《欧洲文化入门》串讲资料
1、There are many elements constituting(组成) European Culture.
2、There are two major elements: Greco-Roman element and Judeo-Christian element.
3、The richness(丰富性) of European Culture was created by Greco-Roman element and Judeo-Christian element.
第一章
1、The 5th century closed with civil war between Athens and Sparta.
2、The economy of Athens rested on(依赖) an immense（无限的）amount of slave labour.
3、Olympus mount, Revived in 1896(当代奥运会)
4、Ancient Greece(古希腊)’s epics was created by Homer.
5、They events of Homer’s own time. (错)
（They are not about events of Homer’s own time, probably in the period 1200-1100 B.C.）
6、The Homer’s epics consisted of Iliad and Odyssey.
7、Agamemnon, Hector, Achilles are in Iliad.
8、Odysseus and Penelope are in Odyssey.
9、Odyssey(对其作品产生影响)—→James Joyoe’s Ulysses(描述一天的生活). In the 20th century.
10、Drama in Ancient Greece was floured in the 5th century B.C.
11、三大悲剧大师
①Aeschylus
《Prometheus Bound》—→模仿式作品Shelly《Prometheus Unbound》
②Sophocles(之首)
《Oedipus the King》—→Freud’s “the Oedipus complex”(恋母情结) —→David Herbert Lawrence’s 《Sons and lovers》(劳伦斯)447页
③Euripides
A．《Trojan Women》
B．He is the first writer of “problem plays”(社会问题剧)
在肖伯纳手中达到高潮，属于存在主义戏剧的人物
C．Elizabeth Browning called him “Euripides human”(一个纯粹的人)
D．Realism can be traced back(追溯到) to the Ancient Greece.
To be specific(具体来说), Euripides.
12、The only representative of Greek comedy is Aristophanes. 18页
Aristophanes writes about nature. —→浪漫主义湖畔派（The lakers）华兹华兹(新古典主义代表作家《格列夫游记》《大人国小人国》《温和的提议》用讽刺的写作手法)
13、History (Historical writing)史学创作
※“Father of History”—→Herodotus —→war(between Greeks and Persians)
This war is called Peleponicion wars. 博罗奔泥撒，3
只是陈述史实，并没有得出理论。
※“The greatest historian that ever lived.”(有史以来最伟大的历史学家) —→Thucydides —→war (Sparta, Athens and Syracuse)
14、The Greek historical writing writes mainly about wars.
15、受希腊文化影响的传教士St. Paul. Democritus (Materialism)
16、希腊文化中的哲学被基督教所吸收
17、①Euclid’s Elements解析几何
It was in use in English schools until the early years of the 20th century. (历史地位)
②Archimedes
His work not only in geometry几何学, but also in arithmetic算术, machanics机械, and hydrostatics.流体静力学
选择：Give me a place to stand, and I will move the world.谁的理论（Archimedes）
18、Architecture古希腊建筑三大风格
temple—→Parthenon帕特农神庙
①The Doric style
is also called masculine style. (宏伟的)
but the Doric style is monotonous and unadorned (单调)
is sturdy (坚强的), powerful, severelooking (庄严肃穆) and showing a good sense of proportions and numbers.
②The Ionic style
is also called the feminine style. (阴柔的)
is graceful (优雅的) and elegant (优美的).
The Ionic style often shows a wealth of ornament. (装饰性)
③The Corinthian style
is known for its ornamental luxury. (奢侈)
19、The famous temples: The Acrpolis at Athens and the Parthenon.
20、The burning of Corinth in 146 B.C. Marked Roman conquest of Greece.
21、The melting between Roman Culture and Greek Culture. (罗马征服希腊的标志)
22、From 146 B.C., Latin was the language of the western half of the Roman Empire.
Greek that of the eastern half.
23、Both Latin and Greek belong to Indo-European language.
24、The Roman writer Horace said “captive Greece took her rude conqueror captive”.
25、The dividing range(分水岭) in the Roman history refers to 27 B.C.
26、The year 27 B.C. Divided the Roman history into two periods: republic and empire.
27、The idea of Republic can be traced back to Plato’s republic.
28、The land area of Roman empire reached its climax in 2 to 3 century.
29、north: Scotland east: Armenia and Mesopotamia
30、In the Roman history ,there came two hundred years of peaceful time, which was guaranteed(保证) by the Roman legions(罗马军团)
31、In the Roman history, there came two hundred years of peaceful time, which was known as Pax Romana.(神圣罗马帝国)
32、名解In the Roman history ,there came two hundred years of peaceful time, which was guaranteed(保证) by the Roman legions, it was known as Pax Romana
33、The Roman Law protected(保护) the rights of plebeians (平民).
34、The important contribution made by the Romans to the European culture was the Roman Law.
35、After 395,the empire was divided into East (the Byzantine Empire) and West.
36、Cicero西赛罗
he legal and political speeches are models of Latin diction拉丁语用词
described as Ciceronian.西赛罗式的
an enormous influence(巨大影响) on the development of European prose.(散文)
37、Julius Caesar commentaries批评论“I came, I saw, I conquered.”
38、Virgil Aeneid 阿尼德
39、The pantheon was built in 27 B.C.
The world’s first vast interior space.世界上第一所最大的室内场所
40、The Colosseum(大理石像) it’s an enormous.露天的环形影剧院
41、Sculpture(雕塑) She-wolf（母狼）
42、The representation form of Greek Democracy is citizen-assembly.古希腊民主的表现形式
43、The embodiment of Greek democracy is citizen-assembly. 古希腊民主的具体形式
论述简答
一、What is the limitation of “Democracy”in ancient Greece?(名解简答)
(How do you understand “Democracy”in ancient Greece? What is the difference between “Democracy”in
ancient Greece and modern democracy?)
答：
①Democracy means “exercise of power by the whole people”, but in Greece by “the whole people”the Greeks meant only the adult male citizens.
②Women, children, foreigners and slaves were excluded from Democracy.
二、How did the Greek Culture originate and develop?
答：
①Probably around 1200 B.C., a war was fought between Greece and troy. This is the war that Homer refers to in his epics.
②Greek culture reached a high point of development in the 5th century B.C.
A. The successful repulse of the Persian invasion (入侵) early in the 5th century.
B. The establishment of democracy.
C. The flourishing (蒸蒸日上的) of science, philosophy, literature, art and historical writing in Athens.
③The 5th century closed with civil war between Athens and Sparta.
④In the second half of the 4th century B.C., Greece was conquered by Alexander, king of Macedon. Whenever he went and conquered, whenever Greek culture was found.
⑤Melting between Greek culture and Roman culture in 146 B.C., the Romans conquered Greece.
三、How did the Ancient Greek philosophy develop?
答：
(1)、Three founders
1、Pythagoras
①All things were numbers.
②Scientific mathematics.
③Theory of proportion.比例的理论
2、Heracleitue
①Fire is the primary(主要的) elements of the universe.火是万物之源
②The theory of the mingling of opposites produced harmony.矛盾的对立统一
3、Democritus
①the atomic theory.第一个原子理论开拓者
②materialism.唯物主义
(2)、Three thinkers
1、Socrates
①He hadn’t works. We can know him from Plato’s dialogues.
②The dialectical method was established by Socrates.
2、Plato
①The Academy is the first school in the world, it was established by Plato.
②He has four works. Dialogues, Apology, Symposium and Republic.
3、Aristotle
①The Lyceum is the second school in the world, it was established by Aristotle.
②Aristotle is a humanist.
(3)、Five contending schools
1、The Sophists诡辩派
①Under the leadership of Protagoras.
②The representative of work is On the God.诸神论
③His doctrine教义is “man is the measure of all things”.人是衡量一切的标准
2、The Cynics犬儒派
①Under the leadership of Diogenes.
②The word “cynic”means “dog”in English.
③He proclaimed宣扬his brotherhood. And he had no patience with the rich and powerful.权利
3、The Sceptics置疑学派
①Under the leadership of Pyrrhon.
②His thought is not all knowledge was attainable可获得的, and doubting the truth of what others accepted as true.
4、The Epicureans享乐派
①Under the leadership of Epicurus. 选择：根据领导者的名字直接命名
②Pleasure to be the highest good in life but not sensual肉欲enjoyment.享乐
Pleasure could be attained by the practice of virtue.通过实行道德获得
Epicurus was a materialist. He believed that the world consisted of atoms.原子
5、The Stoics斯多哥派
①Under the leadership of Zeno.
②His thought is duty is the most important thing in life.
One should endure忍受hardship艰难and misfortune不幸with courage.勇气
Developed into Stoics’duty.
He was also a materialist.
四、What philosophy system did Plato established?
(Why do we say Plato’s philosophy system was idealistic? Do you think Plato built up a comprehensive综合的system of philosophy? )
答：
1、It dealt with, among other things, the problem of how, in the complex, ever—changing world, men were to attain获得knowledge.
2、The first case and physical自然world should take the secondary case.
3、Idealistic of philosophy.
4、Many of Plato’s ideas were later absorbed into Christian thought. （吸收到基督教的思想中）
五、What’s the difference between Plato and Aristotle in terms of their philosophical ideas(system)？
答：
1、For one thing, Aristotle emphasized（强调）direct observation of nature and insisted that theory should follow fact.（理论联系实际）This is different from Plato’s reliance（依赖）on subjective thinking.（万物依赖主观思维）
2、For another, he thought that “form”and matter together made up concrete(具体的) individual(个别的) realities. (物质与意识共同构成的客观事实)Here, too, he differed from Plato who held that ideas had a higher reality than the physical world(意识高于物质)
3、Aristotle thought happiness was men’s aim in life. But not happiness in the vulgar庸俗的sense, but something that could only be achieved by leading a life of reason, goodness and contemplation.(善良和期待)
一句话简答题
What should be man’s aim in life?
Aristotle’s answer was: happiness.
六、What is the great significance of Greek Culture on the later-on cultural development?
(What positive influence did the Greek Culture exert运用on the world civilization文化?)
答：
There has been an enduring excitement兴奋about classical经典的Greek culture in Europe and elsewhere别处. Rediscovery of Greek culture played a vital有生命力的part in the Renaissance in Italy and other European countries.
1、Spirit of innovation创新精神
The Greek people invented mathematics and science and philosophy; They first wrote history as opposed反对
to mere纯粹的annals历史记载; They speculated思索freely about the nature of the world and the ends of life 生命的轮回, without being bound in the fetters束缚of any inherited orthodoxy.继承的习俗
2、Supreme Achievement至高无上的成就
The Greeks achieved supreme achievements in nearly all fields of human endeavour努力: Philosophy, science, epic poetry, comedy, historical writing, architecture, etc.
3、Lasting effect持续的影响
①Countless无数的writers have quoted举例, borrowed from and otherwise used Homer’s epics, the tragedies of Aeschylus and Sophocles and Euripides, Aristophanes’s comedies, Plato’s Dialogues,ect.
②In the early part of the 19th century, in England alone, three young Romantic poets expressed their admiration of Greek culture in works which have themselves become classics经典之作: Byron’s Isles of Greece, Shelley’s Hellas and Prometheus Unbound and Keats’s Ode on a Grecian Urn.
③In the 20th century, there are Homeric parallels与…平行in the Irishman爱尔兰James Joyce’s modernist masterpiece代表作Ulysses.
七、What is the similarity and difference between Greek culture and Roman culture?
答：
1、similarity
①Both peoples had traditions rooted in the idea of the citizen-assembly.
②Their religions were alike enough for most of their deities(神) to be readily(容易的) identified (一致), and their myths (崇拜的神) to be fused.(融合)
③Their languages worked in similar ways, both being members of the Indo-European language family.
2、difference
①The Romans built up a vast (巨大的) empire; the Greeks didn’t, except for the brief (短暂的) moment of Alexander’s conquests, which soon disintegrated.(瓦解)
②The Romans were confident(自信的) in their own organizational power, their military and administrative capabilities.(管理国家的能力) <希腊不具有>
八、What is the Rome historical background?
答：
1、The history of Rome divided into two periods: Before the year 27 B.C., Rome had been a republic; from the year 27 B.C., Octavius took supreme (最大的) power as emperor with the title of Augustus and Roman Empire began.
2、Two centuries later, the Roman Empire reached its climax, marked by land area’s extension: Encircling (环绕) the Mediterranean.(地中海)
3、Strong military power: the famous Roman legions.
4、In the Roman history ,there came two hundred years of peaceful time, which was guaranteed(保证) by the Roman legions, it was known as Pax Romana.
5、Another important contribution made by the Romans to European culture was Roman Law.
6、The empire began to decline in the 3rd century.选择
①In the 4th century the emperor Constantine moved the capital from Rome to Byzantium. Renamed it Constantinople (modern Istanbul).
②After 395 (分裂时间), the empire was divided into East (The Byzantine Empire) and West
③In 476 the last emperor of the West was deposed by Goths and this marked the end of the West Roman Empire.
④The East Roman Empire collapsed (崩溃) when Constantinople fell to the Turks in 1453. （英法百年战争结束）
第二章
1、Christianity is by far the most influential in the West. 在西方最具影响力的宗教
2、Judeo-Christian tradition constitutes one of the two major components of European culture: Judaism and Christianity.
3、The Jewish tradition, which gave birth to Christianity. (犹太教是基督教的前身) Both originated in Palestine, which was known as Canaan.
4、The ancestors of the Jews —the Hebrews. 犹太人的祖先是希伯来人
5、They called “Hebrews”, which means “wanderers”.商旅
6、About 1300 B.C., the Hebrews came to settle (定居) in Palestine.
7、The Hebrews history was recorded in the Old Testament of the Bible.
8、The Bible was divided into two sections: the Old Testament and the New Testament.
9、The Old Testament is about God and the Laws of God. 上帝与上帝的教义
10、The New Testament is about the doctrine (教义) of Jesus Christ.
11、The New Testament is, in essence (实质上), the four accounts (四福音书), written by the four disciples.弟子
12、The word “Testament”means “agreement”, the agreement between God and Man.
13、Bible is representative of Christianity and 新旧约
14、The Old Testament名词解释
The Bible was divided into two sections: the Old Testament and the New Testament. The Old Testament is about God and the Laws of God. The word “Testament”means “agreement”, the agreement between God and Man.
15、The New Testament名词解释
The Bible was divided into two sections: the Old Testament and the New Testament. The New Testament is about the doctrine (教义) of Jesus Christ. The word “Testament”means “agreement”, the agreement between God and Man.
16、The Old Testament consists of 39 books, the oldest and most important of which are the first five books, called Pentateuch.摩西五经
17、Pentateuch名词解释
The Old Testament consists of 39 books, the oldest and most important of which are the first five books, called Pentateuch. Pentateuch contains five books: Genesis (创世记), Exodus (出埃及记), Leviticus(教义记), Numbers (逃亡记), Deuteronomy (摩西遗言记).
18、Genesis名词解释
Genesis is one of the five books in Pentateuch, it tells about a religious account (描述) of the origin of the Hebrews people, including the origin of the world and of man, the career (经历) of Issac and the life of Jacob and his son Joseph.
19、Exodus名词解释
Exodus is one of the five books in Pentateuch, it tells about a religious (宗教的) history of the Hebrews during their flight from Egypt, the period when they began to receive God’s Law. Joshua brought the people safely back to Canaan.
20、The Fall of Man was recorded in Genesis, Pentateuch, the Old Testament, The Bible.
21、Noah’s Ark was recorded in Genesis, Pentateuch, the Old Testament, The Bible.
22、The Historical Books was divided into seven sections:
①Books of Joshua ②Books of Judges ③Books of Samuel ④Books of Kings
⑤Books of the Chronicles ⑥Books of Ezra ⑦Books of Nehemiah.
23、The content of historical Books: 1200B.C. 586 B.C.
Dealing with history of the Hebrew people from their entry into Palestine around 1200 B.C., till the fall of Palestine into hands of Assyrians and Chaldeans in 586 B.C.
24、The History Books的内容
①The development of system of landed nobles.
②The development of monarchy. 君主专制
③Establishment of the two Kingdoms. 两大王国的初步形成
④(略看) The settlement in the highlands
⑤(略看) Age of great prosperity under Saul, David and Solomon.
25、Joshua brought the people safely back to Canaan.
26、The first king to unite the Hebrews was Saul.
27、David established religious capital, Jerusalem to Palestine.
28、The Prophets (先知)名词解释宣传教义并受神灵庇佑的人
For more than a thousand years in the Middle East there had been a class of people known as “Prophets”or the spokesmen of God. Earlier prophets lived in groups as temple officials. Later on there appeared in dependent prophet. The Prophets can be grouped into the Major Prophets and Minor Prophets.（分为大小先知）
29、The Book of Daniel名词解释
The Book of Daniel belongs to The Old Testament of the Bible. It tells about the Hebrews being carried away into Babylon.
30、The former body of church was known as Synagogues. 犹太教的会堂是教堂的前身
31、The Pentateuch is the book of Daniel is also called torah. 摩西五经的别称
32、The story about God’s flooding to the human being and only good-virtue being saved was recorded in Genesis, Pentateuch, the Old Testament, the Bible, which was known as Noah’s Ark.
33、By 300 A.D.each local church was called a parish and had a full time leader known as a priest.
34、Several parishes were grouped together into a large unit called diocese, which was headed by a bishop.
35、The most important bishops were called archbishops. (红衣大主教)
36、Towards the end of the fourth century four accounts were accepted as part of the New Testament, which tells the beginning of Christianity.
37、The Birth of Jesus was recorded in Matthew (马塞福音书)
38、All the generations from Abraham to David are fourteen generations.为什么十四在西方吉利
39、The Last Supper was recorded in John.
40、The Last Supper was put into an oil painting by Da Vinci in the high renaissance in Italy.
文艺复兴以人为本的标志------蒙娜丽莎
41、The Last Supper adapted from St.John, the New Testament, the Bible.
42、The story about Jesus being betrayed by Judas was known as The Last Supper.
43、The story about Jesus being pinned (钉死) in the cross to death was known as The Last Supper.
44、The first English version of whole Bible was translated from the Latin Vulgate in 1382 and was copied out by hand by the early group of reformers (改革者) led by John Wycliff.
45、Wycliff 与Tyndale 的区别是：语言来源不同
Reformation (宗教改革) 为了against the Latin language.
46、William Tyndale’s version was based on the original Hebrew and Greek sources.来源
论述简答
一、What difference between Christianity and the other religions?
(What are the forceful beliefs of Christianity?)
答：
Christianity based itself on two forceful (强烈的) beliefs which separate it from all other religions.
1、One is that Jesus Christ is the Son of God, and that God sent him to earth (世界) to live as humans live, suffer as humans suffer, and die to redeem mankind.（挽回人类）
2、The other is that God gave his only begotten son (唯一的儿子), so that whosoever (whoever的强调型) believes in him should not perish, but have everlasting life. （获得永生）
加尔文主义也有这样的观点
二、How did Christianity originate and develop in the European continent (洲)?
☆（How was Christianity spread to Europe and became the official religion? 统治性宗教）
答：
1、The disciples of Jesus tried to spread his gospel, first among the Jews in Palestine and then in the Mediterranean region.
2、During a time of great unrest and upheaval动荡不安in the European continent, the poor and humble found comfort in the Christian Gospel.福音(书)
3、Christianity began to draw men and women from all classes in Europe. The Romans grew tired of war and feared (害怕) the collapse (崩溃) of the empire. And they admired the courage of the Christian missionaries.传教士
4、Constantine believed that God had helped him in winning the battle (战役) and issued (发出) the Edict of Milan米兰特令(选择) in 313. It granted (许可) religious freedom to all, and made Christianity legal.合法化
5、In 392 A.D., Emperor Theodosius made Christianity the official religion of the empire and outlawed all other religions.其他宗教不合法
6、Now Christianity had changed from an object of oppression (压迫) to a weapon in the hands of the ruling (管理) class to crush their opponents (粉碎对手). The Latin language became the official language.
三、What are the different translation editions of the Bible?
答：
1、The oldest extant (现存的) Greek translation of the Old Testament is known as the Septuagint. And it is still in use in the Greek Church today. But it only translated the Old Testament.
2、The most ancient extant Latin version of the whole Bible is the Vulgate edition, which was done in 385-405
A.D. By St. Jerome in common people’s language. It became the official Bible of the Roman Catholic Church throughout the world.
3、The first English version of whole Bible was translated from the Latin Vulgate in 1382 and was copied out by hand by the early group of reformers (改革者) led by John Wycliff.
4、After John Wycliff’s version, appeared William Tyndale’s version. It was based on the original Hebrew and Greek sources.来源
5、The Great Bible (大圣经) ordered by Henry Ⅷin 1539 to be placed in all the English churches was in part founded on Tyndale’s work.
6、The most important and influential of English Bible is the “Authorized”(官方版圣经) or “King James”version, first published in 1611. It was produced by 54 biblical scholars at the command of King James. With its simple, majestic (高雅的) Anglo-Saxon tongue, it is known as the greatest book in the English languages.
7、The Revised Version appeared in 1885, and the standard American edition of the Revised Version in 1901. (美国英语版)
8、The Good News Bible and the New English Bible.
四、What is the great significance of the translations of the bible?
(What are the great influences that the English Bible has on the American and British literature?)
答：
1、It is generally accepted that the English Bible and Shakespeare are two great reservoirs (水库) of Modern English.
2、Miltion’s Paradise Lost (失乐园), Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress, Byron’s Cain, up to the contemporary (同时期的) Hemingway’s The Sun Also Rises, and Steinbeck’s East of Eden. They are not influenced without the effect of the Bible.
第三章
1、the Middle ages名词解释
In European history, the thousand-year period following the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century is called the Middle Ages.
2、The middle ages is so called because it came between ancient times and modern times. To be specific (具体说来), from the 5th century to 15th century.
3、The transitional (过渡时期) period is called the middle ages, between ancient times and modern times.
4、The transitional (过渡时期) period is called the 17th century, between the middle ages and modern times.
5、In 476 A.D. a Germanic (日耳曼) general killed the last Roman emperor and took control of the government. 西罗马476灭，东罗马1653年灭
6、Feudalism名词解释
Feudalism in Europe was mainly a system of land holding (土地所有) —a system of holding land in exchange for military service (军事力量). The word “feudalism”was derived (来源) from the Latin “feudum”,
a grant (许可的) of land.
7、fiefs(次划分)名词解释
In Feudalism, the ruler of the government redivided the large lands into small pieces to be given to chancellors (有功的大臣) or soldiers as a reward (奖赏) for their service. The subdivisions were called fiefs.
8、vassals (占有fiefs的人)名词解释
In Feudalism, the ruler of the government redivided the large lands into small pieces to be given to chancellors (有功的大臣) or soldiers as a reward (奖赏) for their service. The subdivisions were called fiefs. The owners of the fiefs were call vassals.
9、code of chivalry (骑士制度)名词解释
As a knight, he were pledged to protect the weak, to fight for the church, to be loyal to his lord and to respect women of noble birth. These rules were known as code of chivalry, from which the western idea of good manners developed.
10、dubbing (骑士头衔加冕仪式)名词解释
After a knight was successful in his trained and tournaments, there was always a special ceremony (选择) to award him with a title, knight. This special ceremony is called dubbing.
11、knight trained for war by fighting each other in mock battles called tournaments.(模拟战场)
12、The crusades ended up with the victory of Moslems.(穆斯林)
13、The Manor (领地所有制)名词解释
The centre of medieval life under feudalism was the manor. Manors were founded on the fiefs of the lords (农场主). By the twelfth century manor houses were made of stone and designed as fortresses. They came to be called castles.
14、After 1054, the church was divided into the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church.
15、The Catholic Church made Latin the official language and helped to preserve (保留) and pass on the heritage (传统) of the Roman Empire.
16、The word “catholic”, meant “universal”.(广泛的，无处不在的)
17、St. Jerome, who translated into Latin both Old and New Testament from the Hebrew and Greek originals. Vulgate (拉丁语圣经)
18、Early Monasticism (早期修道院制)名词解释
Between 300 and 500 A.D., many men withdrew from (放弃了) worldly contacts to deserts and lonely places. This movement developed into the establishment of monasteries (男) and convents (女) for monks and nuns. Some of the hermits (隐士) were great scholars known as “Father of the Church”, whose work is generally considered orthodox.(东正教)
19、Augustine —→“Confession”(坦白) and “The City of God”(上帝之都)
20、St. Benedict —→founded Benedictine Rule about 529 A.D. (专门给清修的人制定的法律)
21、The Inquisition (问讯厅) to stamp out so-called heresy.异教
22、The most important of all courses was Jerusalem. (耶路撒冷)
23、Crusades went on about 200 years.
24、There were altogether eight chief Crusades.
25、(结束) By 1291 the Moslems (穆斯林) had taken over the last Christian stronghold. They won the crusades and ruled all the territory in Palestine that the Crusaders had fought to control.
26、Carolingian Renaissance名词解释
Carolingian Renaissance is derived from Charlemagne’s name in Latin, Carolus. The most interesting facet (一面) of this rather minor renaissance is the spectacle (有见解) of Frankish or Germanic state reaching out to assimilate (吸收) the riches of the Roman Classical and the Christianized Hebraic culture.
27、Roger Bacon’s work was the Opus maius.
28、National Epics(民族史诗运动)名词解释
The epic was the product of the Heroic Age. It was an important and mostly used form in ancient literature. “National epic”refers to the epic written in vernacular languages—that is, the languages of various national states (民族国家) that came into being in the Middle Ages. Literary works were no longer all written in Latin. It was the starting point of a gradual transition of European literature from Latin culture to a culture that was the combination of a variety of national characteristics.
29、Chaucer (乔叟) 的诗歌特点：①power of observation (观察)
②piercing irony (敏锐的讽刺) ③sense of humour ④warm humanity (温暖的人性)
与狄更斯相似
30、Gothic名词解释
①The Gothic style started in France and quickly spread through all parts of Western Europe.
②It lasted from the mid-12th to the end of 15th century and, in some areas, into the 16th. More churches were built in this manner than in any other style in history.
③The Gothic was an outgrowth (丰富与发展) of the Romanesque.（罗马式）
31、The Canterbury Tales:
①The Canterbury Tales was written by Chaucer.
②Chaucer introduced French and Italy writing the English native alliterative verse.(压头韵)
③Both Chaucer and The Canterbury Tales are the best representative of the middle English.
论述简答
一、In the middle ages, what cultures began to merge (融合)？
答：
Classical, Hebrew and Gothic heritages merged (文化融合). It paved the way for the development of what is the present-day European culture.中世纪为现代欧洲文化铺平道路
二、Why is the middle ages is called Age of Faith (信仰的年代)？名词解释和简答
答：
1、During the Medieval (中世纪) times there was no central (中央的) government to keep the order. The only organization that seemed to unite (团结) Europe was the Christian church.
2、The Christian church continued to gain (赢得) widespread (普及的) power and influence.
3、In the Late middle ages, almost everyone in western Europe was a Christian and a member of the Christian Church. Christianity took the lead in politics, law, art, and learning (思想领域) for hundreds of years.
4、It shaped (形成) people’s lives. That is why the middle ages is also called the “Age of Faith”.
三、How did Feudalism develop in Europe in middle ages?
答：
1、feudalism in Europe was mainly a system of land holding (土地所有) —a system of holding land in exchange for military service (军事力量). The word “feudalism”was derived (来源) from the Latin “feudum”, a grant (许可的) of land.
2、In order to seek the protection of large land-owners, the people of small farms or land gave their farms and land to large land-owners, but they still had freedom, they were called freemen.
3、While the people from towns and cities did not possess farms or land. They had nothing but their freedom to be given to large landowners, and then they lost their freedom for protection. They were called serfs.
4、In Feudalism, the ruler of the government redivided the large lands into small pieces to be given to chancellors (有功的大臣) or soldiers as a reward (奖赏) for their service. The subdivisions were called fiefs. The owners of the fiefs were call vassals.
5、There came a form of local and decentralized (分散化的) government.
6、As a knight, he were pledged to protect the weak, to fight for the church, to be loyal to his lord and to respect women of noble birth. These rules were known as code of chivalry, from which the western idea of good manners developed.
四、What positive influence does the Crusades exert on the European Culture?
(What is the great significance of the Crusades?)
答：
1、The crusades brought the East into closer contact with the West. And they greatly influenced the history of Europe. (拉近了东西方的交流)
2、During the wars while many of the feudal lords went to fight in Palestine, kings at home found opportunities (机会) to strengthen (加强) themselves. Thus among other things, Crusades helped to break down feudalism, which, in turn led to the rise of the monarchies. (取而代之的是君主专制) 霍布斯主张君主专制
3、Besides, through their contact with the more cultured Byzantines and Moslems, the western Europeans changed many of their old ideas. Their desire (期望) for wealth or power began to overshadow (战胜) their religious ideals.
4、The Crusades also resulted in renewing people’s interest in learning and invention. By the 13th century,
universities had spread all over Europe. Such knowledge as Arabic numerals (阿拉伯数字), algebra (代数), and Arab medicine (医学) were introduced to the West.
5、As trade increased, village and towns began to grow into cities. And the rise of towns and trade in western Europe paved the way of the growth of strong national governments. (民族政府)
五、How did learning and science develop in the Middle Ages?
答：
1、Charlemagne and Carolingian Renaissance: (查理曼的文艺复兴)
① He was crowned “Emperor of the Romans”by the pope in 800.
② Carolingian Renaissance is derived from Charlemagne’s name in Latin, Carolus. The most interesting facet (一面) of this rather minor renaissance is the spectacle (有见解) of Frankish or Germanic state reaching out to assimilate (吸收) the riches of the Roman Classical and the Christianized Hebraic culture.
2、Alfred the Great and Wes*** Centre of Learning: (阿尔伏雷德大帝和威克萨斯王国)
① He promoted (奖励) translations into the vernacular from Latin works.
② He also inspired (授意) the compilation of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles. (编年史)
3、St. Thomas Aquinas and Scholasticism: (经院主义，保守主义的雏形)
4、Roger Bacon and Experimental Science: (实用主义)
① Roger Bacon, a monk, was one of the earliest advocates of scientific research. (最早的支持者) 亚里士多德最早提出
② He called for careful observation (观察) and experimentation. His main work was the Opus maius.
六、How did literature develop in the middle ages?
答：
1、The epic was the product of the Heroic Age. It was an important and mostly used form in ancient literature. “National epic”refers to the epic written in vernacular languages—that is, the languages of various national states (民族国家) that came into being in the Middle Ages. Literary works were no longer all written in Latin. It was the starting point of a gradual transition of European literature from Latin culture to a culture that was the combination of a variety of national characteristics. Both Beowulf and song of Roland were the representative works of the National Epics.
2、Dante Alighieri and The Divine Comedy: (但丁与神曲)
①His masterpiece, The Divine Comedy, is one of the landmarks of world literature.
②The poem expresses humanistic ideas which foreshadowed (预示) the spirit of Renaissance.
③Dante wrote his masterpiece in Italian rather than in Latin. (只用意大利语创作)
3、Geoffery Chaucer and The Canterbury Tales: (乔叟与坎特布雷集)
①The Canterbury Tales were his most popular work.
②Most of the tales are written in verse (诗) which reflects(反映) Chaucer’s innovation (改革) by introducing into the native alliterative verse (压头韵诗) the French and Italian styles.
③Chaucer is thus to be , regarded as (被看作) the first short story teller and the first modern poet in English literature.短篇写作第一人
④ Chaucer and the Canterbury Tales were representative of the Middle ages.
七、What is the difference between the vernacular language used in the National epics and the vernacular language used by Mark twain? (重点☆)
答：
1、The epic was the product of the Heroic Age. It was an important and mostly used form in ancient literature. “National epic”refers to the epic written in vernacular languages—that is, the languages of various national states (民族国家) that came into being in the Middle Ages. Literary works were no longer all written in Latin. It was the starting point of a gradual transition of European literature from Latin culture to a culture that was the combination of a variety of national characteristics. Both Beowulf and song of Roland were the representative works of the National Epics.
2、The vernacular (方言) language used by Mark twain refers to both local and colloq (地方式俗语) language used in the Mississippi area, with a strong characteristic of that region (地区) .Mark twain used vernacular
language not only in dialogue, but also in narration. (叙述)
3、His representative works Life on the Mississippi.
第四章
1、Renaissance名词解释
Generally speaking, Renaissance refers to the period between the 14th and mid-17th century. The word “Renaissance”means revival (复兴), specifically in this period of history, revival of interest in ancient Greek and Roman culture. Renaissance, in essence (从实质上讲), was a historical period in which the European humanist thinkers and scholars made attempts (试图) to get rid of conservatism (保守主义思想) in feudalist Europe and introduce new ideas that expressed the interests of the rising bourgeoisie (资产阶级), to lift the restrictions (禁忌) in all areas placed by the Roman church authorities.(权利威信)
2、Generally speaking, Renaissance refers to the period between the 14th and mid-17th century.
3、Renaissance started in Florence and Venice with the flowering of paintings, sculpture (雕塑) and architecture. 最早开始于painting
4、Florence was the golden city which gave girth to a whole generation of poets, scholars, artists and sculptors (雕塑家).
5、In Renaissance literature of Italy, Petrarch (彼得拉克) was the representative poet.
6、Intellectuals became closely tied up (息息相关) with the rising bourgeoisie.
(人文主义兴起的重要原因Humanistic ideas to develop)
7、At the heart of the Renaissance philosophy was the assertion of the greatness of man.
(以人为本—人文主义的核心)
8、Literature: The idea of the greatness of man is reflected in Shakespeare’s literature.
9、painting: The idea of the greatness of man is reflected in Da vincci’s Mona Lisa.
10、Renaissance Art名词解释
A radical (根本的) break with medieval (中古的) methods of representing the visible (可见的) world occurred (发生) in Italy during the second half of the 13th century. It was not until the second decade (十年) of the 15th century that there was a decided break with the medieval pictorial tradition (田园式风格).
11、Last Supper adapted from the New Testament of the Bible.
12、Mona Lisa ——model wife of a banker.
——the ambiguity of the smile. (永恒的微笑)
13、Michelangelo ——David
——Sistine Chapel (from the First book of the Bible, the Genesis )
——Dying Slave (垂死的奴隶)
——Moses (摩西)
14、Raphael was best known for his Madonna. (圣母玛利亚)
15、He painted his Madonnas in different postures (姿势), against (*) different backgrounds.
16、One of the famous paintings besides the Madonnas is School of Athens (雅典学派). Plato and Aristotle engaged (使用) in argument.
17、Titian ——The Venus of Urbino (断臂的维纳斯)
Man with the Glove (带手套的人) ☆
18、John Wyclif ——translation of the Bible into English for the first time.
19、Jan Hus ——Czech
——in Czech language
20、Martin Luther ——translation of the whole Bible with the vernacular language.
21、The reformation get it’s victory first in England.
22、Reformation名词解释
The Reformation was a 16th century religious movement as well as (同时) a socio-political (社会政治) movement. It began as Martin Luther posted on the door of the castle church at the University of Wittenberg (机
智) his 95 thesis (论题). This movement which swept over (席卷了) the whole of Europe was aimed at opposing (反对) the absolute authority (权威) of the Roman Catholic Church and replacing (代替) it with the absolute authority of the Bible. The reformists (改革者) engaged (使用) themselves in translating the Bible into their mother tongues. 宗教改革的实质是：反对罗马天主教，直接形式是用母语翻译圣经
23、Calvinism名词解释
Calvinism was established by Calvin in the period of Renaissance. Presbyterian government (长老会). Only those specially elected by God can be saved (上帝的选民) . This belief serves so well to help the rising bourgeoisie on its path (有助于资本主义的兴起)。
24、The national religion established after reformation in England was called The church of England or The Anglican Church.
25、It was under the reign (统治) of Henry Ⅷthat reformation was successful in England.
26、The English Bible was adopted (采纳) in England after Reformation.
27、Counter-Reformation (反宗教改革)名词解释
By late 1520 the Roman Catholic Church had lost its control over the church in Germany.
The Roman Catholic Church did not stay idle (坐以待毙). They mustered (召集) their forces, the dedicated (专用的) Catholic groups, to examine the Church institutions and introduce reforms and improvements (改良), to bring back its vitality (活力). This recovery of power is often called by historians the Counter-Reformation. 28、The Jesuits (耶稣社团)名词解释Ignatius (拼写)
Ignatius and his followers called themselves the Jesuits, members of the Society of Jesus. The Jesuits went through strict (严格的) spiritual training (精神训练) and organized (有组织的) their own colleges to train selected youth who would be centre of their influence in the next generation.
29、Francis Bacon introduced Montaigne “Essais”into the English literature.
30、Montaigne was a French humanist known for his “Essais”(Essays).
31、The representative author of Renaissance in France was Montaigne with his famous work Essais. The representative novelist of Renaissance in Spain was Cervantes with his famous work Do Quixote, which marked European culture entry into a new stage. (歧视文学作品)
32、Art Greco ——counter-reformation (反宗教改革的代表)
——the Baroque-treatment (巴洛克)
——The Burial of Count Orgaz (伯爵的葬礼) 典型的反宗教改革
33、Renaissance in Germany: Dürer ——The Four Horsemen of Apocalpse
——Knight, Death and the Devil
34、到达英国晚的原因：The war of Roses and Its weak and unimportant position in world trade.
35、达到高潮的第一个原因：It was to produce some towering figures (顶级人物) in the English.
William Shakespeare, Edmund Spenser, Sir Thomas More.
达到高潮的第二个原因：The Reign of Elizabeth I was a period of political and religious stability (稳定) on the one hand and economic prosperity (繁荣) on the other. ☆
36、England began to embark (从事) on the road to colonization (殖民扩张) and foreign control that was to take it onto its heyday (鼎盛) of capitalist development.
37、William Shakespeare
悲剧—→Hamlet (哈姆雷特), Othello (奥赛罗), King Lear (李尔王), Macbeth (麦克白)
喜剧—→As You Like It and Twelfth Night (第十二夜)
38、悲剧上的特点：①astonishing variety in presentment (表现上的多样性)
②dramatic movement (戏剧上的时刻)
③in characterization (人物的个性化)
乔叟中具有个性化的是女性
39、Shakespeare’s comedies prove Shakespeare to be a great humanist writer.
40、喜剧表现出的between humanists and feudal and capitalist reality.
41、Copernicus (哥白尼): —→Centric (日心说)
42、Which was proved by Kepler and Galieo? Centric (日心说)
43、Dante: The equality (平等) of the divine (神) power and the secular (世俗) power.(Satan)
44、Machiavelli —→Father of political science.(Prince诸侯论Discourses演讲篇)
45、美国小说之父—→马克吐温
英国小说之父—→费尔丁
英国诗歌之父—→乔叟
论述简答
一、Why do we say Renaissance first came to Italy?
(what propositions先决条件were there in Italy for renaissance to flourish?
What priorities优势were there in Italy for renaissance to flourish?)
答：
1、Because of its geographical position (有利的地理位置), foreign trade developed early in Italy. This brought Italy into contact with other cultures and gave rise to (有推动力) urban (城市的) economy and helped Italy to accumulated wealth (积累财富).
2、Beginning from the 11th century, cities began to rise in central (中) and north (北) Italy. But there existed (存在) rivalry (竞争) among the cities and they were constantly (不变的) at war with each other.
3、City-states (城邦) have been established in Italy in beginning from the 11th century.
4、For two centuries beginning from the late 15th century, Florence was the golden city which gave girth to a whole generation of poets, scholars, artists and sculptors (雕塑家). There was in Florence a revival of interest in classical learning and rising of humanist ideas.
二、What are the characteristics of Renaissance art?
(How does Renaissance art differ from the other kinds of arts?)
答：
1、Art broke away from the domination of the church.
2、Themes (主题) of paintings changed (变化) to an appreciation(鉴赏) of all aspects of nature and man.
3、The artists studied the ruins (毁灭) of Roman and Greek temples and put many of the principles (原则信念) of ancient civilization into their works. They began to be supported by individual collectors (私人收藏品).
4、Artists introduced (采用) in their works scientific theories of anatomy (解剖) and perspective (透视).
三、Why did Renaissance decline in Italy in the end?
答：
1、The feuds (不合) of families, the conflicts of classes and the rivalry (竞争) between the city-states kept the economic structure of Italy in the traditional local order.(停滞不前)
2、In world trade Italy had lost its supremacy (优势) because of the discovery of America in 1492 and the rounding (环绕) of the Cape of Good Hope in 1488, the opening of an all-water route (全线贯通) to India which provided (供应) a cheaper means of transport.
单成选择题：Which of the following is not the course for Italy to lose its favorable position?
3、The Protestant (新教徒) reformation forced (强迫) the Roman Catholic Church to tighten (拉紧) its control over thought, speech and publication.（语言和出版）
4、One after another the cradles (摇篮) of Italian Renaissance, Florence, Venice, Naples, Milan were pillaged (掠夺) and devastated (毁坏) in the Italian Wars. Spain, France and England fought for the control of its resources(资源).
5、from the above, it can be concluded that Renaissance finally declined in Italy due to the reason of different kinds.
①War ②Foreign trade ③Position ④Wars with the other country
五、How did capitalism rise and develop in Europe?
答：
1、Protestantism was prepared for capitalist development.
2、Imagination, creation and free thinking (思维).
3、Calvinism.
4、Navigation (航海) and the discoveries of new lands.
5、Renaissance.
6、Reformation.
六、What is the great significance of the reformation?
(What positive influence does the reformation exert on world culture?)
答:
1、The Roman Catholic Church was never the international court (法院) to which all rulers and states were to be morally (道德的) responsible for.
2、Economically, peasants (农民) all over Europe had no need to pay a good amount (量) of their gains (利益) to the Pope.
3、In educational and cultural matters, the monopoly (垄断) of the church was broken.
4、In religion, Protestantism brought into being different forms of Christianity to challenge (挑战) the absolute rule of the Roman Catholic Church.
5、In language, the dominant position of Latin had to give way to (为…让步) the national languages as a result of various (不同的) translations of the Bible into the vernacular.
6、In spirit, absolute obedience (盲从) became out-moded (不复存在) and the spirit of quest (探索), debate (争论), was ushered in by the reformists.(凡事都要问为什么的精神)
七、Why do we say renaissance came to England very late, but in England renaissance reached its climax?
答：
1、The war of Roses and Its weak and unimportant position in world trade.
2、It was to produce some towering figures (顶级人物) in the English. William Shakespeare, Edmund Spenser, Sir Thomas More.
3、The Reign of Elizabeth I was a period of political and religious stability (稳定) on the one hand and economic prosperity (繁荣) on the other. England began to embark (从事) on the road to colonization (殖民扩张) and foreign control that was to take it onto its heyday (鼎盛) of capitalist development.
八、What are the Geographical Discoveries (航海大发现) in the Renaissance?
答：
The Renaissance was the golden age of geographical discoveries: by the year of 1600 the surface of the known earth was doubled (两倍).
1、Columbus:
Columbus discovered the land of America. On his fourth voyage (航行) he explored (探测) the coast (海岸) of Central America(中美洲).
2、Dias:
Dias was a Portuguese navigator (领航员) who discovered the Cape of Good Hope in 1487.
3、Da Gama:
Gama was a Portuguese navigator, who discovered the route (路线) to India round the Cape of Good Hope between the years of 1497 and 1498.
4、Amerig (亚美利哥)
Amerigo was the Italian navigator on whose honour (给某人) America was named. His discovered and explored the mouth of the Amazon (亚马逊河) and accepted South America as a new continent.(新大陆)
九、What contribution did the Renaissance make to the world culture?
答：
1、The Renaissance created a culture which freed man to discover and enjoy the world in a way not possible under the medieval Church’s dispensation.
2、The Reformation dealt the feudal theocracy a fatal blow. (给…以致命打击)
第五章
1、The first time to look at men’s place in the Universe started in the 17th century.
2、In modernism, men’s position in the universe was looked at in a fresh new way.
3、The outlook (世界观) of educated men was transformed. There was a profound (深远的) change in the conception (概念) of men’s place in the universe.(人在宇宙中的位置)
4、The 17th century philosophy was focus on materialist in nature.
5、17th century Science: ☆physics ☆mathematics ☆chemistry biology psychology
6、The modern world, so far as mental outlook is concerned, begins in the 17th century.现代世界从何时开始
7、Kepler’s Laws formed the basis of all modern planetary astronomy and led to Newton’s discovery of the laws of gravitation
8、the laws of gravitation (万有引力的内容):
the sun, the moon, the earth, the planets, and all the other bodies (天体) in the universe move in accordance with the same basic force, which is call gravitation.
9、Francis Bacon’s works —→The Advancement of Learning
—→The New Atlantis
—→The Novum Organum (New Method)
—→Essays (散文集)
10、Essays are Bacon’s most widely read work.(流传最广的作品) 58 essays were included.(包含)
11、Francis Bacon
①Knowledge is power. (知识就是力量)
②Virtue is like precious odours —most fragrant when they are incensed or crushed.
品德像宝贵的气味－当被压碎或焚香时很芳香
③Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed (大致浏览), and some few to be chewed and digested.(翻翻而已)
④Reading maketh a full man, conference a ready man, and writing an exact man.(纯粹的人) 读书可以使人成竹在胸
⑤Histories make men wise. (学史可以使人明智)
⑥Wives are young men’s mistresses (情人), companions (伴侣) for middleage, and old men’s nurses.(照顾人的人)
12、Tomas Hobbes —→Leviathan
13、the Great Instauration名词解释
to break with the past (与过去相背离), and to restore (存储) man to his lost mastery of the natural world. This was what Bacon called the Great Instauration. (大恢复理论)
14、Inductive method名词解释
Inductive method was established by Francis Bacon in 17th century. Induction means reasoning (推理) from particular facts or individual cases to a general conclusion.(从特殊推一般). Induction was put over against Deductive method.
15、All our ideas are ultimately (最后) derived from sensation (感受) or from reflection (反思) and these two make up experience and all our knowledge springs from experience as well.
16、Locke also believed that the ruler of government is one partner of the social contract.(是社会契约的签约方)
17、Hobbes —→absolute Monarchy (君主制)
Locke —→Constitutional Monarchy (君主立宪制)
18、The English Revolution is also called Bourgeoisie Revolution.
19、Democracy (民主的体现是) —→Parliament (议会)
希腊民主的体现是公民大会
20、The serfdom had begun breaking up as a result of the Enclosure Movement.(随着圈地运动德发展)
21、By the end of the 16th century, Calvinism had spread (传播) to England. As a result, the Puritan Movement was started in England. (清教徒运动开始了)
22、1689, the Bill of Rights was enacted by the English Parliament (议会).
23、There are two leaders in the English Revolution. Cromwell was the man of action and Milton the man of thought.
24、Milton —→Paradise Lost (失乐园)
选自：The fall of men (圣经的旧约)
Satan
25、In Milton’s poetic works, both the Renaissance and the Reformation showed their influence. (受两个运动的影响)
26、Theory of Knowledge名词解释简答认知论
Descartes employed (使用) methodic doubt (置疑方法论) with a view to discovering whether there was any indubitable (不容置疑的) truth. I doubt, therefore I think: I think, therefore I am. Doubting is thinking, thinking is the essence of the mind (精髓所在). Descartes believed that they are not dependable. (置疑是不可*的)
27、Descartes’s Dualism 二元论
① Thought (思维) was the foundation of all knowledge (认知) while the senses might deceive (欺骗) us. This is idealist. (唯心主义者)
② The external (外部) world existed (存在), which was independent (无关) of the human mind. This is materialist. (不以人的意识为转移)
28、Classicism (新古典主义)名词解释
Classicism implies (意味着) the revival (复苏) of the forms and traditions of the ancient world, a return to works of old Greek literature from Homer to Plato and Aristotle. But French classicism of the 17th century was not conscious of being a classical revival (并非古典主义的复苏). It intended to produce a literature, French to the core (以法语为中心), which was worthy of (与…相媲美) Greek and classical ideals. This neoclassicism (新古典主义) reached its climax in France in the 17th century.(代表：莫里哀和德国的歌德?席勒)
29、French classicism of the 17th century was not conscious of being a classical revival (并非古典主义的复苏). 判断
30、Rationalism (理性主义) was believed to be able to discover the best principles (原则) of human conduct (行为) and the universal (通用的) principles of natural laws. Here Descartes provided (提供的) the philosophical foundation for the French neoclassicism.(新古典主义)
31、Molière (莫里哀) —→The best representative of French neoclassicism.
32、Baroque Art名词解释承上启下的(法国新古典主义时期重要的)艺术形式
Baroque Art, flourished first in Italy, and then spread to Spain, Portugal, France in south Europe and to Flander and the Netherlands (荷兰) in the North. It was characterized by dramatic intensity (强烈的艺术性) and sentimental appeal (哀婉的格调) with a lot of emphasis on light and colour.(强烈的明暗对比)
33、Michelangelo Caravaggio —→The Calling of St. Matthew (圣马赛的呼唤)
—→The Cardsharps (纸牌游戏)
34、Dutch Protestant Art 新教艺术
Rembrandt (伦勃朗) —→Blinding of Samson (双目失明萨姆森)
—→The Polish Rider (荷兰骑士)
论述简答
一、Why do we say the 17th century is a transitional (过渡的) period from middle ages to the modern times? 答：
1、This advance (前进) began in science, in astronomy (天文学), physics and pure mathematics (纯粹数学), owing to the work of Galileo, Kepler, Newton and Descartes.
2、The outlook (世界观) of educated men was transformed. There was a profound (深远的) change in the conception (概念) of men’s place in the universe.(人在宇宙中的位置)
3、The new science and philosophy gave a great push to the political struggle waged by the newly emerged class (新兴的阶级), the bourgeoisie (资产阶级), and other chasses.
4、The modern world, so far as mental outlook is concerned, begins in the 17th century.
二、How did science develop in the 17th century?
答：
1、Copernicus: Helio-centric (日心说)
2、Kepler:
①Kepler’s Laws of planetary motion. (开普勒行星定律)
②Kepler proved Copernicus Helio-centric theory to be true.
③Kepler’s Laws formed the basis of all modern planetary astronomy and led to Newton’s discovery of the laws of gravitation. (万有引力理论)
3、Galile
①He made a telescope. (望远镜)
②Galileo also proved Copernicus Helio-centric theory to be true.
③Galileo discovered the importance of acceleration in dynamics. (动力加速度)
④Galileo was also the first to establish the law of falling bodies. (落体理论的奠定)
4、Newton:
①He invented calculus. (微积分)
②In optics (光学), he discovered that white light is composed (组成) of all the colour of the spectrum.(光谱)
③Newton established his name (声望) in the field of physics.
④Newton established the analytical method. (分析方法理论)
5、Leibniz:
①Leibniz distinguishes three levels of understanding:
the self-conscious (自我意识)
the conscious and the unconscious or subconscious (无意识或下意识)
This theory had a great influence on Freudian psychology.
②This theory of time and space had a great influence on einsteinian physics.
③He and Newton invented independently the differential (互不相关的) and intergral (整合性的) calculus.(微积分)
三、What are the merits shared by the Great Scientists of 17th century？
(Do you think there is something in common among the 17th century scientists? If there is, present your ideas on the statement.)
答：
During the 17th century, the modern Scientific method began to take shape (初见端倪). It emphasized (强调) observation (观察) and experimentation (实验) before formulating (表示) a final explanation or generalization (概括). Copernicus、Kepler、Galileo、Newton and other scientists of the time shared two merits (价值) which favoured the advance of science.(推动)
1、First, they showed boldness (大胆性) in framing hypotheses.(假定框架)
2、Second, they all had immense (极大的) patience (耐性) in observation.
3、The combination (组合) of the two merits brought about fundamental (根本的) changes in man’s scientific and philosophical thinking.
四、What is Baconian Philosophical system?
(What is the different between inductive method (归纳法) and deductive (演绎法) method?)
答：
1、The whole basis of his philosophy was practical (实用主义哲学): to give mankind (人类) mastery (主宰) over the forces of nature by means of scientific discoveries and inventions.
2、He held that philosophy should be kept separate from theology (神学), not intimately be blended with it as in Scholasticism.(与经院主义混为一谈)
3、Bacon established the inductive method. Induction means reasoning (推理) from particular facts or individual cases to a general conclusion.(从特殊推一般). Deductive method emphasized (强调) reasoning from a known principle (原因) to the unknown and from the general to the specific.(从已知推未知，从一般推特殊)
4、In a word, to break with the past (与过去相背离), and to restore (存储) man to his lost mastery of the natural world. This was what Bacon called the Great Instauration. (大恢复理论)
五、What is Hobbes’material system?
(What are Hobbes’materialist view?)
答：
1、Our knowledge comes from experience.(知识来源于实际)
2、Only material things are perceptible (可感知的), and knowable to us (为我们所知的). Our own experience
alone is certain (个人的实践是确定无疑的). Men could not know anything about the existence of God. (人类无法感知上帝是否确定存在)
3、When a thing lies (静止) still, unless something else stirs (搅动) it, it will lie still for ever.
4、Hobbes systematized (系统化) Baconian materialism, but basically (基本上) he was a mechanical materialist.(机械唯物主义),费尔巴哈也是
六、What is the natural state of war according to Hobbes?
答：
1、Equality of hope arises from the equality of ability.(欲望来自于能力的平等)
2、If any two men desire (得到) the same thing, which nevertheless (虽然如此) they cannot both enjoy, they become enemies (敌人).鱼和熊掌不可兼得
3、From this, he concluded, until such time as men live under a common power (努力均衡), they are in a state of war with one another.
七、What are the Laws of nature, according to the Hobbes?
答：
1、It is obviously (显然的) in man’s interest to emerge from this natural state of war.(人的利益导致战争)
2、For by nature men have their passions (激情) and their reason. It is their passions which bring about the state of war (导致战争的自然状态).
3、Peace is necessary for survival (生存) and certain articles (条款) of peace, upon which men may be drawn to agreement (达成一致).
八、What is the theory of the Social Contract, according to the Hobbes?
答：
1、It is necessary that there should be a common power (权利的集中) or government backed by force and able to punish (处罚).
2、Commonwealth (英联邦), in Latin, Civitas (共有财产).
3、To escape (避免) anarchy (无政府状态), men enter into a social contract, by which they submit to the sovereign (君主). In return for (作为回报) conferring (赠与) all their powers and strength to the sovereign, men attain (达到) peace and security (安全).
4、The powers of the sovereign must be absolute (绝对的), and it is only be the centralization (中央集权) of authority (权利) in one person that the evil (邪恶) can be avoided.
5、As to the form of government, Hobbes preferred monarchy.(主张君主制)
6、Government was not created by God, but by men themselves.
九、What are John Locke material view?
答：
1、All our ideas are ultimately (最后) derived (来自) from sensation (感受) or from reflection (反思) and these two make up (组成) experience and all our knowledge springs from experience as well.
2、Neither principles nor ideas are innate.(规律与人的思维都并非天生的)
3、Sensation and reflection are the fountains of knowledge.(两大源泉)
十、What is Locke’s Political Philosophy?(政治哲学)
答：
1、Locke flatly rejected the theory of divine right of kings.(排除了君权神授的思想)
2、He ridiculed (嘲笑) the theory of transmission of royal authority (王权的世袭制) by saying that there was no evidence (证据) that Adam possessed (控制) a divinely (像神一样的) granted royal authority (授予王权), nor is there any evidence that his heirs (继承人) had it.
3、Locke put forward the idea of the state of nature.(提出自然状态的观点)
4、For Locke, Nature Law, therefore, means a universally (普遍) obligatory (强制性的) moral law (道德法则) promulgated (发布) by the human reason. Whereas (然而) for Hobbes it means the law of power, force and fraud (欺骗).
5、Locke firmly believed in natural rights (天赋人权). The natural right is the right of private property (财产).
十一、What is the difference between Hobbes and Locke in terms of nature Law?
答：
For Locke, Nature Law, therefore, means a universally (普遍) obligatory (强制性的) moral law (道德法则) promulgated (发布) by the human reason. Whereas (然而) for Hobbes it means the law of power, force and fraud (欺骗).
十二、What is John Locke’s Social Contract?
答：
1、Society is out of necessity, convenience and man’s own interest, and therefore, society is natural to man.
2、The institution (制度) of political society and government must proceed (进行) from the consent (赞同) of those who are incorporated into (与…融为一体) political society and subject themselves to government.(人要完全屈服于政府的统治)
3、Locke emphasized (强调) that the social contract must be understood as involving the individual’s consent (同意) to submit (服从) to the will of the majority (大多数人的意志) and that the will of the majority must prevail (流行).
4、Locke also believed that the ruler of government is one partner of the social contract.(是社会契约的签约方), If he violates (违反) the social contract, then government is effectively dissolved.(有效地取消), This idea was welcomed (采用) by the Americans during the American Revolution and the bourgeoisie revolution in England.(北美独立战争和英国资产阶级革命)
十三、What is the different between Tomas Hobbes and John Locke in terms of Social Contract?
答：
1、Tomas Hobbes:
① It is necessary that there should be a common power (权利的集中) or government backed by force and able to punish (处罚).
② Commonwealth (英联邦), in Latin, Civitas (共有财产).
③ To escape (避免) anarchy (无政府状态), men enter into a social contract, by which they submit to the sovereign (君主). In return for (作为回报) conferring (赠与) all their powers and strength to the sovereign, men attain (达到) peace and security (安全).
④ The powers of the sovereign must be absolute, and it is only be the centralization (中央集权) of authority (权利) in one person that the evil (邪恶) can be avoided.
⑤ As to the form of government, Hobbes preferred monarchy.(主张君主制)
⑥ Government was not created by God, but by men themselves.
2、John Locke:
① Society is out of necessity, convenience and man’s own interest, and therefore, society is natural to man.
② The institution (制度) of political society and government must proceed (进行) from the consent (赞同) of those who are incorporated into (与…融为一体) political society and subject themselves to government.(人要完全屈服于政府的统治)
③ Locke emphasized (强调) that the social contract must be understood as involving the individual’s consent (同意) to submit (服从) to the will of the majority (大多数人的意志) and that the will of the majority must prevail (流行).
④ Locke also believed that the ruler of government is one partner of the social contract.(是社会契约的签约方), If he violates (违反) the social contract, then government is effectively dissolved.(有效地取消), This idea was welcomed (采用) by the Americans during the American Revolution and the bourgeoisie revolution in England.(北美独立战争和英国资产阶级革命)
3、Although both Tomas Hobbes and John Locke used the term “social contract”, they
differed fundamentally.(根本上的不同)
① First, Hobbes argued men enter a social contract to escape the state of war, for, in his view, men are enemies and at war with each other. Locke argued men are equal and that they enter a social contract by reason.
②Secondly, Hobbes argued that individuals surrender (放弃) their rights to one man, the sovereign whose power is absolute. Locke argued that the individuals surrender their rights to the community as a whole (少数服从多数). According to him, by majority vote a representative is chosen, but his power not absolute. If he fails to implement (履行) the people’s will, the people have the right to overthrow (推翻) him.