …difference? with …difficulty? on the hand and …difficulty? with …error? on the other.difference vs difficulty“Difference” is a linguistic concept, whereas “difficulty” is a psy chological concept. Therefore, the level of learning difficulty cannot be inferred directly from the degree of difference between two language systems.17. Definition of EAError analysis:--the study and analysis of the errors made by second and foreign language learners (Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics, p.96).--A type of bilingual comparison, a comparison between learners? interlanguage and the target language;--A methodology of describing L2 learners? language systems (Corder, 1981)The Purpose of EATo discover the processes learners make use of in learning & using the target language,To identify the causes of learner errors,To obtain information on common difficulties in L2 learningBasic AssumptionsHuman learning is fundamentally a process involving making errors;Language learning is like any other human learning;Errors made by L2 learners can be observed, analyzed, classified, and described ( Brown,1987: 169-171) Procedure of Error AnalysisIdentification of ErrorsDescription of ErrorsExplanation of errors: determine the sources of errors Comapararison:18.Interlingual error: deviated forms resulting from the interference of one?s L1, or the negative transfer of one?s mother tongue.Intralingual error:①deviated forms in learner language that reflect learners? transitional competence and which are the results of such learning process as overgeneralization.②confusion of L2 rules19. Sources of ErrorsIn language learning, learner?s errors are caused by s everal different processes, including--Interlingual transfer--Intralingual transfer--Transfer of training or context of learning--Cognitive & affective factors20. Levels of ErrorsSubstance errorsText errorsDiscourse errors21. Implication & ApplicationError Analysis is significant theoretically and practically.--Theoretica l: it is part of the methodology of investigating the language learning process--Practical: it has direct relevance to the improvement of language teaching materials and methods★22. Differences of error analysis Between EA and CA1.Interest in errors ：EA interested in errors resulting from interference from L1CA interested in the totality of the errors of a L2 learner2.Classification of errors :EA classifies only errors resulting from interference of L1CA classifies all errors3.Source of errorsEA: errors are the result of negative transferCA: errors are a learner?s hypotheses in relation to the new language and considered to be a natural part of L2 learning4.Position of errorsEA: errors are harmful and it seeks to correct themCA: takes no position on errors5.When CA/EA beganEA:begins with Fries and LadoCA: a type of study that has existed for a long time6.PerformanceEA. interested in learner?s performance and correlates it to L1CA: interested in the learner?s performance and correlates it to L1 and the developing L222. Factors causing errors1. Language transfer2. Overgeneralization3. Learner differences3. Strategies in L2 learning5. Strategies of L2 communicatione.g. The two students changed eyes and eyebrows in class.23. DefinitionStrategy VS. technique Stern (1983)Strategy is general tendencies or overall characteristics of the approach employed by the language learner, while techniques to refer to particular forms of observable learning behavior.Strategy : conscious , behavioral24. Types of learner strategyLearning strategy 学习策略Production strategy 表达策略Communication strategy 交际策略25. Classifications (Cohen 2006)By goal; By function; By skill; Others(1) By goal: Language learning strategies (e.g., translating, memorizing) or language use strategies(e.g., retrieval, communicative, and cover strategies).(2) By function: Metacognitive; Cognitive; Socio-affective(3) By skill: listening, speaking, reading, writing, vocabulary, or translation strategies.(4) Others: Strategies by proficiency levels, by specific cultures (i.e., learning the language of a specific culture), or by specific languages.O?Malley & Chamot (1990)MetacognitiveCognitiveSocial26.Meta-cognitive strategiesMeta-cognitive strategy is the planning for learning, thinking about the learning process, monitoring of one?s production or comprehension, and evaluating learning after an activity is completed.Organize/plan your own learningManage ……..Monitor………Evaluate……….Importance of meta-cognitive strategiesStudents without meta-cognitive approaches are essentially learners without direction or opportunity to review their progress, accomplishment, and future directions.27. Cognitive strategiesCognitive strategies refer to the steps or operations used in learning or problem-solving that require direct analysis, transformation, or synthesis of learning material.RepetitionResourcingDirected physical responseTranslationGroupingNote-takingDeductionRecombinationImageryAuditory representationKey wordContextualizationElaborationTransferInferencing27. social/affective strategiesSocial strategiesstrategies for regulating emotions, motivation, and attitudes; strategies for reduction of anxiety and for self-encouragement.协作（cooperation）提问澄清（question for clarification）Affective strategies:strategies for regulating emotions, motivation, and attitudes; strategies for reduction of anxiety and for self-encouragement.28. Individual learner variablesPersonal factors:group dynamicsattitudes to the teacher and course materialslearning techniquesGeneral factors:ageaptitudecognitive style field dependence / independencemotivationpersonality29. MotivationIntegrative motivation 融合型动机is present in learners who identify with the target culture, would like to resemble members of the target culture and who would like to participate in the target culture. It is assumed to be based in the personality of the learner.Instrumental orientation⼯具型动机refers to those cases where the learners are interested in learning the language for the possible benefits: professional advancement, study in the target language, business.Resultative motivation:因果性动机Learners’motivation is strongly affected by their achievement.Intrinsic motivation:内在兴趣动机Motivation as intrinsic interest.Motivation as a multi-componential constructMotivation= effort + desire to achieve goal + attitudes★Integrative motivation 融合型动vs. Instrumental orientation⼯具型动机(p94)★30. Definition –interlanguage★Interlanguage is the approximate language system that the learner construct for use incommunication through the target language.The term“interlanguage” , coined by Selinker(1972), refers to the language system constructed by second language learners on their way to the target language.Interlanguage is the approximate language system that the learner constructs for use in communication through the targetlanguage. (Larry Selinker)Nemser calls it“approximative system”Corder (1971) called learners? language an idiosyncratic dialect .These terms suggest that learners? language is between L1 AND L2 and that it is a continuum along which all learners traverse.错误发⽣的原因：Interlingua interference (语际⼲扰)⒈Positive transfer⒉negative transferIntralingua interference（语内⼲扰）★31. Characteristics of interlanguage systempermeable ;dynamic; systematic; fossilization★32.Definition of fossilizationIt has been observed that somewhere in the L2 learning process, such an IL may reach one or more temporary restricting phases during which the development of the IL appears to be detained (Nemser, 1971; Selinker, 1972; Schumann, 1975).A permanent cessation of progress toward the TL has been referred to as fossilization (Selinker, 1972).33. Classification of fossilizationTemporary fossilization:暂时性⽯化:Temporary fossilization refers to stability of language acquisition or the plateau phenomenon of learning, at the moment language parameter is steady and static, the phenomenon is alterable under certain conditions .Permanent fossilization永久性⽯化：This means the learner?s language stops evolving for ever. Because most of the students? interlanguage is in the temporary and stable stage, no permanent fossilization. Because stable stage is not real fossilization, so there is no real permanent fossilization.Fossilization appears through five central processes:Language transfer; transfer of learning; learning strategies; communication strategies; overgeneralizationInternal Causes of fossilizationMotivationCommunicative needsAcquisition deviceExternal Causes of fossilizationCommunicative pressureLack of learning opportunitiesFeedback:positive cognitive feedbacks cause fossilization ;(e.g. “Oh,I see”)negative feedbacks help to prevent fossilization.(e.g. “I don?t understand you” )34. Linguistic basis for SLAContrastive analysis (pre-Chomskyan structuralism)Universals and contrastive analysisUniversals and SLA★35. Definition of UGUG is a term used by Chomsky to refer to the abstract knowledge of language which children bring to the task of learning their native language, and which constrains the shape of the particular grammar they are trying to learn. It consists of various principles which govern the form grammatical rules can take. Some of these principles are parameterized ( i.e. are specified as consisting of two or more options).DefinitionCook(1985) summarizing the Chomskyan position, defines …universal grammar? as …the properties inherent in the human mind?. Un iversal grammar consists of a set of general principles that apply to all language rather than a set of particular rules.Definitiona set of highly abstract principles that provide parameters which are given particular settings in different languages36. Principles refers to highly abstract properties of grammar which apply to language in general and which, therefore, underlie the grammatical rules of all specific languages.Parameters refers to principles that vary in certain restricted ways from one language to another. That is, they take the form ofa finite set of options which individual languages draw on and which define the variation possible between language36. UG also provides a basis for determining markedness. The degree of markedness depends on whether a feature is part of the …core? or the …periphery?.Core grammar: unmarked, that is, they accord with the general tendencies of language. Periphery rules: marked, that is they are exceptional in some way.core rules (UG) are unmarkedMarkednessperiphery rules are markedUniversals and contrastive analysisMarkedness: refers to the idea that some linguistic structures are …special? or …less natural? or …less basic? than others. Markedness differential condition: marked features are more difficult to learn than unmarked.37.The role of universals in L1 acquisition1. Grammar construction is constrained by the operation of Universal Grammar, which regulates the options the child has to choose from. That is, hypothesis formation is constrained by innate principles.2. Regularities in the order of development can be explained only by considering both Universal Grammar and channel capacity.A distinction can be made between …development' actual progress) and …acquisition' the idealized learning that results from universal Grammar)3. Universal grammar may unfold as a maturational schedule, as suggested by Felix (1984), or it may be activated piecemeal in accordance with the data that the child perceive at different developmental stages, as suggested by White (1981).4. The child is likely to learn unmarked rules before marked rules; he constructs a core grammar before a peripheral grammar.5. The child possesses a projective capacity. This enables one rule to trigger off other rules withwhich it is implicationally linked, and also enables rules to be acquired when no direct evidence for them has been supplied by the input.38. Access to UG1. Complete access2. No access3. Partial access4. Dual access39 Linguistic universals and L1 transferThe transfer of L1 unmarked formsUnmarked setting of parameters will occur in interlanguage before marked settings, even if the L2 provides evidence of a marked setting.The non-transfer of L1 marked forms40.Krashen?s Input Hy pothesis ModelKnown by various names--Monitor hypothesis--Input model--Comprehensible input model--Natural modelAll these names refer to the one and the same model★Five hypotheses1. Acquisition – learning distinction hypothesis2. Natural sequence/order hypothesis3. Monitor hypothesis4. Comprehensible input hypothesis5. Affective filter hypothesis. (1) Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis: there are two kinds of ways of learning a second language ,i.e., acquisition and learning.Acquisition refers to the unconscious processes that also takes place in first language acquisition. Learning is a conscious process which is responsible for the construction of grammar rules or knowledge about the second language through teaching or error correction.. Acquisition LearningSubconscious – implicit learningA distinct process – can never become learningThe way children learn the languageMeaning focusedInductiveNaturalistic settingsConscious – explicit learningA distinct process –can neverbecome acquisitionThe way adults learn the languageGrammar (form) focusedDeductiveFormal settingsImplications of Acquisition-Learning Distinction HypothesisContent based language teaching – total immersion is preferable.Provide meaningful contexts for understanding languageProvide meaningful communication activities such as information gap activities.(2) Natural Order Hypothesis: SLA follows a universal route that is not influenced by factors such as the learners? first language, age, and the context (classroom or natural setting). Implications of natural order hypothesisErrors are developmental and are a natural byproduct of learning – tolerate them.Allow learners to make errors and do not correct them(3) The Input Hypothesis claims a move along the developmental continuum byreceiving comprehensible input.Comprehensible input is defined as L2 input just beyond the Learne r?s current L2 competence, in terms of its syntactic complexity. If a learner?s current competence is i then comprehensible input is i+1. Input which is either too simple (i) or too complex (i+2/3/4…) will not be useful for acquisition.“i+1”We acquire, only when we understand the structure that is “a little beyond” where we are now Implications of input hypothesisEmploy teacher talk along motherese or foreigner talk(4) The affective filter modelAffect refers to:Motivation: Performers with high motivation generally do better in L2 acquisition.Self-confidence:Performers with self-confidence and a good self-image tend to do better in L2 Acquisition.Anxiety:Low anxiety appears to be conducive to L2 acquisition.Affective filter hypothesisLearners who suffer from anxiety or lack of motivation or negative attitude somehow switch off their comprehension mechanisms and so even if they are provided comprehensible input, they will not be able to process the input. Therefore a low affective filter is important.The significance of affective filter hypothesisAccounts for individual variationAccounts for the differences between adult and child language acquisition processesImplications of affective filter hypothesisCreate a non-threatening teaching/learning atmosphere in the classroom.Provide a risk-safe environment.Students should not worry about being criticized.Capitalize on what students already know.Create teaching/learning environment in such a way that students encounter success rather than failure.Provide positive and constructive feedback.Analyze your classroom behavior for any hidden agenda(5) Monitor hypothesisThree conditions:Knowledge of grammarFocus on grammarAvailability of timeGrammar focused learning leads to grammar focused productionChildren do not monitor so why should adults?Learning language is different from learning about language.监控假设图⽰(p57)Implications of monitor hypothesisModel language and do not teach grammar explicitly.Krashen?s VariablesFor Krashen, there are only two variables for language acquisition to take place:Abundant comprehensible inputLow affective filterKrashen – An evaluationMajor strength – intuitively appealingAble to be translated into pedagogical modelsHybrid model and so draws strengths from various theoriesFor the first time, somebody was able to say that grammar teaching was not goodHumanistic in its approachImpreciseNot verifiableKrashen?s dogmatic adherence to his hypotheses is the major weakness★41. language transferLanguage transfer is the influence resulting from the similarities and differences between the target language and any other language that has been previously( and perhaps imperfectly ) acquired.Negative transferPositive transferAvoidanceOveruse★/doc/11a403d433d4b14e85246836.html D(language acquisition device)The LAD is a system of principles that children are born with that helps them learn language, and accounts for the order in which children learn structures, and the mistakes they make as they learn.★43.critical age period(p100)★44.field independent vs. field independent(p77)★45.distinction between qualitative and quantitative research(p143)★46.input vs. output(p32-33)★47.intellence vs. aptitude(p85-88)。

General descriptions of the relevant literature:A considerable amount of literature has been published on X. These studies ....There is a large volume of published studies describing the role of ....The first serious discussions and analyses of X emerged during the 1970s with ....The generalisability of much published research on this issue is problematic.What we know about X is largely based upon empirical studies that investigate how .... During the past 30 years much more information has become available on ....In recent years, there has been an increasing amount of literature on ....A large and growing body of literature has investigated ....General reference to previous research/scholarly activity <usually more than one author>Many historians have argued that .... <eg. Jones, 1987; Johnson, 1990; Smith, 1994> Numerous studies have attempted to explain .... <for example, Smith , 1996; Kelly, 1998; Johnson, 2002>Recent evidence suggests that .... <Smith, 1996; Jones 1999; Johnson, 2001> Recently, in vitro studies have shown that T.thermophylusEFTu can .... <Patel et al., 1997; Jones et al., 1998>.Surveys such as that conducted by Smith <1988> have shown that ....Several attempts have been made to .... <Smith, 1996; Jones 1999; Johnson, 2001> Several studies have revealed that it is not just X that acts on ..... <Smith, 1996; Jones ....Several biographies of Harris have been published. Smith presents an .... account, whilst Jones ....Several studies investigating X have been carried out on ....Data from several sources have identified the increased morbidity and mortality associated with obesityPrevious studies have reported .... <Smith, 1985; Jones, 1987; Johnson, 1992>. Previous research findings into X have been inconsistent and contradictory <Smith, 1996; Jones 1999, ....A number of studies have found that .... <Smith , 2003; Jones, 2004>.Twenty cohort study analyses have examined the relationship between ....At least 152 case-control studies worldwide have examined the relationship between.....Other studies have considered the relationship ....The relationship between X and Y has been widely investigated <Smith, 1985; Jones, 1987, ....The causes of X have been widely investigated <Jones, 1987; Johnson, 1990;Smith, 1994>.The geology of X has been addressed in several small-scale investigationsand .....Xs have been identified as major contributing factors for the decline of many species <1>.X has also been shown to reverse the anti-inflammatory effects of glucocorticoids in murine-induced arthritis <11>.I t has been suggested that levels of X are independent of the size of the Y <Smith et al., 1995>It hasconclusively been shown that X and Y increase Z <Smith et al., 1999; Jones, 2001 ....It has been demonstrated that a high intake of X results in damage to .... <Smith, 1998; ....Reference to current state of knowledgeA relationship exists between an individual's working memory and their ability to ...... <Jones et al.,1998>.GM varieties of maize are able to cross-pollinate with non-GM varieties <Smith, 1998; Jones, 1999>.There is an unambiguous relationship between spending on education and economic development <Rao, 1998>.X is one of the most intense reactions following CHD <Lane, 2003>.MIF has been found to oppose the anti-inflammatory actions of X on Y <Alourfi, 2004>.Reference to single investigations in the past: researcher<s> as sentence subjectWang et al. <2004> have recently developed a methodology for the selective introduction of ......Reference to single investigations or publications in the past: time frame prominentIn 1975, Smith et al. published a paper in which they described ....In 1990 Patel et al. demonstrated that replacement of H2O with heavy water led to .... Thirty years later, Smith <1974> reported three cases of Candida Albicans which .... In the 1950s Gunnar Myrdal pointed to some of the ways in which …. <Myrdal, 1957> In 1981, Smith and co workers demonstrated that X induced in vitro resistance to ....In 1990, El-Guerrouj et al. reported a new and convenient synthetic procedure to obtain ....In 1984 Jones et al. made several amino acid esters of X and evaluated them aswater-soluble pro-drugs.Reference to single publication: no time frameSmith has written the most complete synthesis to date of ....Reference to single investigations in the past: investigation prominent Preliminary work on X was undertaken by Abdul Karim <1992>.The first systematic study of X was reported by Patel et al. in 1986.The study of the structural behaviour of X was first carried out by Rao et al.<1986>.....Analysis of the genes involved in X was first carried out by Smith et al <1983>.A recent study by Smith and Jones <2001> involved ....A longtitudinal study of X by Smith <2002> reports that ....A small scale study by Smith <2002> reaches different conclusions, finding no increase in ....Smith's cross-country analysis <2002> showed that ....Smith's comparative study <2002> found that ....Detailed examination of X by Smith and Patel <1961> showed that ....In another major study, Zhao <1974> found that just over half of the ....In a randomised controlled study of X, Smith <2004> reported that ....In a large longitudinal study, Boucahy et al. 2004> investigated the incidence of X in Y.Reference to single investigations in the past: research topic as subjectClassical conditioning was first demonstrated experimentally by Pavlov <Smith, 2002>. In his seminal study ....The electronic spectroscopy of X was first studied by Smith and Douglas 1 in 1970 The acid-catalyzed condensation reaction between X and Y was first reported by Baeyer in 1872X formed the central focus of a study by Smith <2002> in which the author found .... X was originally isolated from Y in a soil sample from .... <Wang et al., 1952>.The way in which the X gene is regulated was studied extensively by Ho and colleagues <Ho et al. 1995 and 1998>.To determine the effects of X, Zhao et al <2005> compared ....Reference to what other writers do in their text <author as subject>Smith <2003> identifies poor food, bad housing, inadequate hygiene and large families as the major causes of ....Rao <2003> lists three reasons why the English language has become so dominant. These are: ....Smith <2003> traces the development of Japanese history and philosophy during the 19th century.Jones<2003> provides in-depth analysis of the work of Aristotle showing its relevance to contemporary times.Smith <2003> draws our attention to distinctive categories of motivational beliefs often observed in ....Smith <2003> defines evidence based medicine as the conscious, explicit and judicious use of .....Rao <2003> highlights the need to break the link between economic growth and transport growth .....Smith <2003> discusses the challenges and strategies for facilitating and promoting ....Toh <2003> mentions the special situation of Singapore as an example of ....Smith <2003> questions whether mainstream schools are the best environment for .... Smith <2003> considers whether countries work well on cross-border issues suchas ....Smith <2003> uses examples of these various techniques as evidence that ....Some analysts <e.g. Carnoy, 2002> have attempted to draw fine distinctions between ....Other authors <see Harbison, 2003; Kaplan, 2004> question the usefulness of such an approach.Reference to other writers' ideas <author as subject>According to Smith <2003>, preventative medicine is far more cost effective, and therefore better adapted to the developing world.This view is supported by Jones <2000> who writes ....Smith argues that her data support O'Brien's <1988> view that ....As Smith reminds us, ....Elsewhere, Smith has argued that ....Some ways of introducing quotationsIn the final part of the Theses, Marx writes: "Philosophers have hitherto only interpreted the world in various ways; the point ...."Sachs concludes: "The idea of development stands today like a ruin in the intellectual landscape…" <Sachs, 1992a: 156>.As Smith argues: "In the past, the purpose of education was to ...." <Smith ,2000:150>.As Carnoy <2004: 215> states: "there are many good reasons to be sceptical".Being CriticalAs an academic writer, you are expected to be critical of the sources that you use. This essentially means questioning what you read and not necessarily agreeing with it just because the information has been published. Being critical can also mean looking for reasons why we should not just accept something as being correct or true. This can require you to identify problems with a writer's arguments or methods, or perhaps to refer to other people's criticisms of these. Constructive criticism goes beyond this by suggesting ways in which a piece of research or writing could be improved....... being against is not enough. We also need to develop habits of constructive thinking. Edward de BonoIntroducing questions, problems and limitations <theory>One question that needs to be asked, however, is whether ......A serious weakness with this argument, however, is that ......One of the limitations with this explanation is that it does not explain why... .One criticism of much of the literature on X is that ......The key problem with this explanation is that ......The existing accounts fail to resolve the contradiction between X and Y. However, there is an inconsistency with this argument.Smith's argument relies too heavily on qualitative analysis of ......It seems that Jones' understanding of the X framework is questionable.Smith's interpretation overlooks much of the historical research ......One major criticism of Smith's work is that .....Many writers have challenged Jones' claim on the grounds that .......X's analysis does not take account of ..... nor does he examine ......Introducing questions, problems and limitations <method/practice>Another problem with this approach is that it fails to take X into account.Perhaps the most serious disadvantage of this method is that .....Difficulties arise, however, when an attempt is made to implement the policy. Nevertheless, the strategy has not escaped criticism from governments, agencies and academics.One major drawback of this approach is that ......The main limitation of biosynthetic incorporation, however, is ......However, this method of analysis has a number of limitations.However, approaches of this kind carry with them various well known limitations. All the studies reviewed so far, however, suffer from the fact that .......However, there are limits to how far the idea of/concept of X can be taken.However, such explanations tend to overlook the fact that......However, one of the problems with the instrument the researchers used to measure X was ......Identifying a study's weaknessOffering constructive suggestionsA better study would examine a large, randomly selected sample of societies with ......A much more systematic study would identify how X interacts with other variables that are believed to be linked to ......Highlighting inadequacies of previous studiesMost studies in the field of X have only focussed on ......Most studies in X have only been carried out in a small number of areas.The generalisability of much published research on this issue is problematic.The experimental data are rather controversial, and there is no general agreement about ......Such expositions are unsatisfactory because they .....However, few writers have been able to draw on any structured research into the opinions and attitudes of ......The research to date has tended to focus on X rather than Y.The existing accounts fail to resolve the contradiction between X and Y. Researchers have not treated X in much detail.Previous studies of X have not dealt with ......However, these studies used non-validated methods to measure .....Half of the studies evaluated failed to specify whether ......However, much of the research up to now has been descriptive in nature …. Although extensive research has been carried out on X, no single study exists which adequately covers ......However, these results were based upon data from over 30 years ago and it is unclear if these differences still persist.Introducing other people's criticismsHowever, Jones <2003> points out that .....Many analysts now argue that the strategy of X has not been successful. Jones<2003>, for example, argues that .....Non-government agencies are also very critical of the new policies.The X theory has been / vigorously / strongly challenged in recent years by a number of writers.Smith's analysis has been criticised by a number of writers. Jones <1993>, for example, points out that ……Smith's meta-analysis has been subjected to considerable criticism.The most important of these criticisms is that Smith failed to note that ......Jones <2003> is probably the best known critic of the X theory. He argues that .…. The latter point has been devastatingly critiqued by Jones <2003>.Critics have also argued that not only do social surveys provide an inaccurate measure of X, but the......Critics question the ability of poststructuralist theory to provide ......More recent arguments against X have been summarised by Smith and Jones <1982>: Jones <2003> is critical of the conclusions that Smith draws from his findings.。

General descriptions of the relevant literature：A considerable amount of literature has been published on X。

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The generalisability of much published research on this issue is problematic.What we know about X is largely based upon empirical studies that investigatehow .。

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1. 1. Think of three or four ‘telegraphic’ sentences that a young child mightproduce. These may be in English or another language you know well. How are these ‘little sentences’ similar to those in the adult language? How are they different?“telegraphic”sentences：（1）"I can see a cow" repeated as "See cow"（2）I having this. I'm having 'nana.（3）Baby fall downSimilarities: They both contain the necessary key words, especially nouns, verbs and adjectivesDifferences: “Telegraphic”sentences lack function words like prepositions and conjunctions. They are shorter, and grammatical elements are often omitted or inserted incorrectly, and they are single clauses.2.Researchers have used both longitudinal and cross-sectional approaches to investigatethe order of acquisition of grammatical morphemes in English by young children.Describe these approaches in your own words. What are the challenges and the potential benefits of each?Cross-sectional approaches: A research method studies subjects at different ages and stages of development.Longitudinal studies: It is a type of observational study. By longitudinal studies, we mean that we can study learner’s language with a period of time, one month, one year, or more. This contrasts with Cross-sectional studies.The challenges of longitudinal study approaches: They are time-consuming and money-consuming. Also, they are not convenient.Potential benefits of longitudinal study approaches: Longitudinal studies track the same people, and therefore the differences observed in those people are less likely to be the result of cultural differences across generations.The challenges of Cross-sectional approaches: Routine data are not designed to answer the specific question.Potential benefits of Cross-sectional approaches: . The use of routinely collected data allows large cross-sectional studies to be made at little or no expense.3.What is the ‘wug test’? What do the findings from the wug test tell us about Children’s developing language? What advantages does the wug test have over studies that observe children’s language in natural settings? Can you think of some disadvantages?(1)“Wug test”is a procedure to explore children’s knowledge of languagedeveloped by Jean Berko Gleason. It was designed as a way to investigate the acquisition of the plural and other inflectional morphemes in English-speaking children.(2) By the age of three-and-a-half or four years, most children can ask questions,give commands, report real events, and create stories about imaginary ones-complete with correct grammatical morphemes.(3) Advantages of wug test By completing these sentences, children demonstratethat they actually know the rules in English, not just a list of memorized word pairs, and can apply these rules to words which they have never heard before.(4)Some disadvantages: The acquisition of the more complex grammaticalstructures of the language requires a different sort of explanation4. What is metalinguistic awareness? Why is it a prerequisite for being able to understand most jokes and riddles? Think of a joke or riddle you know. How is metalinguistic awareness related to your understanding of what makes this joke funny?(1) Metalinguistic awareness is the ability to treat language as an object, separatefrom the meaning it conveys.(2)Because Metalinguistic awareness includes the discovery of such things asambiguity---words and sentences that have multiple meaning.(3)Jokes: Why is the bride feeling unhappy in her wedding? Because she cannotmarry the ‘best man’.5. What have researchers observed about the frequency with which youngchildren engage in imitation and repetitive practice? In what way are young children’s linguistic imitation and practice patterns different from those of some foreign language classes?(1) Observation:●First year, most babies can understand quite a few frequentlyrepeated words.●Speech consists of imitation, but different children havedifferent rate of imitation●Children’s imitations are not random; they do not imitateeverything they hear●Children sometimes repeat them selves or produce a series ofrelated practice sentences(2) Differences: Linguistic imitation and practice patterns are the natural process inwhich children subconsciously possess and develop the linguisticknowledge of the setting they live in. Young children learnlanguage through exposure to the language and meaningfulcommunication.Foreign language classes take place where the target language isnot the language spoken in the language community. Childrenhave the need of systematic studies of any kind.6. Give examples of both grammatical and lexical overgeneralization errorsfound in early child language. What is the general learning principle that underlies such errors?Examples of grammatical overgeneralization errors：Randall (2, 9), who is in stage 3 of question formation, concluded that thetrick of asking questions is to put a certain word (in this case: are) at thebeginning of the sentence. for example: Are dogs wiggle their tailsCorrect form: Do dogs wiggle their tails?Examples of lexical overgeneralization errors:Michel (2, 0) says: Mummy, I'm hiccing up and I can't stop.(Michel has heard many two-word verbs with up, such as "standing up" and"picking up." So he makes such a generalization.)The general learning principle that underlies such errors:(1)Children appear to pick out patterns and then generalize them to newcontexts. They create new forms or new uses of words until they finallyfigure out how the forms are used by adults. Their new sentences areusually comprehensible and often correct.(2)Behaviorism in first language learning.7. How do the stories of Victor and Genie (pages 19–21) support the critical period hypothesis? Do you find this evidence convincing? Why do most researchers consider that the evidence from users of American Sign Language that was collected by Newport and her colleagues (page 21) is stronger support for the CPH?(1) Victor and Genie are children who have been deprived of contact with language in their early years. Their language acquisition device was stimulated too late. As a result, even though they were taught to speak when they were 12 or 13 years old they CANNOT learn language like normal people and their language development was abnormal. So the stories of Victor and Genie support the critical period hypothesis.(2) It is difficult to argue that the hypothesis is confirmed on the basis of evidence from such unusual children and the unknown circumstances of their early lives. We cannot know what other factors besides biological maturity might have contributed to their inability to learn language. Therefore, this evidence is not convincing(3) These users of American Sign Language are usual children who acquire their first language at different ages. They come from loving homes, yet do not receive exposure to language at the usual time. Besides, the circumstances of their early lives are known to the researchers. They begin learning ASL often when they start attending a residential school where sign language is used for day-to-day communication. Moreover, in the study, there were three distinct groups of ASL users: Native signers who were exposed to sign language from birth, Early learners whose first exposure to ASL began at ages four to six at school, and Late learners who first came into contact with ASL after the age of 12. Results of the research showed that the Native group outperformed the Early learner group who outperformed the late learner group on tests focusing on grammatical markers. The study supports the hypothesis that there is a critical period for first language learning.8. How are Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s views of first language acquisition similar? How do they differ?Similarities:(1) Both of them thought that interaction played a very important role in languagedevelopment;(2) Children are active learners;(3) Development declines with ageDifferences:(1)Piaget hypothesized Children's cognitive development would partly determinehow they use language!(2) Vygotsky believed that Language develops entirely from social interaction.9.What was unusual about Jim’s exposure to language? How does this casesupport an interactionist perspective on language acquisition?Unusual:(1) Jim, the hearing children of deaf parents, had little contract with hearing/speakingadults up to the age of three years and nine months.(2) His only contract with oral language was through TV.(3) His parents did not use sign language with JimSupport:(1) Interactionism focus on the role of the linguistic environment in interaction withthe child’s innate capacities in determining language development.And Vygotsky thought was essentially internalized speech, and speech emerged in social interaction.(2) Jim’s only contract with oral language was through TV, which cannot giveimmediate adjustment for the needs of Jim. But when Jim began conversations with sessions with an adult, his expressive abilities began to improve. By the age of four years and two months, most of the unusual speech patterns had disappeared, replaced by structures more typical of Jim’s age.10.State the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) and explain why it is oftenlinked to the behaviourist theory. What are its limitations?(1) The CAH was put forward by Dr. Robert Lado and it predicts that where thereare similarities between the first and second language, the learner will acquire second language structures with ease; where there are differences, the learner will have difficulty(2) The CAH is based on the behaviouristic psychology. It holds that languagedevelopment is viewed as the formation of habits; it is assumed that a person learning a second language starts off with the habits formed in the first language and that these habits interfere with the new ones needed for the second language.(3) Limitations:I. Not all errors predicted by CAH are actually made.II. Many of the errors which learners do make are not predictable on the basisof the CAH.III. Only a few errors made during the second language learning attributes tothe interferences of the mother tongue.VI. It only focuses on making comparisons between the mother tongue and thesecond language in terms of phonology and syntax, ignoring the comparisonsin semantics, vocabulary, and pragmatics.V. Except from the mother tongue, the national culture also influences thesecond language learning.11. What contribution has behaviourism made to our understanding of howlanguages are learned? What is the theory not able to explain? (1). I. Behaviourists account for learning in terms of imitation, practice,reinforcement, (or feedback on success), and habit formation.II. All learning takes place through the same underlying processes.III. Learners receive linguistic input from speakers in their environment and they form "association" between words and objects or events.IV. Learners receive encouragement for their correct imitations and corrective feedback on their errors.V. Learners start off with the habits formed in the first language while learning a second language and these habits interfere with the new ones needed for thesecond language.(2).I. Where there are differences between the first language and the targetlanguage, the learners will have difficulty.II. Not all errors predicted by it are actually made. Many of the errors which learners do make are not predictable on the basis of it.III. Many of the sentences produced by second language learners would be quite ungrammatical in their first language. Some characteristics of these simplestructures are very similar across learners from a variety of backgrounds.IV. The learner's first language may not simply be a matter of the transfer of habits.12. Sum up, in your own words, the main points surrounding the debateabout the nature and availability of UG in SLA. Where do you stand?UG is not suitable for explaining second language acquisition. (1) UG is suitable for acquiring language during a critical period; it is not available for second language learners who have passed the critical period. (Even if it may be present and available, its exact nature has been changed.) (2) Formal instruction and error correction will not affect the learner’s knowledge of second language.(3) Instead of UG, many different theories might be vital to explain some earlylanguage performance.UG is suitable for explaining second language acquisition. (1) There is still a logical problem of second language acquisition, which also appears in mother language learning, even if learners begin learning a second language after the critical period. (2) Second language learners need both formal instruction and error correction or they will be affected by their first language. (3) UG is necessary to explain learner’s knowledge of complex syntax.My stand:Although it doesn’t cover all aspects, UG has exactly explained second language acquisition to some extent.(logical problem, error correction, etc.)13. Name the five hypotheses that make up Krashen’s Monitor Model. According to this model, what conditions must be present for ‘acquisition’ to take place? What are the conditions for la nguage ‘learning’?1. The acquisition-learning hypothesis.2. The monitor hypothesis.3. The natural order hypothesis.4. The input hypothesis.5. The affective filter hypothesis.What conditions must be present for ‘acquisition’ to take place?Meaningful interaction in the target language.Exposure to adequate and comprehensible input:" i+1".What are the conditions for language ‘learning’?According to Krashen, for the Monitor to be successfully used, three conditions must be met: The learner must master the knowledge of rules. The learner must be focused on correctness The learner must have sufficient time to use the monitor14. What are the limitations of Krashen’s theory? Why do you think thatKrashen’s ideas have been so influential in second- and foreign-language education?Limitation1. Difficulties to define--Whether acquisition and learning are interchangeable is not clear;--The definition of Acquisition and Learning are not clear. 2. Lack of empirical evidenceIt’s difficult to show the evidence of monitor use; we don’t know what is produced by acquire system or monitor use; The natural order comes from “morpheme studies”, which is criticized by other experts; Input hypothesis has not been substantiated by empirical studies; It is difficult to be sure that affective factors cause the differences in language acquisition;Why Monitor Model is so influential?It appears to have immediate implications for classroom practice; It appeals intuitively to those who have tried unsuccessfully to learn a language in conditions where they felt stressed or uncomfortable;The cognitive perspective15. How does information-processing model explain SLA?Information processing is the change of information in any manner detectable by an observer. It is a process which describes everything which happens in the universe, from the falling of a rock (a change in position) to the printing of a text file from a digital computer system. Cognitive psychologists working in an information processing model of human learning and performance tend to see SLA as the building up of knowledge systems that can eventually be called on automatically for speaking and understanding. Information processing model explain SLA from 3 stages:1. At first, there is a limit to the amount of information a human can payattention to at one time. For example, a learner at the earliest stages of secondlanguage learning will probably pay attention to the main words in a message and not be able to notice grammatical morphemes which are attached to some of those words. So, learners have to pay attention to any aspects of the language which they are trying to speaking and understanding.2. Gradually, through experience and practice, learners become able to use certain parts of their knowledge so quickly and automatically that they are not even aware that they are doing it. This frees them to focus on other aspects of the language which, in turn, gradually become automatic (McLaughlin).3. Eventually, the performance will become automatic. It may originate from international learning, for example in formal study, but this is not always the case. We can use our mental "processing space", a possible source for information or skills which can eventually be available automatically, if there has been enough practice (something which involves effort on the part of the learner). Interactionist position16. In what way are proponents of the interactionist position in SLA in agreement with Krashen’s monitor model? In what way do they go beyond it?AccordanceInteractionists agree that comprehensible input is necessary for language acquisition.Extension1 Michael Long: is more concern with the question of how input is made comprehensible; views that modified interaction (negotiation of meaning) is very important during the conversation. Modified interaction theory: interactional modification makes input comprehensible, while comprehensible input promotes acquisition so that interactional modification promotes language acquisition.2 Vygotsky: socialcultural theory——assumes that all cognitive development arises as a result of social interactions between individuals.3 More focus on the use and social functions of language.17. What kinds of conversational modifications do native speakers make when they talk to non-native speakers? What similarities and differences would you expect to find between these modifications and those that are observed in child-directed speech? Why?What kinds of conversational modifications do native speakers make when they talk to non-native speakers?Interactional Modifications:Comprehension checks: efforts by the native speaker to ensure that the learner has understoodClarification requests: efforts by the learner to get the native speaker to clarify something which has not been understood. These requests from the learner lead to further modifications by the native speakerSelf-repetition or paraphrase: the native speaker repeats his or her sentence either partially or its entiretyWhat similarities and differences would you expect to find between these modifications and those that are observed in child-directed speech? Why?The similarities The way——conversational interaction They both involve a slow rate of dilivery, repetition, some clues, etc.The differencesChild-directed speech --difficult to judge the importance of these modifications --children still learn language by their siblings though without such modification from parents --comprehensible input is the focus These modifications in interaction --how the input is made comprehensible is more important --not the simplification but the opportunity to interact with others --modification is more important than the linguistic simplificationThe reasonsDifferent objects—one for the first language learning and one for the second language learning The difficulties—it’s harder to learn the second language 18. Several theories for L2 learning have been proposed in this chapter. Is one of them more consistent with your own understanding of how languages are learned? If so, how have your experiences as a learner brought you to this view?The acquisition-learning hypothesisHe cites evidences of some fluent speakers without having learned rules( like illiterate people), while others may 'know' rules but fail to apply them in real language use( like some incompetent 'high-score' learners). Many Chinese students are afraid of talking with English native speakers, though they get high marks in English. As they only know how to choose the correct answer but seldom use the knowledge in real life, they will stutter when they speak English. Hence, I think that adequate practice can make learned knowledge habitual so that it is available for spontaneous use in real communication. In this case, the learned language becomes the acquired knowledge. Otherwise, there`s no significance for school learning.The monitor hypothesisKrashen has specified that learners use the montior only when they are focused more on being 'correct' than on what they have to say, when they have sufficient time to search their memory for the relevant rules, and when they actually know these rules. We will pay more attention when we are writing, like taking an exam. However, when we are speaking, I find that we seldom use the structures we use in the writing and we make lots of grammatical mistakes.The input hypothesisIf the input contains forms and structures just beyond the learner’s current level of competence in the language (what Krashen calls 'i+1'), then both comprehension and acquisition will occur. Think about the exercise we do in the daily life. It is not that difficult and we can finish most of them. When teachers find where and why we are wrong, we actually learn something but not much, which is soonly understandable. Then, we can easily grasp them.The affective filter hypothesisThe 'affective filter' is an imaginary barrier which prevents learners from acquiring language from the available input. When we are tired, we seldom want to anything. Let alone our study.The natural order hypothesisThe rules which are easiest to state are not necessarily the first to be acquired. The rule for adding an -s to third person singular verbs in the present tense is easy to state, but even some advanced learners fail to apply it in rapid conversation. Chapter 3: Factors affecting second language learning19. Why is it difficult to assess the influence that personal characteristics have on the development of L2 proficiency?Actually, many of us believe that certain characteristics can lead to more or less successful language learning. For example, many teachers think extroverted learners who interact without inhibition in their second language and find many opportunities to practice language skills will be the most successful learners.All of us here have learned English for many years and we realize that some characters contribute to successful language learning.1. tries to get a message across even if specific language knowledge is lacking2. is willing to make mistakes3. practises as often as possible4. has a good self-image and lots of confidence5. begins learning in childhood ……Intelligence20. Language learners’ performance on IQ tests is related to certain aspects of L2 ability but not to others. Give examples to explain this statement.Examples:1. In a study with French immersion students in Canada, it was found that, while intelligence was related to the development of French second language reading, grammar, and vocabulary, it was unrelated to oral productive skills.2. In our experience, many students whose academic performance has been weak have experienced considerable success in second language learning.3. Andy Warhol, the leader of Pop Art, is a distinguished artist. His IQ is only 86, but he was successful in the film, music, publishing, writing, and many other fields.Conclusion:Intelligence is complex and that individuals have many kinds of abilities and strengths, not all of which are measured by traditional IQ test.Aptitude21. What lessons can language teachers learn from the research on language aptitude and L2 instruction by Wesche (1981)?assumptionIdeally, one could determine learners’ profiles of strengths and weaknesses and use this information to place students in appropriate teaching programs. The research by Wesche is an example to show how this could be done.From the researchResearchers find out that a high level of student and teacher satisfaction when students were matched with compatible teaching environments. In addition, some evidence indicated that marched students were able to attain significantly higher levels of achievement than those who were unmatched.ExtensionTeachers may find that knowing the aptitude profile of their students will help them in selecting appropriate classroom activities for particular groups of students. Or, if they do not have such information, they may wish to ensure that their teaching activities are sufficiently varied to accommodate learners with different aptitude profiles.Learning styles22. Based on what you read in this chapter, do you think that there is an ideal way to teach/learn a language? For example, as a foreign language learner or teacher, what are your views about teaching grammar? Do you have any specific preferences for how it should be taught or when? Do you know what your students’ preferences might be for grammar teaching and do you think it would be useful to find out?Based on what you read in this chapter, do you think that there is an ideal way to teach/learn a language?I don't think there is an ideal way to teach or learn a language. In this chapter, we have looked at the way in which intelligence, aptitude, personality, and motivational characteristics, learner preferences, and age have been found to influence second language learning.The study of individual learner variables is not easy. The results of research are not entirely satisfactory.Lack clear definitions and methods for measuring the individual characteristics. Learner variables interact in complex ways.As a foreign language learner or teacher, what are your views about teaching grammar？Do you have any specific preferences for how it should be taught or when?Learner preference: Learners have clear preferences for how they go about learning new material.Learning style: An individual’s natural, habitual, and preferred way of absorbing, processing, and retaining new information and skills.perceptual learning styles:visual learners: learn something until they have seen it aural learners: need only to hear something once or twice before they know it kinaesthetic learners: add a physical action to the learning processcognitive learning styles:field independent learners: separate details from the general background field dependent learners: see thing more holisticallyDo you know what your students’ preferences might be for grammar teaching and do you think it would be useful to find out? When learners express a preference for seeing something written or for memorizing material, we should encourage them to use all means available to them as they work to learn another language. In a classroom, a sensitive teacher, who takes learners’ individual personalities and learning styles into account, can create a learning environment in which virtually all learners can be successful in learning a second language. Personality23. What can we learn from research about the relationship between L2 learning and•extroversion•inhibitionDifferent research about the relationship between L2 learning and extroversion produces different results. Some studies have found that learner’s success in language learning is associated with extroversion such as assertiveness and adventurousness, while others have found that many successful language learners do not get high scores on measures of extroversion.It has been suggested that inhibition discourages risk-taking which is necessary for progress in language learning. This is often considered to be a particular problem for adolescents, who are more self-conscious than younger learners. Inhibition is a negative force, at least for second language pronunciation performance(Alexander Guiora). Be aware that inhibition may have more influence in language performance than in language learning.Motivation and attitudes24. Define instrumental and integrative motivation in your own words and give an example to illustrate each. Comment on how these types of motivation might be manifested differently in different learning environments.Instrumental motivation refers to languange learning for immediate or practical goals. Learners with an instrumental motivation want to learn a language because of a practical reason such as getting a salary bonus or getting into college. Example: Many college language students have a clear instrumental motivation for language learning: They want to fulfill a college language requirement. Integrative motivation refers to language learning for personal growth and cultural enrichment. Learners who are integratively motivated want to learn the language because they want to get to know the people who speak that language. They are also interested in the culture associated with that language.Example: Someone becomes a resident in a new community that uses the target language in its social interactions.Pretco stands for practical English Test for colleges. Driven by this strong instrumental motivation, the students tend to be willing to put more efforts and time into the study of vocabulary, grammar, listening and reading. However, the disadvantages also show themselves obviously. The students have a tendency to pay less importance to the input not closely related to the test. Also, learners may cease appling extra effort after the examination.。

Second Language Acquisition1.Introduction2.Description of Learner Language3.External Factors to SLA4.Internal factors to SLA5.Individual Differences and SLA6.Classroom and SLA7.Research Methodology in SLA8.Types of Data Analysis9.Theories in SLAReferences:Ellis, Rod 1999 The Study of Second Language Acquisition 上海外语教育出版社Ellis, Rod 1999 Understanding Second Language Acquisition 上海外语教育出版社Larsen-Freeman, Diane 2000 An introduction to Second Language Acquisition Research 外语教学与研究出版社Cook Vivian 2000 Second Language Learning and Language Teaching外语教学与研究出版社Cook Vivian 2000 Linguistics and Second Language Acquisition外语教学与研究出版社Chapter One Introduction1.Why Study Second Language Acquisitiona)Fascinating study itselfb)For second language learningc)For foreign language learning and teaching2.What is Second Language Acquisitiona)What is Second Language Acquisition?b)What do second language learners acquire?i.What is the reslut that the learners get regarding the rules ofthe the second langugae?ii.Are the rules like those of the native language?iii.Are they like the rules of the language being learned?iv.Do the rules created by second language learners vary according to the context of use?c)How do learners acquire a second language?i.What is the process of learning a second language like?ii.Do second language learners learn in the same way as they acquire their mother tongue?iii.Why don’t the learners learn the second language in a different way?1.Influence of first language2.Cognitive factors3.Affctive factors4.Input5.Output6.Cultural differencesd)What differences are there in the way in which individual learnersacquire a second language?i.native language variable; input variable; instructional variable;intelligence variable; social cultural variable; individualvariable(also include the social factors to which the individualis related)ii.Attitude and motivationiii.Intelligence and apptitudeiv.Agev.Personality(affective domain)1.introverson and extroverson2.self-esteem3.anxiety, risk-taking and inhibition4.empathy5.tolerance of ambiguityvi.learning strategy and learning stylese)What effects does instruction have on SLA?i.Effectiveness of L2 instruction1.On the order of acquisition2.On the pace of acquisition3.On the process of acquisitionii.Learnability(hypothesis) : the idea (Manfred Pienemann) that a second or foreign language learner’s acquisition of linguistic structures depends on how complex these structures are from a pschological processing point of view. Learnability is defined as the extent to which the linguistic material must be re-ordered and reoranged when mapping semantics and surface formiii.Teachability(hypothesis) : the idea that the teachability of language is constrained by what the learners is ready to acqriure. Instruction can only promote acquisition if the interlanguage is close to the point when the structure to be taught is learnable without instruction in natural settings.iv.The implicit and explicit knowledge1.Implicit knowledge(procedural)a)Formulaic: sequences of elements that are stored andaccessed as ready-made chunksb)Rule-based: unconscious knowledge of major andminor schemas consisting of abstract linguisticcategories realizable lexically in an indefinite numberof sentences/utterances.2.Explicit knowledge(declarative)a)Analysed: conscious awareness of minor and majorschemasb)Metalingual: lexical knowledge of technical andnon-technical linguistic terminologyv.The non interface/ interface hypothesis1.The non-interface hypothesis2.The interface hypothesisvi.Enhancing Adult SLA1.Implicit language teaching2.Focus on form3.Incidental language learning4.Task-based language learning5.Reconstruction3.An Overview of Second Language Acquisition Researcha)Second vs. third languageb)Second vs. Foreign Languagec)Naturalistic vs. instructed SLAd)Competence vs. Performancee)Usage vs. usef)Acquisition vs. learningg)Cross-sectional vs. longitudinal study4.What a Teacher can expected from SLA Researcha)Understanding the students’ contribution to learningb)Understanding how teaching methods and techniques workc)Understanding the goals of language teachingChapter Two Description of Learner Language1)Why study learner languageThe goal of SLA is the description and explanation of L2 learners’ competence and how this develops over time.Competence involves underlying systems of linguistic knowledge.2)What is learner language3)Learner language✓Mistakes vs. Errors random guess or slip caused by lack of attention, fatigue, carelessness, or some other aspects of performance;systematic result from incomplete knowledge✓Hypothesis making and testing4)The Definition of InterlanguageThe type of language produced by FL learners who are in the process of learning a language. The language which the learnerproduces using the processes (transfer, overgeneralization, communicative strategies--- This place, cannot park----It’s against the law to park here; a cloth for my nose----handkerchief ) differs both from the mother tongue and the TL---- so called interlanguage(Selinker,1972) or approximative systemErrors caused by different processes:✧Borrowing patters from the native language(language transfer)✧Extending patterns from the target language(overgeneralization)✧Expressing meaning using the words and grammar which are alreadyknown (communication strategy)Pidgin: Contact language or Mixed language when speakers of two languages try to communicate with each other on a regular basis. A pidgin usually has a limited vocabulary and a reduced grammatical structure. The process by which a pidgin develops is called pidginization Creole: When a pidgin is used for a long time, it will be expanded into a creole language. A creole is the native language of a group of speakers. The sentence structures and vocabulary of a creole are far more complex than those of a pidgin language. English-based French-based. Creolization---the process by which a pidgin becomes a creole, creolization involves the expansion of the vocabulary and the grammatical system.5)Stages of Interlanguage✧Random error stage✧Emergent stage✧Systematic stage✧Stabilization stage6)Sources of Error7)Fossilization(in SL/FL learning) a process which sometimes occurs in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language. Aspects of pronunciation, vocabulary usage, and grammar may become fixed or fossilized.Fossilized features of pronunciation contribute to a person’s foreign accent.8)Defossilization9)Attitudes toward errors1.C ontrastive Analysis1)Language Transfer(Zhang Guoyang 8)✓Definition: originally a psychological term: the effect of existing knowledge or skills on the learning or acquisition of new knowledge or skills; the effect of one language on the learning of another.✓Positive transfer is transfer, which makes learning easier, and may occur when both the native language and the target language have the same form. e.g. table-桌子desk-课桌.✓Negative transfer, or interference, is the use of a native- language pattern or rule, which leads to an error or inappropriate form in the target language. e.g. up-fire on the tree:Three levels of negative transfer:✧Phonological Level: thin-sin work—er dialect✧Lexical level: conceptual difference lover –爱人intellectual—知识分子connotative difference propaganda dog 明天我们和三班打篮球We will play basketball with Class Three.✧Syntactical level: tense-- What do you say to him? I very happy;word order-- he often is the first to come to school.2)The comparison of the linguistic system of two languages, forexample the sound system or the grammatical system. Developed and practised in the 1950s(Robert Lado) and 1960s, as an application of STRUCTURAL LINGUISTICS to language teaching, and is based on the following assumptions:✧the main difficulties in learning a new language are caused byinterference from the first language(language transfer)✧these difficulties can be predicted by contrastive analysis.✧teaching material can make use of contrastive analysis to reduce theeffects of interference.✧Contrastive analysis was more successful in phonology than in otherareas of language, and declined in the 1970s as interference was replaced by other explanations of learning difficulties(error analysis).In recent years contrastive analysis has been applied to other areas of language eg. Contrastive discourse analysis3)Strong Version: the hypothesis that one can predict the difficultiesof the students in learning a foreign language by comparing the target language with the native language.4)Weak Version: the hypothesis that one account for(explain)theobserved difficulties in second language learning using the linguistic knowledge they have about the TL and the NL.----- posteriori after the fact5)Procedure of CA✧Description: a formal description of the relevant features of languagecompared with the help of formal grammar.✧Selection: select the language items(rules, structures, )to becompared.✧Compare and contrast: the identification of the areas of difference andsimilarity.✧Prediction: identification of possible areas to cause errors.6)Application of CA✧Prediction of errors✧Diagnosis of errors✧Language testing✧Contrastive teaching --- grammar-translation methodalthough--but7)Evaluation of CA✧According to CA: difference(linguistic) is difficulty(psychological)it is not the case. similarity also cause problem✧CA can not predict all the errors student will meet.✧CA is restricted only on the contrast of the structure of the languagebarring the contrast of the culture.2.E rror Analysis1)Definition: the study and analysis of the errors made by secondlanguage learners. Error Analysis may be carried out in order to:a.i dentify strategies which learners use in language learningb.try to identify the causes of learner errorsc.o btain information on common difficulties in language learning,as an aid to teaching or in the preparation of teaching materials2)Basic Assumption of EAError analysis was developed as a branch of applied linguistics in the 1960s, and set out to criticize CA and demonstrate that many learner errors were not due to the learner’s mother tongue but reflect universal learning strategies.3)Types of Errors:A.according to aspects of language✧lexical error✧phonological error✧syntactic error✧interpretive error✧pragmatic errorB.according to the souses of errors✧Interlingual errors---an error resulting from language transfer; causedby the learner’s native language✧Intralingual errors---an error resulting from faulty or partial learningof the target language rather than language transfer; He is comes.OvergeneralizationSimplificationDevelopmental errorCommunication-based errorInduced error(resulting from transfer of training)Error of avoidanceError of overproduction(too often use of an item)4)Procedure of EA✧Collecting the data for analysis: either oral production or writtenexercises✧Identify the errorsError vs. LapseGrammatically right or wrong; pragmatically right or wrong(appropriate in the context)✧Classify the errorsClassify the errors into different categories:Addition; omission; substitution; and ordering, etc.Identify the levels of language within each categories:Phonological; orthography; lexicon; grammar; and discourseIdentify the global or local errorsGlobal errors hinder communication:Because Peter was absent, was snow hard.Local errors do not prevent the message from being heard,allowing the hearer to make accurate guess about the intendedmeaning:Peter was absent, because snowed hard.✧Explain the causes for the errorsInterlingual errorsPhonological: work-er, roomGrammatical: His work is often very busy--- he is often verybusy with his workCultural: Good morning Teacher Teacher LiIntralingual errors:I dislike getting up early in winterI don’t know when is the plane going to take off.Other errorsHe is heavier than an elephant is.Are you from the south? Yes, I am from the south.5)Evaluation of EA✧Function of EA in foreign language teachingBy EA, a teacher can know the degree to which the learners are familiar with the TL----Which stage of learning the learners are in?By EA, a teacher can know how a learner learns a language---the strategies and proceduresEA is also important and necessary to the learners themselves, learning process is actually one in which the learners make errors and correct the errors✧Limitations of EAEA emphasize too much on error, ignoring the correct and fluent language.EA concentrate on the language production, ignoring language perception.In practice it is very difficult to define and identify error, harder to classify them and even harder to explain the situation when thelearners use the strategy—avoidance.Chapter 3 External Factors to SLA1.Introductiona)What are the factors related to (or influence) SLA?b)What does the external factors include?c)Talk about the influence of the external factors on SLA.2.External Factors and SLAa)Learner Attitudesi.The target languageii.The speech communityiii.The target language cultureiv.The use and social value of learning the target languagev.Their own cultureb)Agec)Sexd)Social Classe)Context of SLAi.Natural vs. Educationalii.Submersion and emersioniii.Formal instruction3.Input And SLAa)Three views on inputi.Behaviouristii.Nativistiii.Interactionistb)Motherese; Teacher talkc)i+1 input4.Models of SLA Related to the External Factorsa)The Acculturation Modelb)The Inter-group Modelc)The Socio-educational Modeld)The Historical-structural perspectiveChapter 4 Internal factors to SLA1.Learner Internal Mechanism:a)Process of learning a language: perception;memory; problem-solving; information processingb)Language learning: knowledge-learning orskill-learningOutput Control Procedures ProductionReceptionc) Psychological Mechanismd) The Function of MemoryThe function of memory is to store information for later use: 1) for immediate use( checking telephone number and dial), 2) for short-term use(memorizing the speaker ’s words and respond), 3) for long-term use(knowledge, students memorizing what they have learnt for later use and examination) e) Encoding and decodingEncoding: the process of turning a message into a set of symbols, as part of the act of communication. Inencoding speech, the speaker must select a message to be communicated and turn it into linguistic form using semantic systems(e.g. concepts, propositions), grammatical systems(e.g. words, phrases, clauses), and phonological systems(e.g. phonemes, syllables).Decoding: the process of trying to understand the meaning of a word, phrase, or sentence. When decoding a speech utterance, the listener must hold the utterance in short-term memory and analyse the utterance into segments and identify clauses, phrases, and other linguistic units, and identify the underlying propositions and illocutionary meaning.In memorizing information, a person also needs to encode the message in order to put the information in an appropriate places for later use. Encoding is to reduce and rearrange the information.f)The Information Processing System(The Structureof Memory)g)Sensory store (sensory register, sensory memory) i.Visual aural touchingh)Working memory(short-term memory)i.Controlled processii.Repeat, encode, decide, retrieveiii.7 +(-) 2幻灯片的Magic Seven原则:★幻灯片是辅助传达演讲信息的，只列出要点即可，切忌不要成为演讲稿的PPT版，全篇都是文字。

1.Define the following terms briefly.With example if you need.2.action researchAction research is a mode of inquiry undertaken by teachers and is more oriented to instructor and learner development than it is to theory building, although it can be used for the latter.‘Action research’is a generic term for a family of related methods that share some important common principles.Action research is conducted by or in cooperation with teachers for the purpose of gaining a better understanding of their educational environment and improving the effectiveness of their teaching.2.construct validityThis is perhaps the most complex of the validity types discussed so far.In research, construct validity refers to the degree to which the research adequately captures the construct of interest.Construct validity can be enhanced when multiple estimates of a construct are used.3.criterion-referenced test标准参照测验（Criterion-Referenced Test）又称准则参照测验。

Factors influencing ferrite/pearlite banding andorigin of large pearlite nodules in a hypoeutectoidplate steels.W.Thompson and P.R.HowellThe microstructure and distribution of alloying elements in a hot rolled,low alloy plate steel containing(wt-%)0·15%C,0'26%Si,l'49%Mn,and0·03%AI were examined using light microscopy and electron probe microanalysis.Microstructural banding was caused by microchemical banding of manganese,where alternate bands ofproeutectoidferrite and pearlite were located in solute lean and solute rich regions,respectively.Bands were well definedfor a cooling rate of0·1K S-1,but banding was much less intense after cooling at1K s- 1.At a cooling rate of0·1K s-1and for austenite grains smaller than the microchemical band spacing,austenite decomposition occurred via the formation of'slabs'of proeutectoid ferrite in manganese lean regions resulting in the growth offerrite grains across austenite grain boundaries.Abnormally large austenite grains result in the formation of large,irregularly etching pearlite nodules which traversed several bands.In specimens cooled at1K S-1, ferrite/pearlite banding did not exist in regions where austenite grains were two or more times larger than the microchemical band spacing.MST/1397©1992The Institute of Materials.Manuscript received4January1991;infinalform16July1992.At the time the work was carried out the authors were in the Department of Materials Science and Engineering,The Pennsylvania State University, University Park,PA,USA.Dr Thompson is now at the Advanced Steel Processing and Products Research Center,Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering,Colorado School of Mines,Golden,CO,USA.IntroductionThis paper is part of a detailed examination of the nature and distribution of phases and microconstituents formed in a hot rolled,low alloy plate steel containing(wt-O/o) O'15°/oC,O·26°/oSi,1'49%Mn,and O·03°/oAI.The complexity of the microstructures that can be produced in this hot rolled hypoeutectoid steel is illustrated by Fig. 1.Figure la is a low magnification light micrograph which shows light bands of proeutectoid ferrite together with dark etching bands,some of the latter are arrowed.Similar images have been presented in numerous publications, e.g.Figs.22.5 and31.3of Ref.1.In view of previous publications,!,2it is likely that the dark regions consist of pearlite.Although microstructural banding is evident in Fig.I a,it is irregular and not likely to be an accurate reflection of any chemical segregation pattern.In addition to the dark bands,much larger dark regions exhibiting irregular etching character-istics are present, e.g.at A.These regions traverse several ferrite/pearlite bands and are referred to below as large pearlite nodules.Figure I b is a scanning electron microscope image of one such nodule.The irregular etching behaviour shown in Fig.I a can now be related to an irregular cementite distribution(cementite is the lighter phase in Fig.I b).Figure I b also shows faceted islands of proeutectoid ferrite within the large nodule(e.g.A-E)and regions of 'pearlite'which contain a low volume fraction of cementite (e.g.F,G).From the above observations it is apparent that the decomposition of austenite in this steel yields a complex microstructure.To determine the nature of the phase transformation products involved,the present investigation was initiated.Light microscopy,scanning electron micros-copy(SEM),electron probe microanalysis(EPMA),and transmission electron microscopy(TEM)have been employed to elucidate the details of the microstructures and to examine the effects of processing variables on the incidence of microstructural banding and large pearlite nodules.The results of this investigation will be summarised in three separate reports.In the present paper,the effect of cooling rate and austenite grain size on the propensityfor microstructural banding is documented.This aspect of the investigation also yields information regarding the origin of large pearlite nodules.The second paper describes the nature of these nodules in detail,where justification for the terminology'large pearlite nodule'is presented.The final paper describes the nature of the phases and microconstituents present in this hot rolled steel.From the results of the microstructural evaluation presented in the third paper,it is proposed that pearlite can be subdivided into two types:lamellar and non-lamellar.Additionally,a more rigorous definition of pearlite colonies and pearlite .nodules is provided in the final paper.BackgroundFerrite/pearlite banding is a common occurrence in hot rolled,low alloy steels.l-lo Banding is a term used to describe a microstructure consisting of alternate layers of proeutectoid ferrite and(frequently)pearlite,as opposed to a random distribution of these microstructural constituents.During solidification,alloying elements having partition ratios of<I(e.g.manganese,silicon,phosphorus,sulphur, and aluminium;see Ref.II)are rejected from the first formed b ferrite dendrites,resulting in interdendritic regions of high solute content.7,lO,l2Subsequent hot rolling of the steel in the austenitic condition leads to'pancaked'high solute regions.l This distribution of solute provides the basis for microstructural banding.Jatczak et al.3postulated that microstructural banding occurs because substitutional alloying elements affect the activity of carbon in austenite.Since interstitial carbon atoms possess high mobilities compared with substitutional atoms,regions of low and high carbon content will develop in regions of austenite containing different amounts of substitutional alloying elements.During cooling,these low carbon and high carbon austenite regions transform into proeutectoid ferrite and pearlite regions,respectively.Alternatively,Bastien4proposed that microstructural band-ing is a result of the influence of substitutional alloying Materials Science and Technology September1992Vol.8777778Thompson and Howell Ferrite/pearlite banding and origin of pearlite nodules in plate steelExperimentalFe Bal.AI 0·03Ra..LED PRODLeT0·003S p0·002II,--------------,,,,11)!._------------,,NORMAL DIRECllQ\Jt TRANSVERSErDIRECTIONROLLING DIRECllQ\JMn 1·49Si0·26TransversePlane,,,,1,1I,A--'--r-------------,,,,,RollingPlane ,AS-RECEIVED PLATELongitudinal Plane2Schematic diagram of as received steel platedetermine whether or not microstructural banding canoccur when the austenite grain size is less than the chemical banding wavelength.c0·15The hot rolled steel was supplied by the US Steel Research Laboratories,Monroeville,PA.This steel was vacuum melted and cast as a 75x 125x 350mm ingot.Subsequently,the ingot was reheated to 1200°C,rolled to plate of f"ooJ20mm thickness,finishing at about 980°C,then air cooled.A schematic diagram of the as received plate,which was a section of a larger plate,the latter being designated the rolled product,is shown in Fig.2.Chemical analysis of the as received steel plate was carried out using machined chips and standard spectro-scopic techniques.The chemical composition of this steel is given in Table 1.Specimens for light and scanning electron microscopy were prepared using standard techniques and etched in 2%nital or 4%picral.The SEM was an lSI model Super IlIA operating at 15kV.Specimens for EPMA were etched in 4%picral and examined in an Etec Autoprobe operating at 15kV using a probe size of f"ooJ1Jlm.Chemical analyses were obtained via energy dispersive spectrometry and results were corrected for effects due to atomic number Z differences,X-ray absorption A,and fluorescence F,i.e.the ZAF technique.Further details of the analyses have been reported elsewhere.13Austenite grain diameters were determined from speci-mens which had been reaustenitised for times of 5,10,15,and 30min at 900°C and water quenched.Standard stereological techniques were employed;further details are given in Ref.13.Table 1Chemical composition of as received steelplate,wt-%baferrite/pearlite banding,together with large,irregular pearlite nodules, e.g.at A (light micrograph);b large pearlite nodule -faceted islands of ferrite (A-E)and regions of 'pearlite',which contain a low volume fraction of cementite (F,G),are present (SEM)M icrostructu re of hot rolled plate steelelements on the temperature at which austenite becomes unstable with respect to ferrite formation upon cooling (i.e.the Ar3temperature).During austenite decomposition,alloying elements raise or lower the Ar3temperature.5If this temperature is lowered by the solute,then proeutectoid ferrite nucleates first in the solute lean regions.Conversely,if the Ar3temperature is raised by the solute,then proeutectoid ferrite forms preferentially in the solute rich regions.In either case,carbon atoms,which diffuse rapidly,are rejected from the proeutectoid ferrite,thereby producing carbon rich regions of austenite,which transform eventually to pearlite.Kirkaldy et al.5showed that the dominant effect in producing microstructural banding is that proposed by Bastien.4The discussion above has not considered variations in either cooling rate or austenite grain size.Although the effect of cooling rate has been examined,l to the authors'knowledge the effect of austenite grain size has received only scant attention.For example,Samuels 1noted that banding tends to disappear when the austenite grain size becomes large compared with the chemical banding wavelength.However,no information exists concerning the development of microstructural banding when the chemical banding wavelength is large compared with the austenite grain size.Hence,one aim of this investigation was toMaterials Science and TechnologySeptember1992Vol.8Thompson and Howell Ferrite/pearlite banding and origin of pearlite nodules in plate steel 779Results250F200100150Distance (11m)50IIII II III Ilb)la)0.41.0o0.20.1o50100150200250Distance (11m)a manganese profile;b silicon profileF proeutectoidferrite;P pearlite4Concentration profiles from steel in as received condition (longitudinal plane):bars in figure represent approximate error of 100/0of actual valueMICROSTRUCTURAL AND MICROCHEMICAL BANDINGFigures 3a and 3b are representative light micrographs from the centre of the as received plate (e.g.from position A in Fig.2)and show the transverse and longitudinal planes,respectively.Typically,microstructural banding was slightly more pronounced in sections revealing the longi-tudinal plane compared with sections of the transverse plane.Figure 3c is a light micrograph (longitudinal plane)which was recorded close to the edge of the plate,denoted C in Fig.2.The tendency towards the formation of alternate bands of proeutectoid ferrite and pearlite (i.e.micro-structural banding)near the plate edge (Fig.3c)is con-siderably less than that for the plate centre (Fig.3b).The less intense microstructural banding in Fig.3c,compared with Figs.3a and 3b,reflects the faster cooling rate experienced by regions close to either the edges or the faces (e.g.B in Fig.2)of the plate.This observation is discussed below.The horizontal direction in Figs.3a,3b,and 3c corresponds to the normal direction of the steel plate (see Fig.2):Fig.3a shows the transverse plane and Figs.3b and 3c show the longitudinal plane.All subsequent light micrographs in this paper have the same orientation as Figs.3b and 3c.The potential correlation between microstructural banding and microchemical banding was investigated by obtaining profiles of manganese and silicon contents.Figures 4a and 4b are plots of the manganese and silicon concentrations,respectively,as a function of distance in the direction normal to the microstructural bands (i.e.the normal direction in Fig.2).Regions of proeutectoid ferrite and pearlite were sampled and these regions are denoted F and P,respectively,in Fig.4.The lines between the letters F and P in these figures denote the positions ofca centre of transverse plane;b centre of longitudinalplane;c edgeof longitudinal plane3Microstructure of as received plate steel:in b large pearlite nodule is labelled A (light micrographs)Materials Science and TechnologySeptember 1992Vol.8780Thompson and Howell Ferrite/pearlite banding and origin of pearlite nodules in plate steel0.2o20406080100120Distance (!lm)a manganeseprofile;b silicon profileF aggregate of several proeutectoid ferrite grains;F j isolated grains of proeutectoid ferrite found inside pearlite colonies/nodules (e.g.regions A-E in Fig.1b);P u pearlite which exhibited uniformly dark etching characteristics (this feature was commonly observed at periphery of nodules,see Fig.5);Pi pearlite which exhibited irregular etching characteristics (e.g.central region of nodule shown in Fig.5and regions F andG in Fig.1b)6~Concentration profilesacross large pearlite nodule(longitudinal plane)2.01.8nlll I 11111I~IIIIIIIIc 1.6~IIlInlII IIIIIIIII I IIIlInIhI I Ollc ~~ 1.4~III I I 1.21.020406080100120Distance (!lm)0.4c ~0.300~bands within large pearlite nodules are continuous with the well defined pearlite bands outside the nodules,as indicated by Fig.5.The above discussion and examination of Fig.5suggest that the dark etching pearlite bands and light etching pearlite bands are located in manganese rich and manganese lean regions,respectively.However,there is only scant evidence to support this hypothesis owing to the complexity of these large,irregular pearlite nodules and because so few have been examined using EPMA.A light micrograph from a specimen which had been reaustenitised at 975°C for 180s,then furnace cooled is shown in Fig.7.This thermal treatment,at a low austenitising temperature and for a short time,has no measurable effect on microchemical banding.13However,the slow cooling rate promoted a more severely banded microstructure compared with the same steel in the as received condition (cf.Fig.3).In other words,there is a greater tendency towards well defined,alternate bands of proeutectoid ferrite and pearlite as cooling rate is decreased.Figure 7also shows that the large,irregular pearlite nodules,which were present in the as received,air cooled steel plate,are absent after this furnace cooling treatment.This observation is further discussed below.Figures 8a and 8b show manganese and silicon profiles,respectively,for the specimen heated to 975°C for 180s,then furnace cooled.In contrast to Figs.4and 6,excellent correlation between microstructural banding and microchemical band-ing is apparent in Fig.8.In other words,solute lean regions and solute rich regions consistently are associated with regions of proeutectoid ferrite and pearlite,respectively.Based on these results,the furnace cooled specimen was used to determine the distribution of microstructural banding wavelengths.The results of this analysis are presented in Fig.9:the average banding wavelength is about 60Jlm.5large,equiaxed pearlite nodule:arrows indicatelocations of pearlite bands in vicinity of nodule (light micrograph)the ferrite/pearlite interfaces,as determined using a light microscope attached to the microprobe.It can be seen from Figs.4a and 4b that the manganese and silicon profiles are 'in-phase',i.e.manganese rich regions corre-spond with silicon·rich regions.Additionally,there is some correlation between microstructural banding and chemical segregation.Specifically,.proeutectoid ferrite grains tend to be located in manganese/silicon lean regions and pearlite colonies/nodules tend to be located in manganese/silicon rich regions.From Figs.4a and 4b,the average banding wavelength is about 50Jlm,and the average compositional amplitudes are about 0.25°/0for manganese and 0.05°/0for silicon.As noted above,large,equiaxed pearlite nodules*,which span several ferrite/pearlite bands are frequently observed in the microstructure of the as received steel.Figure 5is a particularly striking example of such a nodule.The arrows.indicate the locations of pearlite bands in the vicinity of this nodule and the microstructural banding wavelength in this region was determined to be about 45Jlm.Chemical analyses were performed across a large,equiaxed pearlite nodule,similar to that shown in Fig.5,and the results are presented in Fig.6.Figures 4and 6reveal comparable maximum and minimum concentrations of manganese and silicon and similar chemical banding wavelengths.However,there was no apparent microstructural banding in the large,equi-axed pearlite nodule investigated using EPMA.These observations imply that the microstructure shown in Fig.5does not reflect accurately the segregation pattern,assuming that manganese or silicon has a dominant effect on microstructural banding.A different form of microstructural 'banding'was evident in some large pearlite nodules.In particular,'dark etching pearlite bands'and 'light etching pearlite bands'are evident within the nodule shown in Fig.5.Of the arrows above this micrograph,the two central arrows point to bands of pearlite which are located outside the large pearlite nodule.In addition,these arrows are parallel to dark etching pearlite bands which exist within the nodule itself.This observation suggests that either the distribution of ferrite and cementite crystals occurs on a finer scale within the dark etching pearlite bands in comparison with the adjacent light etching pearlite bands or there is a difference in the relative volume fractions of ferrite and cementite in these two types of band.Frequently,the dark etching pearlite*Apearlite nodule consists of more than one pearlite colony.Mehp4defines a pearlite colony as an area '...formed as a unit,usually with but one direction of lamellae,in which the ferrite and the ceplentite have each a single orientation.'Materials Science and Technology September 1992Vol.8250F200150100500.1o0.4c0.3~en~0.2Thompson and Howell Ferrite/pearlite banding and origin of pearlite nodules in plate steel781F F2.4I~I(a)2.22.0~~~I III I III l IIIIII Q,jc 1.8~ell C~ 1.6~~~II~I lIIIIw1I miI IIIII~IIIIIIm~IHI 1II~1.41.21.050100150200250Distance (Ilm)7Microstructure of specimen (longitudinal plane)reaustenitised at 975°C for 180s,then furnace cooled:A indicates 'bamboo'structure (light micrograph)Table 2Nominal austenite grain diameter of steel studied as function of austenitising time at900°CEFFECTS OF AUSTENITE GRAIN SIZE AND COOLING RATE ON MICROSTRUCTURAL BANDING AND INCIDENCE OF LARGE PEARLITE NODULESThe nominal austenite grain diameter as a function of austenitising time at 900De is presented in Table 2.Although the austenite grain size distributions were fairly uniform for austenitising times ranging from 5to 15min,some abnormal grain growth was evident.After a 30min austenitising treatment,abnormal grain growth was pre-dominant and a distinct bimodal distribution of prior austenite grains was evident.The largest austenite grains were in excess of 250/..lm in diameter.13To examine the effects of austenite grain size and cooling rate on both ferritejpearlite banding and the incidence of large nodules,the following thermal treatments were employed.Two specimens were reaustenitised for 5min,one was air cooled (cooling rate '"1K S -1through the transformation range)and the other was furnace cooled (cooling rate '"O·IK s -1).Two other specimens were austenitised for 30min at 900De and were either air cooled or furnace cooled.Representative micrographs are shown in Fig.10.From this figure,it can be concluded that for a given cooling rate,austenite grain size (for the grain size range 17-40/..lm)h as only a modest effect on microstructural banding (this statement excludes the large pearlite nodules,e.g.at A in Figs.lOa and 10c,which are discussed below).Banding is slightly more intense in Fig.lOa than in Fig.10c,whereas there is little difference in banding intensity for Figs.lOb and 10d.It is worth noting that for specimens austenitised for 5min at 900De (Figs.lOa and lOb)the average banding wavelength ('"60/..lm,s ee Fig.9)is greatly in excess of the austenite grain size ('"17/..lm,see Table 2).Reference to Figs.lOa and 10c shows that the major effect of coarse austenite grains (i.e.greater than '"100/..lm)onTime,minGrain dia.,Ilm517101815213040Distance (Ilm)a manganeseprofile;b silicon profile8Concentration profiles from furnace cooledspecimen of Fig.7(longitudinal plane)the final microstructure is that the incidence of large,irregular pearlite colonies increases markedly.This effect is more subtle in the two furnace cooled specimens.In Fig.lOb,the pearlite is confined almost exclusively within bands,whereas in Fig.10d some larger pearlite coloniesj nodules (e.g.at A)traverse several bands.These coloniesj nodules are greater than '"75/..lm in diameter (see 'Discussion'below).To facilitate the following discussion concerning the effect of austenite grain size on both microstructural banding and the formation of large pearlite nodules,some additional measurements were made on the specimens represented by Fig.10.The volume fraction of pearlite in the furnace cooled specimens was about 0·2and,as already discussed,the average banding wavelength was about 60/..lm.The largest pearlite nodules formed during air cooling had diameters of '"90and '"225/..lm for specimens austenitised at 900De for 5and 30min,respectively.These values were obtained from images such as those shown in Figs.lOa and lOcow~00W 100lW 1~100lWInterbandSpacing(~m)9Banding wavelength histogram:average bandingwavelength is '"6011mMaterials Science and Technology September 1992Vol.8782Thompson and Howell Ferrite/pearlite banding and origin of pearlite nodules in plate steelDiscussion.DEcopen-'=a.~'-C)'-(.)'E...,-'=.~"0Q)(5(.)uu..Q)(.)~c:'-:J'to-'-u~'-~c:Q)-'=...,ciiQ)E.;;fI):J'i:~>MICROSTRUCTURAL BANDINGThe results of the previous section are in full agreement with the findings of Kirkaldy et aI.,5who showed that manganese is the element most capable of producing banded ferrite/pearlite aggregates in hypoeutectoid steels. Thus,for the steel under consideration,the effect of about I'5%Mn(an austenite stabiliser)outweighs the combined effects of the silicon,phosphorus,sulphur,and aluminium additions(ferrite stabilisers;and see Refs.11,15,and16), since proeutectoid ferrite is most often located in solute lean regions and pearlite is located in solute rich regions.In an attempt to determine the reliability of the data presented in Figs.4a,6a,and8a,the maximum and minimum concentrations of manganese were estimated using the ScheH17equation,which was developed for the limiting case of no diffusion in the solid,but complete mixing in the liquidC s=kCo(1-ls)k-1.(1)where Csis the concentration of solute in the solid at a given fraction solidified Is,Co is the concentration of solute in the alloy,and k is the equilibrium partition ratio,defined ask=Cs/C1•(2)where C1is the concentration of solute in the liquid in equilibrium with the solid of concentration C s'To simplify the analysis,k is assumed to be constant throughout the solidification range.For manganese segregation,k=0·71 (Ref.10)and Co is I·49%Mn.Thus,C s=,..."1·1%Mn for Is=0'1,and C s=,...,,2·I%Mn for Is=0·9.These values are in reasonably good agreement with the maximum and minimum values of manganese concentration shown in Figs.4a,6a,and8a.The observation of extremely intense microstructural banding when the prior austenite grain size is less than the banding wavelength(Fig.lOb)has some consequences of interest concerning the mechanism of austenite decom-position.A possible sequence of events is illustrated in Figs.IIa-II!In Fig.IIa,a schematic diagram of the austenite grain structure is drawn to scale such that the mean grain size is about17Ilm,which corresponds to austenitisation of the steel for5min at900°C,and the banding wavelength is about55Ilm,as indicated by the scale bar in the diagram.The thin'bands'between closely spaced dashed lines(e.g.B)are taken to be manganese rich regions.Under conditions of very slow(i.e.furnace) cooling,it is suggested that proeutectoid ferrite grains will nucleate at locations remote from the manganese rich regions,particularly at austenite quadruple points,triple junctions,and grain boundaries(Fig.lIb).Continued cooling leads to growth of the proeutectoid ferrite grains along austenite grain boundaries and most probably across austenite triple junctions(e.g.at C in Fig.lIe).Continued growth of pre-existing proeutectoid ferrite grains together with additional nucleation events of the ferrite phase(at D in Fig.lIe)leads eventually to'slabs'of proeutectoid ferrite in the manganese lean regions(Fig.11d).These slabs are created because the first formed ferrite grains are localised within the solute lean regions of the austenite and,therefore,they quickly impinge on one another, thereby limiting most of the growth of ferrite grains in a direction perpendicular to the slabs.This sequence of events is indicated by grains C--+H in Figs.lId and lIe. Note that this scenario leads to proeutectoid ferrite grain boundaries that are perpendicular to the microstructural bands.This structure,referred to by Samuels1as a'bamboo' structure,is shown at A in Fig.7and at A and B in Fig.lOb.The final stages of austenite decomposition occurMaterials Science and Technology September1992Vol.8Thompson and Howell Ferrite/pearlite banding and origin of pearlite nodules in plate steel783a austenite(A)grain structure;b nucleation of ferrite grains inmanganese lean regions;c growth of ferrite grains along austenite grain boundaries and across triple junctions in manganese lean regions;d formation of ferrite'slabs'in manganese lean regions;e completion of ferrite'slab'formation;f final microstructure(pearlite bands are labelled P)11Mechanism for austenite decomposition during slow cooling when austenite grain size is less than banding wavelength:see text for details as continued growth of proeutectoid ferrite slabs leads to an increased carbon content in the remaining austenite,and the manganese rich regions(between the closely spaced dashed lines)transform to pearlite(P),as shown in Fig.II!Reference to Fig.II indicates that:(i)whole grains of austenite,e.g.A in Fig.Ila,transformto proeutectoid ferrite(ii)proeutectoid ferrite grows across austenite grain boundaries(iii)some austenite grains(e.g.at B in Fig.Ila)transformto virtually100%pearlite.The mode of austenite decomposition described above differs markedly from that which is generally accepted18in which a skeleton of ferrite forms around an austenite grain,thereby isolating each austenite grain from itsneighbours.Eventually,the interior of each austenite graintransforms to pearlite.Growth of proeutectoid ferrite across austenite grainboundaries was obtained in laboratory specimens by Purdy and Kirkaldy,19but,to the authors'knowledge,this phenomenon has not been documented in steels which have undergone commercial processing.Previous work hasshown that pearlite can grow across austenite grain boundaries2o,21and growth of cementite through austenite triple junctions has also been documented.22Hence,it is suggested that grain boundaries should not block thegrowth of proeutectoid ferrite grains,especially at high transformation temperatures.Reference to Fig.10shows that,irrespective of grain size (for the range studied),banding becomes less intense ascooling rate increases.This phenomenon was reported bySamuels1and by Bastien.4It is expected that the driving force for the proeutectoid ferrite reaction will be higherduring air cooling than furnace cooling.Hence,variations in the Ar3temperature are less likely to promote micro-structural banding during air cooling compared withfurnace cooling.As a result of a higher driving force forferrite formation during air cooling,some austenite grains are associated with a complete ferrite skeleton,and theremaining,entrapped austenite eventually transforms topearlite.However,complete ferrite skeletons do not form in association with all austenite grains and the ferrite which forms in these latter austenite grains can grow acrossadjacent austenite grain boundaries followed by pearlite formation in manganese rich regions of austenite.These comments are consistent with Fig.lOa,in which isolatedislands of pearlite can be observed within ferrite bands (e.g.at B),but most pearlite colonies are still present in the pearlite band.In addition,it should be possible to form proeutectoid ferrite in the manganese rich regions and reference to Fig.lOa confirms the existence of proeutec-toid ferrite in the pearlite bands, e.g.at C.The above discussion also explains why banding is less intense at the edge of the as received plate(Fig.3c)than at its centre (Fig.3b).Kirkaldy et al.5have provided the following expressionfor the minimum cooling rate T necessary for the elimination of intense microstructural bandingT>5DI1T/w2(3) where11T is the difference between Ar3temperatures for low and high solute regions,D is an average diffusion coefficient for carbon in austenite within the range11T, and w is the chemical banding wavelength.For11T=20K (Ref.16),D=3·6X10-12m2S-1(Ref.23),and w=60Jlm, the value of T is'"0·1K s-1.This value is consistent with the present results,as shown by comparison of Figs.7and lOb(furnace cooled at",0,1K S-1)with Fig.lOa(air cooled at'"I K S-1),thereby lending support to this discussion.Finally,it should be noted that at some cooling rate in excess of that experienced by air cooled samples ('"I K S-1)microstructural banding will be completelyMaterials Science and Technology September1992Vol.8。