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AlN Precipitation in Dual-phase 3% Si Electrical Steels

AlN Precipitation in Dual-phase 3% Si Electrical Steels
AlN Precipitation in Dual-phase 3% Si Electrical Steels

ISIJ International, Vol. 41 (2001), No. 5, pp. 484–491

?2001ISIJ484

materials has been studied by using advanced analytical

methods such as electron microscopy, diffraction and spec-

troscopy, there has been little research related to analysis of

the mechanical properties exhibited during creep, stress re-

laxation etc.

In this work, a creep method was developed and applied

to the detection of aluminum nitride precipitation in a dual-

phase 3% silicon electrical steel.

2.Experimental Procedure

2.1.Materials

An electrical steel was used in the present investigation

of AlN precipitation during hot deformation. This steel, in

the form of 39mm thick hot rolled plate, was provided by

POSCO, Pohang Iron & Steel Co. Ltd., Korea. The chemi-

cal composition is listed in Table 1. The soluble aluminum

was 0.010% and the total nitrogen was 0.0095%. The sili-

con level was 3% and the carbon content was 0.038%; the

latter causes this steel to have an austenite volume fraction

of 10 to 20% within the hot rolling temperature range,15)

see Fig. 1.16)

Compression samples 11.9mm in height and 7.9mm in

diameter were machined from the as-received plates, with

their longitudinal axes parallel to the rolling direction.

These dimensions were chosen based on studies that indi-

cated that an aspect ratio of 1.5 promoted homogeneous de-

formation during compression testing.17)

2.2.Thermomechanical Treatment Schedule

The level of the preset stress must be carefully selected if

precipitation events are to be investigated by means of the

present creep method. In the current work, various prior

thermomechanical treatment schedules were executed at

constant strain rate in order to estimate this stress level.

These schedules are represented schematically in Fig. 2.

The ?rst step in the heat treatment schedule was to vary the

soaking temperature. Each specimen was soaked for 20min

at a test temperature in the range from 1000 to 1280°C. A

constant strain rate (10?4s?1) was then applied to the sam-

ples after cooling to the test temperature (e.g. 1000°C) and

the stress was recorded continuously. In this way, it was

found that the microstructure present prior to a test has a

signi?cant effect on the results. This is because it affects

the ?ow curves determined during testing.

2.3.Hot Compression and Creep Testing

The creep experiments were performed on the same

computerized materials testing machine set up for constant

strain rate testing. This machine is basically made up of an

automated MTS testing system of 25kN capacity and an in-

duction furnace. The compression test output was connect-

ed to a computer using the OS/2 operating system for data

acquisition; this also provided a graphical user interface for

the compression machine. To produce the constant true

strain rate needed for the ?rst set of experiments, the actua-

tor displacement speed had to be reduced in proportion to

the decreasing specimen height. A computer program was

generated for this purpose using the MTS TestStar soft-

ware; it enabled the crosshead displacement speed to be

controlled in steps.

The thermomechanical treatment schedule used for the

present creep tests is presented in Fig. 3. Each specimen

was solution treated prior to application of the load for 20

min at the solution temperature. As soon as the solution

treatment was completed, the specimen was cooled to the

test temperature. The test temperatures ranged from 900 to

1100°C for the present steel. On attaining the test tempera-

ture, a holding interval of 1min was employed to permit the

specimen temperature to become approximately uniform. A

constant stress was then applied to the specimen for up to

1hr and the strain was recorded continuously. During each

creep test, the temperature was held constant to within

?1°C.18)

485?2001ISIJ Table1.Chemical composition in weight percent of the steel

tested.

Fig.1.Fe–Si phase diagram, showing the effect of two C lev-

els.16)

Fig.2.Thermomechanical treatment schedules for determina-

tion of the applied stress.

Fig.3.Thermomechanical treatment schedule for a creep test.

3.Results and Discussion

3.1.Creep Method for Single-phase Steels

The present creep method was developed by Sun et al .19)and is well suited for detecting precipitation in both single phase ferritic and single phase austenitic steels. Never-theless, before each creep test, the level of the preset stress has to be carefully selected; thus preliminary tests were car-ried out to determine the ?ow curves of the steels at a strain rate of 10?4s ?1directly at each temperature of interest without employing any prior solution heat treatment.

One of the true stress–true strain curves established in this way at 1000°C is shown in Fig. 4. The steady state stress under these conditions, in which the net rate of work hardening is approximately zero, was hard to ?nd.Furthermore, this stress–strain curve differs somewhat from the ?ow curves that are typical of ferrite or austenite; ferrit-ic steels follow the dynamic recovery shape of curve, while austenitic steels follow the dynamic recrystallization shape of curve. In Fig. 4, the ?ow curve initially displays a nega-tive slope; then, in the region between strains of 0.2 and 0.4, it approaches a steady-state value. The stresses de?ned at the largest strains were employed as the applied stresses for the creep tests at each test temperature of interest.

Oscillations can be seen in Fig. 4 and there are two possi-ble explanations for this phenomenon. They could be caused by DSA (dynamic strain aging), even though this phenomenon is not frequently found at high temperatures.In general, DSA, when caused by the interstitial elements carbon and nitrogen, occurs between 150 and 300°C, de-pending on the strain rate. The diffusivities of the substitu-tional elements are many orders of magnitude lower than those of the interstitial elements. Much higher temperatures are therefore required in order to develop the type of DSA caused by substitutional elements compared to when DSA is generated by the diffusion of interstitial elements. Re-cently, high temperature DSA phenomena have been report-ed by Cho et al . in 304 stainless steel.20)Furthermore, the diffusion coef?cients of the Si and Mn contained in the pre-sent material at 1000°C are similar to those of carbon and nitrogen when DSA occurs at temperatures between 150and 300°C.

Another possible explanation for the oscillations involves the Kurdjumov–Sachs relationship. When austenite forms in the present type of dual-phase steel on heating, it obeys the Kurdjumov–Sachs correspondence relationship. It is therefore coherent and acts to inhibit deformation in the softer ferritic matrix. The work hardening rate is also in-creased. During deformation, the austenite loses its co-herency and therefore its hardening effect. This, together with the decreasing volume fraction of the austenite, will lead to ?ow softening. This decrease is con?rmed in Tables 2and 4, from which the austenite fraction can be seen to decrease from 12.1% prior to testing to 2.8% after defor-mation.

From Fig. 5, it can be seen that steady state creep sets in after about 400s, Fig. 5(a). When the data are plotted semi-logarithmically, Fig. 5(b), the true strain increases smoothly as log(time) increases and no plateau is present on this curve. Here, the strain is increasing relatively rapidly be-cause the applied stress is too “high”. Under these condi-tions, it is hard to detect the initiation or completion of AlN precipitation.

The dependence of the microstructure and austenite vol-ume fraction on the deformation conditions is illustrated in Fig. 6and summarized in Table 2. As shown in the table,when the load was applied to the sample, the transforma-tion was accelerated by the strain, i.e . a strain–induced transformation took place. Under these conditions, the amount of austenite decreased from 9.8 to 2.8vol%; this is one reason why it was dif?cult to de?ne the steady-state stress.

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486

Fig.4.

Typical ?ow curve obtained at a strain rate of 10?4s ?1at 1000°C.

Table 2.Austenite volume fractions after 60min at 1000°C

(vol%).

Fig.5.

Typical true strain curve obtained by heating directly to 1000°C using creep testing. The data are plotted against (a) linear time and (b) log time.

The true stress–true strain curves established in this way at 1

000°C are shown in Fig. 7. A steady state of ?ow is readily seen in the 1150°C (curve b) and 1280°C (curve c)soak temperature tests. By contrast, there is ?ow softening when the sample was simply heated to the test temperature,curve a. As stated previously, such softening is probably due to: i) the gradually decreasing volume fraction of austenite (Table 2); and ii) the loss of coherency of the austenite phase resulting from deformation.21)Because of the signi?cant ?ow softening taking place in the absence of solution heat treatment, the soak temperature for preheating was ?xed at 1150°C for all the creep tests.

The true stress–true strain curves that resulted when the in?uence of transformation during deformation was re-duced to a minimum are presented in Fig. 8. These samples were soaked at 1150°C for 20min prior to cooling to the test temperature, i.e . 900, 1000 or 1100°C. Then a constant

strain rate of 10?4s ?1was applied to the samples. The val-ues de?ned in this way were employed as applied stresses for each creep test temperature of interest (Table 3). In Fig.8, the dynamic transformation of austenite-to-ferrite at 900and 1000°C seems to lead to the appearance of oscillations on the ?ow curve, which gradually disappear. This can be attributed to the very low volume fractions of austenite pre-sent at large strains. The effect is missing at 1100°C be-cause, although the volume fraction of austenite is higher, it is more stable.

To investigate the effect of soak temperature on the austenite volume fraction and morphology, samples were preheated to temperatures of 1000, 1150, 1280°C for 20min prior to testing at 1000°C. The microstructures after heat treatment but prior to testing are displayed in Fig. 9and the austenite volume fractions are shown in Table 4.When the soak temperature of the sample prior to testing was increased to 1150 and 1280°C, the austenite volume fraction also changed. The austenite morphologies after heating to 1150 and 1280°C were similar and differed from that of the 1000°C sample.

3.2.Creep Testing of the Dual-phase Steels

Some of the true strain–log(time) curves acquired by the present creep technique on the dual-phase electrical steel are illustrated in Fig. 10. In these ?gures, the slopes of the creep curves ?rst increase during loading and then decrease after some seconds of creep. The points on the curves iden-ti?ed here as P s can be associated with the initiation of pre-cipitation during creep. Unfortunately, the plateau on the strain curve is not level enough for the precipitation ?nish time to be identi?ed. In the earlier work carried out by Sun and onas 19)on a MnS-containing electrical steel, the plateaus were nearly horizontal, making it relatively easy to estimate the P f times. This may be because the MnS precip-itates were ?ner than the present AlN particles. Some trans-mission electron microscopy must therefore be carried out to establish the particle size distribution in the present ma-terial and to verify this hypothesis. For the successful pro-duction of Goss-oriented material by secondary recrystal-lization, the AlN precipitates must be suitably ?ne. Thus the chemistries of AlN-based electrical steels and their pro-487

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Fig.7.

Flow curves obtained at a strain rate of 10?4s ?1and 1000°C after preheating for 20min at: (a) 1000°C, (b)1150°C and (c) 1280°C.

Fig.8.

Typical ?ow curves obtained at a strain rate of 10?4s ?1at:(a) 900°C, (b) 1000°C and (c) 1100°C.

Fig.6.

Microstructure of the present steel after deformation at 1000°C compared with that of the undeformed material:(a) total strain ?0.36 and (b) undeformed (F ?ferrite,A ?austenite).

Table 3.

Applied stresses employed in the creep experiments.

cessing conditions must be appropriately optimized if this

approach is to be successful. As shown in Fig. 10, when the

load is increased, the precipitation start time, P

s

, is short-

ened. Precipitation is accelerated because the dislocation

density increases with stress or strain rate.

The P

s

time can be evaluated more precisely using the

second derivative of the strain with respect to log(time).

This derivative changes from positive to negative at P

s

and

becomes positive again at P

f

. Thus P

s

and P

f

can be de?ned

by employing the equations proposed by Sun and Jonas.19)

Nevertheless, when the creep test temperature was in-

creased, it became hard to detect AlN precipitation. This

can be explained quite simply in terms of the reduced vol-

ume fraction and larger mean diameter of the particles

under these conditions.

Some typical microstructures after reheating at 1280°C

and then creep testing are illustrated in Fig. 11and the

austenite volume fractions are shown in Table 5. The

austenite volume fraction and microstructure morphology

produced at 900 and 1000°C differ sharply from that re-

sulting from 1100°C testing. When the creep experiments

were carried out at 900 and at 1000°C, the austenite vol-

ume fraction decreased. By contrast, the austenite volume

fraction of the sample creep tested at 1100°C changed lit-?2001ISIJ488

Fig.9.Microstructures after preheating prior to testing at

1000°C at: (a) 1000°C, (b) 1150°C and (c) 1280°C

(F?ferrite, A?austenite).

Table4.Austenite volume fractions at 1000°C after preheat-

ing for 60min at the temperatures shown.

Table5.Austenite volume fractions after creep at different

temperatures (reheating temperature: 1280°C).

Fig.10.True strain–log(time) curves obtained by creep testing at

900°C under the following loads: (a) 553N (12.2MPa),

(b) 500N (11MPa) and (c) 462N (10.2MPa).

Fig.11.Microstructures of the present electrical steel after re-

heating at 1280°C and then creep testing at: (a) 900°C,

(b) 1000°C and (c) 1100°C (F?ferrite, A?austenite).

tle. This means that the austenite-to-ferrite transformation is accelerated by deformation, particularly when the sample temperature is decreased from the preheat temperature of 1280°C to test temperatures below 1100°C.

The formation of Widmanst?tten austenite along the grain boundaries and within the grains can be seen quite clearly in Figs. 11(a) and 11(b). It has been reported 22)that the austenite in dual-phase steels obeys the Kurdjumov–Sachs relationship with respect to the ferrite. For example,the {011}a planes are parallel to the {111}g planes, while the ?111?a and ?110?g directions are also parallel. Thus,when the austenite phase forms by solid state transforma-tion of the ferrite, it is coherent with the latter. When these particles are coherent with the matrix, stress ?elds are pre-sent around the “precipitates”. This is because coherency increases the degree of interaction between the second phase and the glide dislocations. In Fig. 11(c), the 1100°C austenite is spheroidized and is therefore incoherent. Such spheroidization appears to be possible during creep at 1100°C (but not at 900 and 1000°C) because of the much higher diffusivities that apply to this temperature.

In the present study, the effects of soak temperature and deformation on the volume fraction of austenite were stud-ied by subjecting a series of specimens to different thermo-mechanical processing schedules. Some samples were heat-ed directly to respective test temperatures of 900, 1000,1220 and 1280°C. Other samples were cooled to 900,1000 and 1100°C after soaking at 1150 and 1280°C. Still other samples were deformed at 900, 1000 and 1100°C after soaking at 1280°C for 20min. The associated austen-ite volume fractions are illustrated in Fig. 12.

When the soak temperature of a given sample was in-creased, the austenite volume fraction increased. The austenite volume fractions and morphologies after heating to 1150 (curve c) or 1280°C (curve b) were similar and differed from that of the 1000°C sample. They also differed from those of the directly heated samples (curve a). When a creep experiment was carried out at either 900 or 1000°C,the austenite volume fraction decreased and the grain size increased signi?cantly (curve d). The austenite volume fraction of a sample creep tested at 1100°C changed little but the austenite was coarsened.

Based on the foregoing observations, it is clear that the austenite-to-ferrite transformation in the present dual-phase steel is accelerated by deformation (curve d, 900 and

1000°C). In the cases of the 900 and 1000°C tests, when samples are cooled after soaking at temperatures higher than the test temperature, the austenite volume fraction de-creased. Some of the austenite phase present prior to defor-mation transforms into ferrite. When deformation is ap-plied to such samples, the austenite-to-ferrite transforma-tion is accelerated by the presence of the dislocations.

The effect of deformation on the microstructure of the ferrite formed dynamically is illustrated in Fig. 13. In order to compare the microstructures, samples were quenched after 1min (a) and 60min (b) without deformation, and 60min after deformation (c) at a constant load of 265N (i.e . a stress of 5.4MPa).

From metallographic examination of the quenched 1000°C samples, it is evident that the slightly deformed ferrite grains increased sharply in size but that the unde-formed sample grain size increased only slightly. By con-trast, when large deformations were applied to two ferritic steels, the grains decreased in size. Belyakov et al .23)and Baczynski and J onas 24)both described the effect of large deformations on grain size, the former on stainless steel and the latter on ferritic steels. In both cases, the ferrite grains decreased in size with the formation of new grains by the growth of subgrains and a gradual increase in the sub-boundary misorientation. These discrepancies seem to be associated with the magnitutudes of the strains and strain rates. Under creep conditions (low strains and strain rates), the sub-boundary misorientation is unable to in-crease and strain–induced boundary migration (SIBM)probably takes place instead.

489

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Fig.12.Austenite volume fractions: (a) on heating, (b) on cool-ing after soaking at 1280°C, (c) on cooling after soaking at 1150°C, and (d) deformed after soaking at 1280°C.

Fig.13.Microstructures of the present steel after different hold

times at 1000°C after solution treatment at 1280°C: (a)1min, (b) 60min and (c) 60min during deformation under a constant load of 265N (5.82MPa) (F ?ferrite,A ?austenite).

3.3.Precipitation–Time–Temperature Diagram

In order to collect the experimental results and represent them in a single diagram, the P s and strain rate data gath-ered on the electrical steel are listed in Table 6. These re-sults are also presented in Fig. 14in the form of a precipita-tion–time–temperature (PTT) diagram. It is apparent from this ?gure that the curve for AlN precipitation in the pre-sent dual-phase steel is consistent with the generally ob-served classical C-shape, with the nose located at a mini-mum time of about 95s at 1000°C. It is of interest that the nose is located at or near the temperature at which the vol-ume fraction of austenite is at its maximum; i.e . between 000 and 1100°C. Iwayama and Haratani 14)determined an AlN PTT curve in a somewhat similar steel using the elec-trochemical method; in their case, the nose of the curve was located at a minimum time of about 15s at 1150°C. This difference probably arises because the carbon content of the present material, i.e . about 0.04% C, is signi?cantly lower than that of the Iwayama and Haratani steel, 0.05% C.

Another matter of note involves the possible indirect ef-fect of C level on the driving force for precipitation. For ex-ample, Kononov and Mogutnov 25)suggested that the solu-bility of MnS in 3% silicon steel depends on the carbon content. An increase in carbon concentration raises the so-lution temperature sharply; this is the temperature below which the solution becomes supersaturated, leading to an increase in the driving force for MnS precipitation at a ?xed temperature. Here, the change in the precipitation kinetics is more likely to be related to the state of deformation of the specimens. For example, the rate of AlN precipitation in ?2001ISIJ

490

Fig.14.PTT curve for the dual-phase 3% Si steel acquired by

the present creep technique. The points represent data obtained at strain rates of: (a) 3.4?10?5s ?1and (b)1.1?10?4s ?1.

dual-phase 3% Si electrical steel when cooled to a test tem-perature is higher than when it is directly heated to the same temperature. During the newly developed type of test, the creep rate is sensitive to both the occurrence of precipi-tation as well as to that of transformation. When the in?u-ence of the latter is reduced to a minimum, the slope of the creep strain–log(time) curve decreases after the initiation of precipitation.

(2)The PTT diagram determined by the present creep technique for AlN precipitation is generally C-shaped, with the nose located at a minimum time of about 95s at 1000°C. Using a precipitation model, the laboratory results obtained at low strain rates were extrapolated to the indus-trial rolling range, which involves much higher strain rates, leading to start times in the 1s range.

(3)During deformation, oscillations were observed on every ?ow curve. These could be caused by DSA (dynamic strain aging), as the diffusion coef?cients of the Si and Mn contained in the present material between 900 and 1100°C are similar to those of carbon and nitrogen when DSA oc-curs at temperatures between 150 and 300°C.

(4)The austenite volume fraction of samples crept at 900 and 1000°C decreased signi?cantly but that of speci-mens crept at 1100°C remained constant or increased a lit-tle. The decrease in volume fraction seems to be responsi-

ble for the ?ow softening observed at the two former tem-perature temperatures. Some contribution to the ?ow soft-ening may also come from the loss of coherence during de-formation of the Widmanst?tten austenite phase.

Acknowledgment

The authors gratefully acknowledge the ?nancial support of the Pohang Iron & Steel Company.

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Fig.15.Estimated effect on the precipitation kinetics of increas-ing the strain rate from 3.4?10?5to 200s?1. Curve (a)

represents the experimental data determined at

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modi?ed Dutta and Sellars equation.

七个方面让你全面了解氧化铝陶瓷基板的优势和应用

七个方面让你全面了解氧化铝陶瓷基板的优势和应用 氧化铝陶瓷基板在消费电子、汽车电子、LED照明等行业已经应用非常广泛,那么氧化铝陶瓷基板在行业应用科研创新方面起到了非常很重要的作用。今天我们就来全面分析一下氧化铝陶瓷基板。 首先了解什么是氧化铝陶瓷基板? 氧化铝陶瓷是一种以氧化铝(Al2O3)为主体的陶瓷材料,用于厚膜集成电路。氧化铝陶瓷有较好的传导性、机械强度和耐高温性。需要注意的是需用超声波进行洗涤。氧化铝陶瓷是一种用途广泛的陶瓷,因为其优越的性能,在现代社会的应用已经越来越广泛,满足于日用和特殊性能的需要。 其次:氧化铝陶瓷基板的结构和分类 氧化铝陶瓷基板的结构构成主要是:氧化铝(Al2O3)。普通型氧化铝陶瓷系按Al2O3含量不同分为99瓷、95瓷、90瓷、85瓷等品种,有时Al2O3含量在80%或75%者也划为普通氧化铝陶瓷系列。其中99氧化铝瓷材料用于制作高温坩埚、耐火炉管及特殊耐磨材料,如陶瓷轴承、陶瓷密封件及水阀片等;95氧化铝瓷主要用作耐腐蚀、耐磨部件;85瓷中由于常掺入部分滑石,提高了电性能与机械强度,可与钼、铌、钽等金属封接,有的用作电真空装置器件。 再次:氧化铝陶瓷基板的优缺点 1.硬度大 经中科院上海硅酸盐研究所测定,其洛氏硬度为HRA80-90,硬度仅次于金刚石,远远超过耐磨钢和不锈钢的耐磨性能。 2.耐磨性能极好

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高中化学四种晶体类型的比较

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四种晶体类型的比较 GE GROUP system office room 【GEIHUA16H-GEIHUA GEIHUA8Q8-

四种晶体类型的比较

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例如:MgO>CaO ,NaF>NaCl>NaBr>NaI 。 KF >KCl >KBr >KI ,CaO >KCl 。 C 、金属晶体:金属晶体中金属阳离子所带电荷越多,半径越小,金属阳离子与自由电子静电作用越强,金属键越强,熔沸点越高,反之越低。如:Na <Mg <Al ,Li>Na>K 。 合金的熔沸点一般说比它各组份纯金属的熔沸点低。如铝硅合金<纯铝(或纯硅)。 D 、分子晶体:熔、沸点的高低,取决于分子间作用力的大小。分子晶体分子间作用力越大物质的熔沸点越高,反之越低。(具有氢键的分子晶体,熔沸点反常地高) 如:H 2O >H 2Te >H 2Se >H 2S ,C 2H 5OH >CH 3—O —CH 3。 (1)组成和结构相似的分子晶体,相对分子质量越大,分子间作用力越强,物质的熔沸点越高。如:CH 4<SiH 4<GeH 4<SnH 4。 (2)组成和结构不相似的物质(相对分子质量相近),分子极性越大,其熔沸点就越高。如熔沸点 CO >N 2,CH 3OH >CH 3—CH 3。 (3)在高级脂肪酸形成的油脂中,不饱和程度越大,熔沸点越低。 如:C 17H 35COOH >C 17H 33COOH ;硬脂酸 > 油酸

陶瓷金属化产品与普通pcb板对比

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金属表面陶瓷化方法

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耐蚀、绝缘等的使用要求,最后经过水洗、烘干,便获得金属-界面扩散层-铝-陶瓷的复合体系,完成了对金属的表面改性处理。 通过以上处理便可以在金属表面获得金属-界面扩散层-铝-陶瓷组成的结构体系,完成对一些金属基体的表面陶瓷化处理。其优点是通过熔钎焊的方式在金属基体表面附加铝堆焊层,避免了母材的熔化,消除了微弧氧化方法处理某些金属的限制,使铝的微弧氧化工艺比较成熟、氧化铝陶与铝的结合力强等。由于微弧氧化是在铝的表面原位生成陶瓷,可以使得膜层与基体结合牢固,陶瓷膜致密均匀。

晶体类型

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如何判别晶体类型

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氮化铝综述

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