The freewill vs. determinism debate in
psychology Assumptions
Freewill
The freewill approach assumes that humans are free to choose their behaviour,that
they are essentially self-determining. Freewill dose not mean that behaviour is uncaused in the sense of being completely random,but assumes that influences(biological or environmental)can be rejected at will. Soft determinism(William James, 1890)suggests that freewill is not freedom from causation,but freedom from coercion and constraint – if our actions are voluntary and in line with our conscious desired goals then they are free.
Determinism
The determinism approach assumes that every physical event is caused,and,since human behaviour is a physical event,it follows that it too is caused by preceding factors.
If all events are caused and perfect knowledge is gained of the current state of the universe ,it follows that future events are entirely predictable. Determinism,with its emphasis on causal laws is, therefore, the basis of science, which aims to reveal those laws to provide prediction and control of the future.
Examples in psychology 心理学自由意志
与
决定论之争
假设
自由意志
自由意志假设人类自由选择他们的行为，人们在本质上是自我决定的。自由意志并不是说行为不是感官完全随意引起的，而是假设（生物学的或者环境的）影响可以按照意愿被拒绝。
软决定论（威廉姆詹姆斯1890）指出自由意志在因果关系上并不
自由，而是高压统治下强制性的自由，如果我们的行为是主观控制的并且在我们的意识目标里，那他们是自由的。
决定论
决定论通过假设所有的物理事件都是由此引起的，既然人类的行为是物理事件那么人类的行为同样是由上述因素引起的。
如果所有的事件都是由此引起的并且完美的知识是由宇宙的当前状态获得的，那么未来的事实完全可以预言的。
决定论，重点在因果法则上，因此，科学的基础旨在展现这些法则，用来提供预言和控制未来。
心理学中的例子
Freewill
Humanistic psychology, proposed by the likes of Rogers and Maslow,is the strongest advocate of human freewill, arguing that we are able to direct our lives towards self-chosen goals.The emphasis on free-will is most apparent in humanistic based therapies,where the terms client and facilitator are used to indicate the voluntary nature of the situation,and the idea that the individual has the power to solve their own problems through insight.Humanistic therapies are usually non directive . Cognitive psychology appears to adopt a soft determinism view considering problem
solving and attentional mechanisms as the ‘choosers’of thought and behaviour.While it seems that we select what we pay attention to, these mechanisms operate with the parameters of their innate capabilities and our past experience(just as a computer cannot choose to do something it was not built or programmed for)e.g ‘perceptual set’suggests that we are not free to choose what we see.However,language and metacognitive abilities may allow humans to choose from among many possible
influences(Johnson-Laird,1988). Determinism
The majority of approaches in psychology adopt a fairly strict deterministic view of human behaviour.
Behaviourism took an extreme environmental determinism 自由意志
人本主义心理学，是人类自由意志的最强拥护者，像Roger和Maslow，提出我们能够使我们的生活朝着自己选择的目标发展。自由意志的重点在人本主义疗法中最明显，其中来访者和诱导者两个词语被用来揭示一种自愿的自然的状态。个体有通过洞察力解决自己的问题的能力。人本主义疗法通常是无方向的。
认知心理学采纳软决定论观点，认为问题解决和注意机制是思想和行为的“选择者”。尽管看起来我们自己选择要注意什么，这些机制通过参数来处理他们的先天能力和过去经验好像选择了我们付之注意的那些天生的能力和我们过去的经验的参数来进行（像电脑不能选择做那些程序未赋予的）知觉设置指出我们不能自由选择看到什么。然而语言和元认知能力可以允许人从许多可能的影响中选择。(Johnson-Laird,1988).
决定论
心理学研究方法中的大部分采纳了一种相当严格的人类行为的决定论观点。
行为主义采取一个极端的环境决定论方式，争论从环境学习“从出生
approach,arguing that learning from the environment ‘writes upon the blank slate of our mind at birth’to cause behaviour. Watson’s belief that the deterministic laws of learning could predict and control the future were reflected in his claim that he could take any infant at random and turn them into any type of specialist he might select.Skinner argued that freewill is completely an illusion created by our complexity of learning. Psychoanalysis took the view of unconscious determinism –that our behaviour is controlled by forces of which we are unaware --the reasons for our actions are merely rationalised by our conscious https://www.doczj.com/doc/f79969720.html,ter psychoanalysts,such as Erikson,looked at more conscious ego processes than Freud,however. Biological approaches to psychology look at the deterministic influence of genetics,brain struture and biochemistry. Sociobiologists investigate evolutionary determinism. FOR
Freewill
Introspection upon our decisions when many possible and equally desirable options are available often seems to indicate free choice. Subjective impressions should be considered.
Even if hunans do not have freewill , the fact that they think they do has many implications for behaviour.Rotter(1966),for example,has proposed that individuals with an external locus of control who feel that outside factors(e.g chance)control their life, suffer more from the effects of stress than those 起就在我们思想的白板上书写”来引发行为。Watson相信学习的决定论法则可以预测和控制未来，这种想法反映在他的声明中。他声称他可以任意挑选出一些婴儿，然后把他们培养成他随意选择的任何种类的专有人才。Skinner说自由意志完全是一个由我们复杂学习中产生的一个错觉。
精神分析提出无意识决定论的观点--我们的行为是被我们没有意识到的力量所控制---我们行为的原因只有通过有意识的思维才能得到合理化解
释。然而，之后的精神分析学家，像埃里克森比，他比弗洛伊德更看重自我。
心理学的生物研究方法更看重基因、大脑构造和的生物化学的影响。社会生物学家调查了进化决定论。
支持的观点
自由意志
当有许多可能性和平等的值得选择的选项时，内省影响我们做决定通常显示出
自由选择，主观的印象应该被考虑。即使人类没有自由意志，他们认为他们所做的事情有许多行为暗示。比如
Rotter(1966)指出外控型的人他们感到外在因素控制他们的行为（如机会），与那些感到自己能影响周围环境的人（内控型）相比，前者遭受压力的影响更大。Brehm(1966)说如果人们的自由受到威胁，他们会起反应。
who feel they can influence situations (an internal locus of control ).Brehm(1966)argued people react if their freedom is threatened.
Determinism
The illusion of freewill is shattered very easily by mental disorders (obsessive compulsives lose control of their thoughts and actions,depressives their emotions)and psychoactive drugs(which can produce involuntary hallucinations and behaviour). Determinism is one of the key assumptions of science-whose cause and effect laws have explained ,predicted and controlled behaviour(in some areas) above the levels achieved by unaided commonsense.
The majority of all psychologists,even those sympathetic to the idea of freewill , accept determinism to some degree.
AGAINST
Freewill
It is difficult to define what freewill is and what the ‘self’that ‘dose the choosing’consists of .Philosophers such as Descartes regarded it as the non-physical soul or spirit,while the existentialist philosopher Sartre preferred to think that freewill was a product of consciousness.
The evidence for the existence of freewill is mostly subjective-where ‘objective’studies have been conducted the results are a little disturbing-Libet(1985a)claims
that the brain processes that initiate the movement of a hand occur almost 决定论
自由意志的错觉能够非常轻易的被心理障碍（强迫症患者对自己的思想和行为失去控制，感情郁闷）击碎了和心理药物（它可以产生非自愿的幻觉和行为）。
决定论是科学的一个中心假设，它的因果关系论法则在某些领域解释、预测、控制行为，它的水平超过了那些利用没有帮助性的常识所达到的。多数心理学家，甚至赞同自由意志观点的那些也同样从某种程度上接受决定论。
反对的观点
自由意志
很难定义什么是自由意志，“自己”和“选择”由什么组成，哲学家像Descartes把它当做非物质性的灵魂或精神，然而存在主义哲学家Sartre 倾向于认为自由意志是意识的产物。
自由意志存在的证据大部分是主观的,其中用于处理结果的客观性研究有些令人厌烦。Libet宣称使手开始运动的大脑内部过程要比通过主观的口头报告选择让手移动早半秒。
half a second before the moment a subject reports choosing to move it!
A pure freewill approach is incompatible with the deterministic assumptions of science. Determinism
Determinism is inconsistent with society’s ideas of self-control and responsibility that underlie all our moral and legal assumptions.Only extreme examples of determinism are taken into account(e,g insanity) Determinism can never lead to complete prediction,due to
a The vast complexity of influences upon any behaviour
b The nature of induction never being able to prove 100%
c The notions of unpredictability(e,g Heisenberg’s ‘uncertainty principle’)an
d non-causality that physics has produced
Determinism is unfalsifiable since it always assumes a cause exists,even if one has not been found yet. 纯粹的自由意志研究方法和科学的决定论假设是不相匹配的。
决定论
决定论与社会上的关于自控和责任的观点（这些观点构成了我们所有道德与法律假设的基础）不一致。只有极端的决定论例子会被考虑（如精神病）。
决定论永远不能引发完整性的预言，由于：
a 任何行为都存在着大量的、复杂的影响因素。
b 自然感应不可能到达百分之百。
c 不可预测能力的概念（海森博格的不确定原因）和无因果关系已经被医学家证实。
决定论是不可伪证的，因为它总是假设原因是存在的，即使有的没被发现
Talking about security loopholes Richard S. Kraus reference to the core network security business objective is to protect the sustainability of the system and data security, This two of the main threats come from the worm outbreaks, hacking attacks, denial of service attacks, Trojan horse. Worms, hacker attacks problems and loopholes closely linked to, if there is major security loopholes have emerged, the entire Internet will be faced with a major challenge. While traditional Trojan and little security loopholes, but recently many Trojan are clever use of the IE loophole let you browse the website at unknowingly were on the move. Security loopholes in the definition of a lot, I have here is a popular saying: can be used to stem the "thought" can not do, and are safety-related deficiencies. This shortcoming can be a matter of design, code realization of the problem. Different perspective of security loo phole s In the classification of a specific procedure is safe from the many loopholes in classification. 1. Classification from the user groups: ● Public loopholes in the software category. If the loopholes in Windows, IE loophole, and so on. ● specialized software loophole. If Oracle loopholes, Apach e,
Unit 1 safety management system Accident causation models 事故致因理论 Safety management 安全管理Physical conditions 物质条件 Machine guarding 机械保护装置 House-keeping 工作场所管理 Top management 高层管理人员 Human errors 人因失误Accident-proneness models 事故倾向模型 Munitions factory 军工厂Causal factors 起因Risking taking 冒险行为Corporate culture 企业文化Loss prevention 损失预防Process industry 制造工业Hazard control 危险控制Intensive study 广泛研究Organizational performance 企业绩效 Mutual trust 相互信任Safety officer 安全官员 Safety committee 安全委员会Shop-floor 生产区Unionized company 集团公司Seniority 资历、工龄Local culture 当地文化 Absenteeism rate 缺勤率Power relations 权力关系Status review 状态审查 Lower-level management 低层管理者 Business performance 组织绩
效 Most senior executive 高级主管 Supervisory level 监督层Safety principle 安全规则Wall-board 公告栏Implement plan 执行计划Hazard identification 危险辨识 Safety performance 安全性能 One comprehensive definition for an organizational culture has been presented by Schein who has said the organizational culture is “a pattern of basic assumptions – invented, discovered, or developed by a given group as it learns to cope with its problems of external adaptation and internal integration –that has worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems” 译文：Schein给出了组织文化的广泛定义，他认为组织文化是由若干基本假设组成的一种模式，这些假设是由某个特定团体在处理外部适应问题与内部整合问题的过程中发明、发现或完善的。由于以这种模式工作的有效性得到了认可，因此将它作为一种正确的方法传授给新成员，让他们以此来认识、思考和解决问题[指适应外部与整合内部的过程中的问题]。 The safety culture of an organization is the product of individual and group values, attitudes, perceptions, competencies, and patterns of behavior that determine the commitment to, and the style and proficiency of , an organization’s health and safety management. 译文：组织的安全文化由以下几项内容组成：个人和群体的价值观、态度、观念、能力和行为方式。这种行为方式决定了个人或团体对组织健康安全管理的责任，以及组织健康安全管理的形式和熟练程度。 Unit 2 System Safety Engineering System safety engineering 系统安全工程By-product 附带产生的结果
外文原文 The Origins of C++: A Little History Computer technology has evolved at an amazing rate over the past few decades. Today a notebook computer can compute faster and store more information than the mainframe computers of the 1960s. Computer languages have evolved, too. The changes may not be as dramatic, but they are important. Bigger, more powerful computers spawn bigger, more complex programs, which, in turn, raise new problems in program management and maintenance. In the 1970s, languages such as C and Pascal helped usher in an era of structured programming, a philosophy that brought some order and discipline to a field badly in need of these qualities. Besides providing the tools for structured programming, C also produced compact,fast-running programs, along with the ability to address hardware matters, such as managing communication ports and disk drives. These gifts helped make C the dominant programming language in the 1980s. Meanwhile, the 1980s witnessed the growth of a new programming paradigm: object-oriented programming, or OOP, as embodied in languages such as SmallTalk and C++. Let’s examine these C and OOP a bit more closely. The Mechanics of Creating a Program Suppose you’ve written a C++ program. How do you get it running? The exact steps depend on your computer environment and the particular C++ compiler you use, but they should resemble the following steps: 1. Use a text editor of some sort to write the program and save it in a file. This file constitutes the source code for your program. 2. Compile the source code. This means running a program that translates the source code to the internal language, called machine language, used by the host computer. The file containing the translated program is the object code for your program. 3. Link the object code with additional code. For example, C++ programs normally use libraries. A C++ library contains object code for a collection of computer routines, called functions, to perform tasks such as displaying information onscreen or calculating the square root of a number. Linking combines your object code with object code for the functions you use and with some standard startup code to produce a runtime version of your program. The file containing this final product is called the executable code. CAsyncSocket
吉林化工学院理学院 毕业论文外文翻译English Title（Times New Roman ，三号） 学生学号：08810219 学生姓名：袁庚文 专业班级：信息与计算科学0802 指导教师：赵瑛 职称副教授 起止日期：2012.2.27～2012.3.14 吉林化工学院 Jilin Institute of Chemical Technology
1 外文翻译的基本内容 应选择与本课题密切相关的外文文献（学术期刊网上的），译成中文，与原文装订在一起并独立成册。在毕业答辩前，同论文一起上交。译文字数不应少于3000个汉字。 2 书写规范 2.1 外文翻译的正文格式 正文版心设置为：上边距：3.5厘米，下边距：2.5厘米，左边距：3.5厘米，右边距：2厘米，页眉：2.5厘米，页脚：2厘米。 中文部分正文选用模板中的样式所定义的“正文”，每段落首行缩进2字；或者手动设置成每段落首行缩进2字，字体：宋体，字号：小四，行距：多倍行距1.3，间距：前段、后段均为0行。 这部分工作模板中已经自动设置为缺省值。 2.2标题格式 特别注意：各级标题的具体形式可参照外文原文确定。 1．第一级标题（如：第1章绪论）选用模板中的样式所定义的“标题1”，居左；或者手动设置成字体：黑体，居左，字号：三号，1.5倍行距，段后11磅，段前为11磅。 2．第二级标题（如：1.2 摘要与关键词）选用模板中的样式所定义的“标题2”，居左；或者手动设置成字体：黑体，居左，字号：四号，1.5倍行距，段后为0，段前0.5行。 3．第三级标题（如：1.2.1 摘要）选用模板中的样式所定义的“标题3”，居左；或者手动设置成字体：黑体，居左，字号：小四，1.5倍行距，段后为0，段前0.5行。 标题和后面文字之间空一格（半角）。 3 图表及公式等的格式说明 图表、公式、参考文献等的格式详见《吉林化工学院本科学生毕业设计说明书（论文）撰写规范及标准模版》中相关的说明。
市场营销：概论 在过去的一百多年中，市场营销作为一项商业职能，其职责和概念有了长足的发展。最初，市场营销活动仅仅关注如何完成商业交换，即让顾客去买东西。通常一些较大的商业力量经常自己完成销售活动。在美国，在这些商业力量的影响下，销售过程的发展可以分为几个时期。Perreault和McCarthy 总结为以下五个时期（1）简单贸易时期（2）产品时期（3）销售时期（4）市场营销部门时期（5）市场营销公司时期。为了了解现代市场营销在美国商业中如何发挥作用，回顾每个时期的销售行为是很有帮助的。在讨论其发展过程后，将可以依据它在美国商业行为中的运做而提出一个现代市场营销的定义。 在简单贸易时期，通常“制造商”是专门生产一种或几种产品的乡村家庭。这些产品通常是农作物或牲畜，但是他们可以是使用简单的手工工具来完成的技艺。剩余的产品就卖给或以实物交换给当地的中间商，这些中间商又寻找更远的顾客来出售他们收集来的产品。这个时期在西方社会持续了几百年。此外，这个时期的中间人的活动范围都比较大。举个例子，文艺复兴时期的意大利特别是威尼斯商人，从印度、中国和东南亚进口商品。这些商人是这个简单贸易时期运作最成功的商人。 当19世纪末，工业革命在欧洲兴起的时候，美国开始发展起来，这时产品时期也取代了简单的贸易时期。产品时期最明显的特征就是机器使用率的提高和新的组织技术的发展，这些大大促进了产品数量的增加。因此有很多商品都能以较低的价格提供给更多的顾客，从而也大大刺激了需求的增长。所以，很多公司把更多的精力放在提高生产技术上。生产效率很高的公司很少关注产品的销售，因为这个时期需求远远大于供给。如果公司生产一件产品，通常就有现成的买主在等待着。 到了19世纪30年代，很多生产商已经大大地提高了产量，使得西方国家很多行业的生产能力超过了潜在顾客的需求，这就导致了销售时代的来临。销售时代的特征是相信顾客不愿购买产品，部分原因是因为如此众多的公司为了获得客户的关注而展开竞争。在这个时代，大多数公司向销售人员传授成功的销售技巧，这些技巧可以征服潜在顾客心中的抵制情绪。因此，销售人员常常成为了说服艺术和人际交往的专家。在大多数极端的案例中，很多销售策略都是为了操纵消费者，而很少或根本不顾及顾客是否对产品有需求。 随着大多数行业的销售和大部分西方国家在第二次世界大战后得到发展，销售时代过渡到市场营销部门时代。市场营销部门时代认为销售是一个更全面的活动，而非个体销售代表征服客户的活动。销售活动已经扩大到更多非个人的交流形式，而且组织创立了市场营销部门来协调整个公司的销售活动。在市场营销部门时代，营销经理主要贯彻执行由公司经理制定的销售战略。例如，20世纪50~60年代通用汽车公司通过市场营销部门来协调销售取得了巨大的成功。通过整合广告，特别是个人销售技巧，通用汽车公司在美国汽车业处于统治地位。
外文文献翻译（译成中文2000字左右）： As research laboratories become more automated,new problems are arising for laboratory managers.Rarely does a laboratory purchase all of its automation from a single equipment vendor. As a result,managers are forced to spend money training their users on numerous different software packages while purchasing support contracts for each. This suggests a problem of scalability. In the ideal world,managers could use the same software package to control systems of any size; from single instruments such as pipettors or readers to large robotic systems with up to hundreds of instruments. If such a software package existed, managers would only have to train users on one platform and would be able to source software support from a single vendor. If automation software is written to be scalable, it must also be flexible. Having a platform that can control systems of any size is far less valuable if the end user cannot control every device type they need to use. Similarly, if the software cannot connect to the customer’s Laboratory Information Management System (LIMS) database,it is of limited usefulness. The ideal automation software platform must therefore have an open architecture to provide such connectivity. Two strong reasons to automate a laboratory are increased throughput and improved robustness. It does not make sense to purchase high-speed automation if the controlling software does not maximize throughput of the system. The ideal automation software, therefore, would make use of redundant devices in the system to increase throughput. For example, let us assume that a plate-reading step is the slowest task in a given method. It would make that if the system operator connected another identical reader into the system, the controller software should be able to use both readers, cutting the total throughput time of the reading step in half. While resource pooling provides a clear throughput advantage, it can also be used to make the system more robust. For example, if one of the two readers were to experience some sort of error, the controlling software should be smart enough to route all samples to the working reader without taking the entire system offline. Now that one embodiment of an ideal automation control platform has been described let us see how the use of C++ helps achieving this ideal possible. DISCUSSION C++: An Object-Oriented Language Developed in 1983 by BjarneStroustrup of Bell Labs,C++ helped propel the concept of object-oriented programming into the mainstream.The term ‘‘object-oriented programming language’’ is a familiar phrase that has been in use for decades. But what does it mean? And why is it relevant for automation software? Essentially, a language that is object-oriented provides three important programming mechanisms:
Unit1 Safety Management Systems 1. Accident Causation Models The most important aim of safety management is to maintain and promote workers' health and safety at work. Understanding why and how accidents and other unwanted events develop is important when preventive activities are planned. Accident theories aim to clarify the accident phenomena，and to explain the mechanisms that lead to accidents. All modem theories are based on accident causation models which try to explain the sequence of events that finally produce the loss. In ancient times, accidents were seen as an act of God and very little could be done to prevent them. In the beginning of the 20th century，it was believed that the poor physical conditions are the root causes of accidents. Safety practitioners concentrated on improving machine guarding, housekeeping and inspections. In most cases an accident is the result of two things ：The human act, and the condition of the physical or social environment Petersen extended the causation theory from the individual acts and local conditions to the management system. He concluded that unsafe acts, unsafe conditions，and accidents are all symptoms of something wrong in the organizational management system. Furthermore, he stated that it is the top management who is responsible for building up such a system that can effectively control the hazards associated to the organization’s
英语四六级段落翻译常用词汇：中国社会多元文化论 cultural pluralism 文化适应 acculturation 社会保障 social security 班车 shuttle bus 相定迁户 a relocated unit or household 大龄青年 single youth above the normal matrimonial age 独生子女 the only child in a family 单亲 single parent 福利彩票 welfare lotteries 家政服务 household management service 民工 migrant laborers 名人 celebrity 农村剩余劳动力 surplus rural labor/laborers 青春期 puberty 全民健身运动 nationwide fitness campaign 全国人口普查 nationwide census 社会保险 social insurance 暂住证 temporary residence permit/card 青少年犯罪 juvenile delinquency 性骚扰 sexual harassment 走私 smuggling 性别歧视 gender/sexual discrimination 年龄歧视 age discrimination 工作歧视 job discrimination 享乐主义hedonism 文盲 illiteracy 贫富分化 disparity between the rich and the poor 盗版 pirated/illegal copies 一国两制 One Country, Two Systems 三个代表 the Three Represents Theory 两会（人大、政协）Two Conferences (NPC and CPPCC) 南南合作 South-South Cooperation 南北对话 North-South Dialog 人大常委会 People’s Congress Standing Committee 法制观念 awareness of law 法制国家 a country with an adequate legal system 改革开放 reform and opening-up 公务员 civil servants 官僚主义作风 the bureaucratic style of work 和谐并存 harmonious coexistence 计划生育 family planning 计划生育基本国策 the basic state policy of family planning
软件专业毕业论文外文文献中英文翻译 Object landscapes and lifetimes Tech nically, OOP is just about abstract data typing, in herita nee, and polymorphism, but other issues can be at least as importa nt. The rema in der of this sect ion will cover these issues. One of the most importa nt factors is the way objects are created and destroyed. Where is the data for an object and how is the lifetime of the object con trolled? There are differe nt philosophies at work here. C++ takes the approach that con trol of efficie ncy is the most importa nt issue, so it gives the programmer a choice. For maximum run-time speed, the storage and lifetime can be determined while the program is being written, by placing the objects on the stack (these are sometimes called automatic or scoped variables) or in the static storage area. This places a priority on the speed of storage allocatio n and release, and con trol of these can be very valuable in some situati ons. However, you sacrifice flexibility because you must know the exact qua ntity, lifetime, and type of objects while you're writing the program. If you are trying to solve a more general problem such as computer-aided desig n, warehouse man ageme nt, or air-traffic con trol, this is too restrictive. The sec ond approach is to create objects dyn amically in a pool of memory called the heap. In this approach, you don't know un til run-time how many objects you n eed, what their lifetime is, or what their exact type is. Those are determined at the spur of the moment while the program is runnin g. If you n eed a new object, you simply make it on the heap at the point that you n eed it. Because the storage is man aged dyn amically, at run-time, the amount of time required to allocate storage on the heap is sig ni fica ntly Ion ger tha n the time to create storage on the stack. (Creat ing storage on the stack is ofte n a si ngle assembly in structio n to move the stack poin ter dow n, and ano ther to move it back up.) The dyn amic approach makes the gen erally logical assumpti on that objects tend to be complicated, so the extra overhead of finding storage and releas ing that storage will not have an importa nt impact on the creati on of an object .In additi on, the greater flexibility is esse ntial to solve the gen eral program ming problem. Java uses the sec ond approach, exclusive". Every time you want to create an object, you use the new keyword to build a dyn amic in sta nee of that object. There's ano ther issue, however, and that's the lifetime of an object. With Ian guages that allow objects to be created on the stack, the compiler determines how long the object lasts and can automatically destroy it. However, if you create it on the heap the compiler has no kno wledge of its lifetime. In a Ianguage like C++, you must determine programmatically when to destroy the
工商管理专业英语重点 一．名词解释： 1.what is a manager? 答： A manager is a person who plans,organizes,directs,and controls the allocation of human ,material,financial,and information resources in pursuit of the organization’s goals. 2.What is the difference between middle managers and first-line managers? 答：The heavier emphasis onmanaging group performance and allocating resources represent the most important differences between first-line ang middle managers. 3.How can you characterize top-managers’ work? 答：Top managers spend most of their day(over 75 percent) planning and leading.pressures and demands on top managers can be intense. 4.What is the one of natural outcomes of outsourcing? 答：Modular corporations come into being. 二．选词填空 1.Adrian was in charge of the allocation of available funds. 2.Our firm is oriented towards the export side of the business. 3.The on-time delivery of goods is required in the contract. 4.The graphic display s will be heloful to illustrate the increase of the output. https://www.doczj.com/doc/f79969720.html,panies cannot survive fierce competition without innovative personnels. 6.Keeping the accounts is part and parcel of my job. 7.The CEO and other high-level executives are often referred to as top management. 8.The tasks that managers do include planning,organizing,leading,andcontrolling the work of an organization. 9.Functional managers supervise employees having expertise in one area,such as accounting,humanresources,sales,finance,marketing,or production. 10.general managers are responsible for the operations of a more complex unit,such as a company or a division. 11.He carried out a number of frauds on trusting people who lent him money.. 12.He would not havesucceeded in such a risky business if he had not been such a clever entrepreneur. 13.They could not tell the commcnding officer from his subordinates. 14.The two old rivals vie for the frist place. 15.Some people cannot be trusted to work wihout supervision. 16.Half of the medical supplies have already been allocated to the victims of the earthquake. 17.Can you differentiate this kind of rose from the others? 18.The factory has laid off workers because of the drop in sales. 19.They were blame for their failure to hold down expenditure. 20.The company has slashed the costs of the project in order to seize the last chance to survive. 21.The company is try ing to diversify its range of products so that they can get more market shares. 22.Mr. Black realized that his company was in dire straits and it went bey ond him to deal with the whole situation. 23.Tom, my next door neighbor, is exempt form military service because of his poor health. 24.With the economic environment improved , his company’s sale in that area is getting less susceptible to the crisis. 25.Mr.White declared that he was not liable for his partner’s debts.