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英美概况

英美概况
英美概况

Why the U.S. presidential election as “a donkey as the dispute over”? _ U.S. answer:

1, What is “like a donkey dispute”:

“donkey” is a pin of the Democratic Party, “Elephant” is a pin of the Republican Party. Once every four years, the U.S. presidential election, also known as “donkey as the dispute over” or “like a donkey race.”

2, “as the donkey dispute,” the origin of:

respectively to the Democratic Party and the Republican elephant and donkey as a symbol of their own, from the German American political cartoonist Thomas Nast’s satirical cartoons ?.

Democratic donkey and the first linking Jackson campaign in 1828 is the seventh U.S. president. At that time, opponents criticize him as “stupid donkey.” In 1870, Nast drew a donkey posted on the “Harper’s Weekly,” At that time, ironically, to the northern part of a civil war against the Democrats. This cartoon has deepened people’s minds “that the Democratic donkey,” impression. Although the first donkey stupid stupid brain, as Democrats were clever and brave animals.

1880, the Democratic Party in the presidential election to start on behalf of the donkey as a party animal.

1874, Nast in “Harper’s Weekly,” a painting of an elephant fall, use it on behalf of Republican dissatisfaction with the ruling party of President Grant’s Republican voters. In the same year, Republicans in Congress defeated in the mid-term elections, Nast also drew a trapped elephant to be ironic. Followed by other cartoonists have used an elephant to represent the Republican Party. The Democratic Party has been derided as large, flashy, conservative ignorance of the elephant in the Republican view, it is representative of dignity, strength and wisdom. Finally, the Republican elephant to simply as a representative of their animals.

摘要:为什么美国大选称为“驴象之争”?

问题:

为什么美国大选称为“驴象之争”?

回答:

1,什么是“驴象之争”:

“驴子”是民主党的党徽,“大象”是共和党的党徽。四年一次的美国总统选举又称为“驴象之争”或“驴象赛跑”。

2,“驴象之争”的起源:

民主党与共和党分别以驴和象作为自己的象征,源于德裔美国政治漫画家汤姆斯?纳斯特的讽刺漫画。

民主党最早和驴子扯在一起是1828年杰克逊竞选美国第七任总统。当时对手批评他是“笨驴”。1870年,纳斯特画了一头驴登在《哈泼斯周刊》上,以讽刺当时北部反对内战的民主党人。这幅漫画加深了人们头脑中“民主党即驴子”的印象。驴子虽然笨头笨脑,却被民主党人视为既聪明又勇敢的动物。

1880年,民主党在总统选举中开始以驴子作为党的代表动物。

1874年,纳斯特在《哈泼斯周刊》上画了一幅摔倒的大象,用它代表不满共和党总统格兰特执政的共和党选民。同年,共和党在国会中期选举中大败,纳斯特又画了一幅受困的大象予以讽刺。随后其他漫画家也纷纷用大象来代表共和党。被民主党讥讽为大而无当、华而不实、保守愚昧的大象,在共和党人看来,代表的却是尊严、力量和智慧。最后,共和党索性把大象作为自己的代表

三、政党政治与总统选举

两党制与总统选举

在近现代政党的历史上,美国的政党因其独特性而独树一帜。这不仅因为它是人类历史上第一个实现政权在政党之间转移的国家,而且其政党的产生和发展与每4年一次的总统竞选紧密联系在一起。简言之,美国总统的竞选造就了美国的政党,美国的政党为总统竞选服务,直到现在,仍旧如此。

美国的立国者在独立战争和制定宪法的时候,都反对政党活动。但随着1789年华盛顿就任第一届美国总统开始,围绕着建立一个强大的中央政府,还是反对建立这种强大的中央政府,统治精英中出现了分歧。以当时的财政部长汉密尔顿为代表的一批人,赞成建立强大的中央政府,自称―联邦党人‖,自此一个松散的组织―联邦党‖在美国的历史上出现了。

美国《独立宣言》主要起草者托马斯·杰斐逊由于反对不把人权法案列入宪法中,并且反对总统可以毫无限制地连选连任,他不是一个联邦主义者。在关于民主和集权、对待法国大革命、以及政府的性质等一系列重要问题上,杰斐逊与汉密尔顿的观点完全相反。1793年他辞去了国务卿的职务。从这个时候开始,以及以后的4年里,杰斐逊建立了自己的政党——―民主共和党‖,它是美国现在民主党的前身。

反对党、第三党与总统选举

自从1828年和1854年民主党和共和党分别成立,美国的政治舞台上基本上就是这两个政党轮流执政。第三党候选人必须有自己独特的诉求才能在两大党角逐的局面下拉到选票,所以第三党的诉求往往注重于两大党忽视了的人群,这样的人群经常是处于保守派和自由派分歧之间的两个极端,是两大党在趋同争取中间选票的时候,无暇顾及的人群,或者是远离主流的声音较小的弱势人群。

美国的选举团制度,在客观上抑制了第三党的出现。赢者通吃的原则意味着,只有在一个州赢得了多数的选民投票,才可取得这个州的选举胜利。对于第三党来说,即使在全国有为数不少的支持者,但只要在各州的选举中没有赢得多数,就不可能赢得任何一个州的选举胜利。

在美国的政治舞台上,第三党的出现,并不是这个党可能取得大选的胜利,而是为美国选民在民主党和共和党两者之外,提供了第三种选择的可能,分散了民主党或共和党的选票,从而间接地左右了大选的结果。第三党的不时显现,也在警示两大党,不能忽略边缘区域的选民的利益和诉求,促使有可能执政的大党的政策尽可能覆盖广大选民的诉求和利益,保持执政上的连续性、广泛性、中庸温和,以回应社会的多元化现实。

四、金钱、利益集团与总统选举

在美国,有人称―金钱是政治的乳汁‖,而总统竞选更是一项―花钱如流水‖的政治活动,建立与维持竞选班子,印发竞选材料,组织竞选集会,参加电视辩论以及投放广告等等,都离不开一个―钱‖字。可以说,能否筹到足够的经费是对候选人的一个严峻考验,直接关系到其能否维持自己的竞选。美国前众议院议长奥尼尔在解释金钱和选举的关系时讲得直截了当,―任何竞选都由四部分组成:候选人、政策立场、竞选班子和金钱,没有金钱,其它三项都可以忘掉。‖

与选民接触,筹集资金,是竞选期间总统候选人的主要任务。总统候选人的资金来源主要包括个人捐款,美国政治行动委员会及其他公共机构向候选人提供的资金,候选人自身的储蓄存款以及银行贷款等其他资金来源。在众多筹款方式中,最重要的是个人捐款和集会筹款,总统候选人竞选资金的绝大部分来自于这两种方式。

就个人捐款而言,参加捐款的人数最能体现候选人在选民中的受欢迎程度,是其选情的晴雨表。举行筹款集会时,参加这种集会的人往往需要购买高价门票,或者花大价钱购买根本值不了多少钱的东西。候选人在这种场合往往更能展现自己的个人魅力,争取更多选民的支持。

政治募款的存在,不可避免地出现了金钱与权力勾结的危险。自从六十年代电视用于竞选宣传,电视作为一种竞选媒介上升到第一位,竞选费用飞速上升,这种危险就引起了人们注意。1971年,国会通过了联邦竞选法案,从募款和用款两个方向对竞选财政作出了重要规定。1974年,由于水门事件中暴露的竞选财政弊端,国会通过了联邦竞选法修正案。1976年又通过了新的修正案。根据1974年修正案,美国联邦政府建立了联邦选举委员会这一独立机构,由其发挥与竞选财务监督有关的一切功能,包括管理公共竞选资金的分配、实施相关财务法律,并监督相关机构和个人的竞选资金披露情况,对于不按照规定申报和披露竞选资金的行为加以惩戒。

从美国选举程序的技术上说,金钱的作用主要是在政党诉求倾向上表现出来,在提名和竞选中表现出来。而到实质性的投票阶段,一人一票,亿万富翁和街头的无家可归者都是一人一票。

近年来,美国总统竞选的费用不断刷新纪录。1980年的总统竞选耗费资金仅为1.62亿美元,到1988年翻了一番,达到3.24亿美元。到了2000年,竞选费用总额猛涨到5.29亿美元,而2004年再创新高,达到8.81亿美元,其中两党候选人布什和克里两人筹到的竞选费用总额就超过了5亿美元。

美国联邦选举委员会前主席托纳曾表示,2008年的大选将是美国历史上时间最长、花费最多的一次选举。他认为,有意参加角逐的候选人必须在2007年底前至少筹款1亿美元,才有可能被―认真对待‖。据托纳估计,到2008年11月投票日那天,两党总统候选人每人将花费5亿美元。

美国人竞争公职(不只是总统选举)的代价是否太昂贵了?根据美国佛罗里达大学政治学教授里查德·斯克尔在《现代美国政治竞选活动》一书中提供的数据,以同样是大选年的1992年为例,美国人全年花费在健康和美容用品方面的钱大约是花费在选举政府官员上的4倍。他们花费在从墨西哥进口麻辣调料上的钱比候选人花在竞选美国总统上的钱还要多。他们花费在冷冻华夫饼、烘薄饼、法式吐司上的钱与总统候选人筹集的经费一样多,但比后者花费的金额要大得多。美国最大的烟草公司菲利普·莫利斯公司花费在烟草广告上的钱与美国人花费在选举活动上的钱大体持平。美国政府的广告支出比参加1996年总统初选的所有候选人的广告支出还要多,比它提供给参加总统大选的三位主要候选人的政府经费要多得多。

利益集团

总统候选人高额竞选捐款的背后是美国社会中形形色色的利益集团,他们通过捐款助选换取候选人的政治承诺,候选人一旦当选,他们可以进而影响总统做出有利于本集团的决策。

观察历史上的美国总统选举,可以看到利益集团的影子。在美国建国初期,总统多是工商业资本家和农奴主的代表。进入垄断资本主义时期,历届总统无不与东部垄断财团关系密切。第二次世界大战后,美国垄断财团的实力对比发生了变化,迅速崛起的南部石油财团和西部军火工业财团成为东部老财团的劲敌。因此,各财团之间争夺总统宝座的角逐也日趋激烈。

利益集团绝不只是那些代表少数人利益的大财团,在美国的政治生活中,有数以万计性质不一、规模不等的利益集团或―游说‖组织的存在。它们不光在选举时发挥作用,在平时的政治、经济、社会、文化等各个领域中都可以看到它们活跃的身影。他们关注的政策领域各异,都试图通过他们的活动影响政府决策。影响美国国会立法活动的院外活动集团就是受雇于美国社会中各个利益集团的职业说客。他们专门从事对国会议员的游说活动,向议员施加压力和影响,使国会的立法有利于自己所代表的集团的利益。

在美国,利益集团进行游说活动受到宪法的支持和保障。利益集团对美国政治生活最为重要的贡献,是它们的代表性和―集合利益‖的作用。利益集团通常是对某个领域持有相似态度的群体,虽然有的组织较为严密,有的组织非常分散,但是这些利益集团内部都是以共同的态度为基础,所以它们就能够而且也确实在起着集合利益的作用。许多利益集团通过各种方式将其成员中相互矛盾的观点统一起来,以便形成共同的目标,在这些目标中找到优先的重点并筹划如何达到目标。

利益集团的另一个作用,是在各个利益相互冲突的利益集团之间进行讨价还价,彼此作出妥协,最后形成统一意见。利益集团另一个有益的作用是充当美国民间疾苦的调查员。只要是某个集团的成员,都可以要求总部帮助他们与相应的政府部门联系,为他们提供各种有益的建议,而利益集团则对其成员提供了从如何填写表格到根据现行法律如何起诉政府的几乎无所不包的帮助。

利益集团是民众向政府转达他们的需要和关注的渠道,同时也是政府向民众解释问题的渠道。一切成功的政治制度都需要起这种作用的社会机制。即使在美国这样一个民主制度比较健全的国家,利益集团也是民选代表以外的另一条表达民众需要的渠道。(南风窗)美国政治制度的特色就是政府的三权分立的政治机构、政党制度和有利害关系的利益集团相互作用所构成的。利益集团是政党政治的替身,也是政党政治的补充。美国的政治正是由美国的政党政治与利益集团政治纵横交错,相互作用才构成了一种不断变化的美国立法与行政机构运作的格局;而美国总统的竞选可以说只是这场循环上演的、永无终止的剧目的序曲。

美国总统选举过程

美国的总统竞选,是一个“马拉松”式的过程,甚至可以说,在这次总统选举刚刚落幕,下一次总统竞选就开始了。

实际上,那些有意问鼎白宫的人,多年前就在为此储蓄政治资本了。到了大选年的前两年,其中有人就开始了直接行动,拟定政纲,进行政治试探,如访问各州,会见关键人物和竞选捐助人等,与重要的利益团体、新闻媒介等建立联系,在公众场合和电视节目亮相等。

在大选年的前一年,他就得选择适当的时机正式宣布竞选党的提名候选人,并建立一个得力的竞选班子,在至少20个州筹集资金,雇佣竞选顾问和各方面的专家,成立正式的竞选组织,并在一些关键州组织力量,准备投入预选。

总的来说,目前的美国总统选举需要经过以下四个阶段:候选人提名、竞选、选举总统选举人,最后由选举人投票选出总统。

一、候选人提名:

一般上,在总统选举年的6月,各政党由各州选派代表参加全国代表大会,在会议上提名总统候选人。(当然,提名总统候选人并不是党的全国代表大会的唯一任务,代表大会还要通过党的各个委员会的报告和党的纲领。)

总统候选人的提名一般是在大会的第三天或是第四天进行。在全部州都提出候选人之后,就由大会代表通过个别投票方式选举本党的总统候选人,得到多数票的候选人将最终获得本党总统候选人的提名。

不过,必须提出的是,虽然总统候选人的正式提名要等到党的全国代表大会召开时才能进行,但由于本世纪越来越多州实行了总统预选制,所以通常的情况是,早在党的全国代表大会之前,有意问鼎总统宝座的政治家们往往已经在各州展开了竞选活动。

顺带一提的是,美国虽然大小党派约有15个,但在国内政治及社会生活中起重大作用的只有共和党与民主党,可以说是一个两党制的社会。

这两个主要政党的全国代表大会一般在7、8月间召开。但是,在5、6月间,全国代表大会的大部分代表已经产生,竞选人各自拥有多少代表的支持已经明朗。因此,谁将成为两党的总统候选人大体上已成定局,全国代表大会实际上只是认可总统候选人(包括副总统候选人)的提名而已。

二、竞选阶段:

总统选举程序的第二阶段是由获得政党提名的候选人在全国范围内进行竞选。这种全国性的竞选是总统选举过程中关键性的环节,一般在总统选举年的9至11月进行。

竞选活动的主要内容是向选民介绍本党的政治主张及候选人自己的施政纲领,向选民作出各种各样的承诺,尽可能争取最多的选民支持。

正式的总统竞选,是在9月第一个星期一以后才正式开始。竞选的形式包括在全国各地发表演说、接见选民,以及与竞选对手进行公开的辩论等等。

三、选举总统选举人:

总统选举的第三阶段是由各州选举它们的总统选举人。

美国总统选举制度是由宪法上的选举制度与政党制度结合构成的。根据美国宪法,总统不是由国会选举,也不是由选民直接选举,而是由选民选派的选举人选举。每个州的选举人数同该州在国会两院中的议员总数相等。

联邦政府所在地哥伦比亚特区在国会中没有代表,1961年生效的宪法修正案给予该特区3个选举人名额,所以,目前全国50州的总统选举人总数为538人,一旦一名总统候选人获得的选举人票达到270票,即超过全国选举人数目的一半,即可宣布当选。

因此,各州选举其总统选举人的日子也叫总统选举日(按规定是在选举年11月的第一个星期一以后的第一个星期二),虽然选民不是真的对总统进行选举。

在现有的总统选举制度之下,总统选举人的选举对于各政党竞争总统职位有至关重要的意义。由于总统候选人的提名是在党的全国代表大会上进行的,而总统选举人也是以各政党为单位进行选举的,一般情况下,选举人总会投票给本党总统候选人,因此总统选举人的选举实际上也就等于总统选举。

也因此,美国两大政党以及总统候选人都要花费极大精力在各州的预选活动中争取选民的支持,尤其是那些两党的影响力旗鼓相当,选举人人数较多的大州。

四、选举人投票选出总统:

总统选举程序的最后一个阶段,就是由总统选举人在总统候选人之间投票正式选出总统。当各州选出其总统选举人之后,这些人便组成选举团,并且在选举年的12 月的第二个星期三之后的第一个星期一,在各州首府所在地分别投票,选举总统和副总统。

由于总统和副总统的候选人总是配对参加竞选,所以这两个职位的选举也就是在各政党之间进行选举。加上以上所述的原因,正式选举的结果实际上在总统选举人被选举出来之后便已经确定,因此,选举人的投票基本上就只是一种形式,没有什么实际意义。

最后,各州总统选举的投票结果将在选举之后的第二年的1月6日下午1时,由参议院议长在参众两院联席会议上公布。当选总统和副总统的就职时间是同年1月20日中午。

根据美国宪法,总统的任期是四年,只能连任一届。

就职典礼是美国总统选举的最后一道程序,只有到当选总统于次年1月20日手抚《圣经》(历史上除西奥多·罗斯福)宣誓就职时,美国的总统选举才告结束。

美国宪法原来对连任次数未规定任何限制,但因开国总统华盛顿不愿干第三任后,历任总统皆遵此例,成为宪法上的一种习惯法。直到1940年民主党人罗斯福第三次当选总统,才破此惯例。1944年他又第四次当选,被共和党人搞出一个在1951年生效的第22条宪法修正案,禁止总统连任三届。在美国总统选举制的演变过程中,曾上演过许多“精彩片段”。

总统选举的“例外”

美国在建国后的近一个半世纪里,从未有过在任参议员赢得总统大选的先例。直到1920年,方有俄亥俄州联邦参议员哈定首次当选总统,后有1960年的麻州联邦参议员肯尼迪。但二人先后死于非命:哈定蹊跷地死在白宫;肯尼迪在达拉斯遇刺陨命,刺客身分及枪手人数至今还是个谜。美国开国至今,在职副总统直接入主白宫,只有三位顺利竞选升级成功,前两位是开国副总统亚当斯和开国第二任副总统杰斐逊,第三位乃老布什。美国迄今为止仅有的父子总统,是第二任总统亚当斯和其长子、第6任总统小亚当斯。此次如果小布什当选,他将是第二位步父亲后尘入主白宫的总统。从1944年以来,每次大选,民主党全国代表大会提名的正副总统候选人,至少都有一位联邦参议员或者参议院议长(即副总统),只有1984年例外。但是,副总统带职竞选总统、同时又和联邦参议员搭档成功的,迄今惟有老布什获得成功。此次,戈尔提名利伯曼参议员为副手。戈尔是否能如老布什一样打破副总统配参议员难以获选的传统,布什父子是否成为美国历史上第二对父子总统,都是十分有趣的“例外”。

WASHINGTON, George (1732-1799), first president of the U.S., commander in chief of the Continental army during the American Revolution. He symbolized qualities of discipline, aristocratic duty, military orthodoxy, and persistence in adversity that his contemporaries particularly valued as marks of mature political leadership

Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826), third president of the United States

(1801-1809) and author of the Declaration of Independence.

As president, Jefferson strengthened the powers of the executive branch of government. He was the first president to lead a political party, and through it he exercised control over the Congress of the United States. He had great faith in popular rule, and it is this optimism that is the essence of what came to be called Jeffersonian democracy.

Jefferson swore his hostility, he said, to ―every form of tyranny over the mind of man.‖ During his lifetime he sought to deve lop a government that would best assure the freedom and well-being of the individual.

Abraham Lincoln was an American politician who served as the 16th President of the United States (1861 to 1865), and the first president from the Republican Party. Today, he is best known for ending slavery and preserving the Union by overseeing the war effort during the American Civil War. He selected the generals and approved their strategy; selected senior civilian officials; supervised diplomacy, patronage and party operations; and rallied public opinion through messages and speeches. His influence has been magnified by his powerful oratory; his Gettysburg Address had a lasting impact on American values.

Franklin Delano Roosevelt (January 30, 1882 – April 12, 1945) was the 32nd President of the United States and a central figure in world events during the mid-20th century, leading the United States during a time of worldwide economic crisis and world war. The only American president elected to more than two terms (he was elected to four but only served three full terms, dying in his fourth term), he was often referred to by his initials, FDR. Roosevelt won his first of four presidential elections in 1932, while the United States was in the depths of the Great Depression. FDR's combination of optimism and economic activism is often credited with keeping the country's economic crisis from developing into a political crisis. He led the United States through most of World War II, and died in office of a cerebral hemorrhage shortly before the war ended.

Bama was born in Hawaii, his father was a student from Kenya and his mother was a white Kansas. Obama graduated from Columbia University and Harvard University, for the first time in 1996, was elected Illinois senator in Illinois in 2004 for the first time elected as a Senator, to become the U.S. Congress in the history of the 5th session of Congress The only black senator.

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I. Different Names for Britain and its Parts 英国的不同名称及其各组成部分 1.Geographical names: the British Isles, Great Britain and England. 地理名称:不列颠群岛,大不列颠和英格兰。 2.Official name: the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. 官方正式名称:大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国。 3.The British Isles are made up of two large islands-Great Britain (the larger one) and Ireland, and hundreds of small ones. 不列颠群岛由两个大岛-大不列颠岛(较大的一个)和爱尔兰岛,及成千上万个小岛组成。 4.Three political divisions on the island of Great Britain: England, Scotland and Wales. 大不列颠岛上有三个政治区:英格兰、苏格兰和威尔士。 (1) England is in the southern part of Great Britain. It is the largest, most populous section. 英格兰位于大不列颠岛南部,是最大,人口最稠密的地区。 (2) Scotland is in the north of Great Britain. It has three natural zones (the Highlands in the north; the Central lowlands; the south Uplands) Capital: Edinburgh 苏格兰位于大不列颠的北部。它有三大自然区:北部高地,中部低地及南部山陵。首府:爱丁堡。 (3) Wales is in the west of Great Britain. Capital: Cardiff 威尔士位于大不列颠的西部。首府:加的夫 (4) Northern Ireland is the fourth region of the UK. Capital: Belfast. 北爱尔兰是英国第四个区域。首府:贝尔法斯特。 5.The Commonwealth (of nations) is a free association of independent countries that were once colonies of Britain. It was founded in 1931, and has 50 member countries until 1991. 英联邦是曾为英国殖民地的、但现已独立国家所构成的自由联合体。它成立于1931年,至1990年止已有50个成员国。 II. Geographical Features 英国的地理特征 1.Geographical position of Britain: 英国的地理位置: Britain is an island country surrounded by the sea. It lies in the North Atlantic Ocean off the north coast of Europe. It is separated from the rest of Europe by the English Channel in the south and the North Sea in the east. 英国是一个岛国。它位于大西洋北部,与欧洲大陆的北海岸隔海相望。南面的英吉利海峡和东面的北海将它与欧洲其它部分隔开。 2.The north and west of Britain are mainly highlands; and the east and southeast are mostly lowlands. 英国的西部和北部主要是高地,东部和东南部主要是低地。 III. Rivers and Lakes 河流与湖泊

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