本科毕业设计（论文）
外文翻译
原文：
The First Steps To Inventory Management
Introduction
Holding inventory is often interpreted as carrying an asset but also means carrying risk in terms of obsolescence, deterioration and quality faults [1]. In financial terms inventory impacts the balance sheet, cash flow and profit and loss accounts. Operationally inventory affects production efficiencies and on-time delivery. In his book “The Goal” Goldratt [2] identifies inventory as a key component for measuring business performance in a manufacturing environment. In short, good inventory management is essential to achieving business objectives and building competitive advantage. Yet the traditional techniques most often used to manage inventory do not always provide optimal solutions. Driven by a greater emphasis on customer service and cost control and the advent of new technologies, inventory management is rapidly moving to a higher level of sophistication.
This paper is the first in a series of three that looks at the alternative options available to optimize inventory held at an aggregate and part level by considering the steps necessary to move towards inventory optimization. The intent of these papers is to provide a simple guide to enable managers within manufacturing industries to advance their organization to the next level of inventory management. So, whether you are an experienced inventory manager with a deep understanding of inventory matters working with a sophisticated stock system or a relative beginner in an organization with no system at all, there should be something of value for you and your organization here.
The focus of this paper is on the basics and looks at the first steps to inventory management through achieving inventory control and instigating a simple 3-class management system. The second Paper titled ‘Professional Inventory Management’
introduces further inventory management principles, such as the use of 6 or more classes and the analysis of safety stock that extend the options for managers to improve inventory performance. The third and last paper ‘Advanced Inventory Management’ looks at K-Curve theory and the impact of system parameters on stock levels. Each paper is structured along similar lines and contains background theory, the requirements for operating at the level under discussion, a worked example using data from the manufacturing industry and a concluding summary.
The First Steps To Inventory Management
In this, the first of a three part series, we start with the basic concepts required to achieve inventory control and lay the foundations for a simple 3-class inventory system.
What Is Inventory?
All operations keep inventory, which refers to the stored materials that exist within an organization and applies to raw materials, purchased parts, work in progress and finished goods. The terms inventory and stock are used interchangeably, as is the case here, although by definition inventory is usually referred to in value (pounds, dollars) and stock in quantity (kg, 100s, metre). Inventory primarily arises because of differences in the timing or rate of supply and demand and is used to balance these. Inventory may also occur due to economic batch sizes for an operation, WIP, product seasonality and investment for new product ranges.
Inventory Control, Management And Planning
Inventory control refers to the events or activities that affect inventory during the process of transforming input resources and materials to output goods. Different stock items are however controlled in different ways, for example in an assembly operation nuts and bolts are not treated in the same way as high value, long lead time parts. Control is a necessary step on the road to optimizing inventory and requires that relevant business processes are in place to enable materials to be tracked through the system and accurate data records maintained. In this way the quantity and location of physical stock are tied to system data records.
Two commonly used measures indicative of good inventory control are:
a)The book to actual stock variances following periodic stock takes, which should
show a cumulative variance of ≤ 5% and ideally decrease over time.
b)Instances of mis-matched physical stock and system data, which often manifest
themselves as a shortage or a zero physical stock when the system shows a certain number of items in stock. Again the instances should show a trend decrease over time.
The use of cycle counting or perpetual physical inventory (PPI) checking to verify that the data records for quantity and location match the physical stock provides information on the level of control achieved and allows targets to be set and monitored.
Achieving inventory control is a precursor to inventory management, which is concerned with the means used to balance conflicting organizational objectives on the overall level of stock held, and to determine optimal inventory levels for each item. These conflicting objectives include achieving manufacturing efficiencies, a high level of customer service and low procurement costs and drive some parts of the business to increase inventory and other parts to decrease it. For example, sales are primarily concerned with delivery of the desired product in the best time frame to satisfy customer demand, and therefore encourage the business to keep finished goods stocks high. Production want all parts to be available to keep line efficiency high and run large batch sizes, again increasing inventory. Purchasing order large batches of materials to achieve better cost breaks once again increasing inventory. On the other hand, product development may want to keep inventory low to hasten the introduction of new products and senior management will want to decrease inventory as it ties up cash flow.
Often the business swings from one extreme to the other without achieving a desirable balance. In one common scenario customer demand, manufacturing efficiencies and low procurement costs lead to untenably high stock levels that result in high carrying costs and large write-offs for obsolescence. Another scenario is at the other extreme where stock levels are low resulting in poor service levels and missed sales, manufacturing efficiencies suffer due to lack of parts and material costs are high.
These issues and their associated costs must be managed and inventory planning attempts to reconcile the discrepancies between supply and demand and strike a working balance between the carrying costs, opportunity costs and stock out costs. Similarly, operational efforts, such as just in time (JIT), try to match supply and demand and can succeed in reducing inventory levels. One aspect of inventory planning, demand forecasting accuracy, is critical to achieving optimal inventory levels due to its impact on buffer stock as will be seen in the second paper.
Inventory control, management and planning are key to improving inventory performance and are the responsibility of all employees who have an impact on inventory whether through forecasting, ordering, receiving, quality assessment, storage, distribution or use in manufacture. Educating staff on the impact of their actions, setting targets, measuring and communicating performance are thus essential activities in the optimization process.
Definition Of Terms
For our purposes here total inventory is considered as composed of two separate, but related components: batch stock and buffer stock.
Most people are familiar with Batch Stock (or cycle stock) as the stock ordered on a regular basis to meet demand and allow operations to cope with not making all products simultaneously. Batch stock cycles at their simplest are represented by the familiar saw-tooth pattern although in practice this can look much more irregular. Inventory decreases gradually based on demand (point A) and rises sharply as incoming orders are delivered (point B). As previously mentioned, total inventory is measured in value.
Buffer Stock (or safety stock) is often the main focus of management attention due to its relationship to customer service levels. It is used to compensate for uncertainties in the timing and volume of supply and demand and often builds through over-production in response to poor availability with the intent to safeguard against future shortages. Buffer stocks are discussed in more detail in the second and third papers.
Another useful measure of inventory is the Annual Usage Value (AUV), which
at a part level is given by the average (on an annualized basis) cost of the item multiplied by its annual use (in singles). For example, an item with an average annual cost of ￡2.50 and an annual use of 40,000 will have an AUV of ￡100,000. As will be seen later, knowing the AUV allows the Average Inventory to be calculated at the aggregate level. This is the sum of the buffer stock and batch stock at part level at a point in time and at this stage no further distinction is made between the two as this is dealt with in the further articles.
A measure related to AUV is the Daily Going Rate (DGR).This is equal to the AUV divided by the number of working days and gives an average demand per day figure.
Simple Stock Classification
Assuming that a good degree of inventory control has been achieved, as measured by stock variance or shortage instances, the first step in inventory management is to categorize the different items of stock, in short a classification system. There are many tools and methods for classifying inventory using different bases (value, volume, seasonality etc.) however the most common means of classifying stock is the ABC technique.
ABC classification uses a Pareto distribution of cumulative Annual Usage Values, such as that shown in Figure 3, to assign parts to each of three classes. For the traditional 3-class system, parts with cumulative annual usage values from 0% to between 75 – 85% are typically categoriz ed as Class ‘A’ items, from 75% to betw een 85%- 98% as ‘B’ items and the remainder to 100% as ‘C’ items. The setting of the class boundaries in percentage terms is critical to the overall inventory value but often these boundaries are set by reference to previously used values or by feel. This may in part be due to the lack of ready information available on the impact of different boundary points. In this way those familiar with the 80:20 rule would tend to set the ‘A’ class boundary at 80%.
Once all items have been allocated to a class an order frequency compatible with the business cycle is set, typically in our 3-class system this is weekly for ‘A’ class items, monthly or 4-weekly for ‘B’ class and bi-annually or annually for ‘C’ class.
The 3 classes may also be treated in different ways for the method of ordering, for example class C items may be ordered on a Kanban (two-bin) basis, class B by MRP and class A through a JIT system.
The average inventory IA, IB, IC, for each class is given by:
I A = 1/2 AUV A + F A
[1] AUV = annual usage value
= annual demand x unit cost
F = order or delivery frequency p.a.
= no. of working days ÷ batch days
Alternatively using DGR;
I A = 1/2 Batch Days A x DGR A
[2] Batch days = no. of days between orders 2
DGR = Daily Going Rate
= AUV ÷ no. of working days
Summing the average inventory for each class from equation and repeating for different class boundaries gives a possible range of total inventory values. In each case the number of batches or orders required per class can also be calculated by multiplying the number of parts per class by the order frequency. In this way inventory can be managed at the aggregate level through targeting a desired overall stock holding and the resources required to manage inventory in terms of the numbers of orders that need to be placed, deliveries received, inspections carried out and stock put away. At the class level the order frequency and means of ordering can be decided while at part level an assessment can be made on how individual parts should be ordered and managed.
A Worked Example Of An ABC Classification
An ABC classification can be easily conducted using a spreadsheet programme such as Lotus 1-2-3 or Microsoft Excel. The only data requirements are a list of all stock items by part number, their unit cost and annual usage quantity.
The steps required are:
1.Import data into the spreadsheet. Often this is best accomplished through a flat
text file.
2.Add columns for AUV, Cumulative AUV, Cumulative AUV as % of Total AUV
and calculate:
a.AUV for each item (AUV = unit cost x annual quantity usage) and sort
in descending order of value
b.Cumulative AUV for each item
c.% Cumulative AUV. Note that this is equivalent to the y-axis. A Pareto
graph can be drawn by plotting the cumulative % of parts along the
x-axis.
3.Decide break points in percentage terms of cumulative AUV for each class (the
example below starts with A=80%, B=90%, C=100%) and assign an order frequency to each class (the example below uses A=5 working days, B=20 working days, C=250 working days, based on a 5 day working week and a 250 day working year). Calculate:
a.Average inventory per class and total average inventory (class inventory
is derived from 0.5 x (sum of AUV for class/Frequency of orders)
b.Number of parts per class
c.Orders per annum per class and total orders.
4.Vary the parameters for class boundaries and order frequency per class to arrive at
alternative scenarios for average inventory and total orders.
For reference the Pareto distribution of the stock in our example is about 80/10, ie. 10% of the parts represent about 80% of the annual usage value.A further business measure, turnover, can be derived as follows:
Turnover = AUV ÷ Average Inventory
Alternative scenarios can easily be prepared by varying the class boundaries to give a range of values. An analysis of this sort aids understanding at the aggregate, class and part levels. At the aggregate level the overall average inventory carried and the number of orders processed can be derived. Assigning an inventory carrying cost gives an indication of the cash tied up in stock and is often a stimulus to action.
Similarly if there is an agreed cost for order processing (a notoriously difficult
figure to derive ) an overall cost can be assigned to these activities. Setting financial targets for overall inventory and order processing resources allows the costs calculated to be assessed in the context of the financial requirements of the business and can initiate debate on the desired inventory and resource level.
Summary Of The First Steps To Inventory Management
This article has looked at the basics of and first steps to achieving inventory management beginning with inventory control:
Step 1 Inventory Control
Instigate appropriate business processes, minimizing manual intervention
Tie system data on stock location and quantity to physical stock. Insist on accurate data records
Set targets and measure the degree of control through inventory variances (book to actual) and instances of physical inventory shortfalls
Educate staff.
Step 2 Basic Inventory Management
Classify inventory using a 3-class ABC system based on Annual Usage Value Determine appropriate order frequency and order means for each inventory class Try different class boundaries and analyze the results at aggregate, class and part level and take appropriate action.
In the next paper ‘Professional Inventory Management’ we introduce the concept of overage, look at what happens when the number of classes is increased and the impact of safety stock on overall inventory and service levels.
Source: Geoff﹒Relph，The First Steps To Inventory Management，IBM Industrial Practice，2003.
译文：
库存管理的第一个步骤
引言
持有的库存通常解释为账面资产，但同时也意味着产品过时、变质和质量故障方面的风险。在财政方面的库存影响着资产负债表、现金流量及损益账。在操作方面的库存影响生产效率和交货准时性。Goldratt在他的著作《目标》中指出在制造业领域库存是衡量业务绩效的重要组成部分。简而言之，良好的库存管理要实现业务目标，并建立竞争优势。然而，传统的技术用于管理库存通常不能提供最佳的解决方案。在重点客户服务和成本控制及新技术问世的驱动下，库存管理正在向一个更复杂的高层次迈进。
本文首先探讨三大系列，将库存优化备选方案进行信息汇总，并分步考虑必要步骤，迈向库存优化。这些文件的目的是提供一个简单的指南，使管理者在制造业在促进组织下一步的库存管理。所以，不管你是一个具有深刻的库存问题和复杂存货的管理者或是一个在组织中没有系统初学者，应该有为你和你的组织有意义的东西。
本文的重点是基础知识，通过库存控制进行库存管理的第一步，和一个简单的3级库存管理系统。第二篇论文名为专业库存管理，介绍了进一步库存控制的原则，例如：6个或更多的类别的安全库存分析，延长管理人员的选项以提高库存绩效。第三篇也是最后一篇：先进的库存管理。K -曲线理论和系统参数影响库存水平。每篇论文的结构都是沿着类似的路线，并包含背景理论，在所讨论的一级运作的要求，使用工作中的例子来自制造业的数据和结论的摘要。
库存管理的第一步
三部分系列的第一是我们首先需要实现库存控制和奠定一个简单的3级库存系统的基础的基本概念。
什么是库存
所有业务保持库存，它指的是在一个组织中储存的材料，应用于原材料、外购件、在制品和成品。库存和存货的术语可以互换使用，像这里的例子，通常定义库存为价值（磅，美元）和存货数量为（公斤，100秒，米）。库存主要是因
为不同的时间或汇率的供给与需求,使这两者之间达到平衡。库存可能也会发生,由于经济的批量造作,在制品和产品季节性及新产品的投资范围。
库存控制，管理和规划
库存控制是指影响投入资源转化为输出的商品和材料制品库存的事件或活动。然而不同的库存项目有不同的控制方式，例如，在很长一段时间，螺母和螺栓装配操作不被视为相同价值。控制是对库存进行优化道路的必要步骤，并要求通过系统跟踪和准确的数据记录使相关业务流程的材料保存在适当位置。这样，就能系统记录实际存货数量和位置的相关数据。
良好的库存控制指标是两个常用的措施：
a）这本书给实际股票差异证明定期存货需要,应该显示累积方差。另外,最好是能够减少≤5%
b）管理信息系统的实例匹配的实际库存和系统数据往往表现为短缺或实际库存为零时，系统显示一定数量的库存项目。同样的实例应该表现出随时间下降的趋势。
计数的循环使用或永久盘点（生产者价格指数）检查，以确认数量和位置的数据记录是否符合有关信息控制提供的实际库存水平，并达到允许设定和监控的目标。
实现库存控制是库存管理的先导，用相关手段来平衡持有库存在整体组织目标中的冲突，并确定每个项目的最佳库存水平。这些相互冲突的目标包括实现生产效率，高水平的客户服务和较低的采购成本，推动一些增加库存业务和减少库存业务。例如，销售主要关注与期望的是产品交付的最佳时间，以满足客户需求，并因此鼓励企业保持较高成品库存。希望所有生产的部件可保持高效率和大批量，再次使库存增加。订货大批量的材料能更好的节约成本，再次使库存增加。另一方面，要加快新产品的开发应当保持低库存，而高级管理人员也希望减少库存积压，因为大量库存使现金流受限。
通常，业务从一个极端摇摆到另一个极端没有达到理想的平衡。一个常见的客户需求方案，生产效率和低采购成本导致高库存水平难以维持，致使运输成本高，大量的账面价值无法平衡。另一种情况是在另一个极端，库存水平低造成服务水平欠佳并错过销售，由于应有的零件和材料成本高的影响，生产效率受到制
约。这些问题及其相关的成本必须加以管理，库存计划试图协调供应和需求之间的差异，还包括协调运输成本、机会成本和库存成本之间的平衡。同样，业务工作，如准时制（JIT），尝试供应和需求的匹配，并能成功地减少库存水平。一个库存规划和需求预测的准确性，对于实现最佳的库存水平是非常重要的方面，因为，在第二份文件将看到缓冲库存的影响。
库存控制，管理和规划是改进库存性能，通过预测、订货、收货、质量评价、储存、分销或生产使用判定所有员工谁对库存影响有责任的关键。教育工作人员，使其在行动影响、目标确定测量和交流表现方面优化，是必不可少的活动。
术语定义
在这里，我们的总库存被认为是由两个独立的，但相关的组成部分：批量库存和缓冲库存。
大多数人都知道批量库存（或循环库存）是作为定期订购来满足需求并允许用来配合产品能同时操作的。在实践中最简单的锯齿模式比循环批量库存看起来更不规则。库存根据需求（点A）逐渐降低和收到的订单（B点）急剧上升交付。如前所述，总库存是衡量价值。
缓冲库存（或安全库存）往往因为关系到客户服务水平而成为管理人员的主要焦点。是被用来弥补时间和供需数量的不确定性的，是通过生产过剩应对疲软的可用性的意图来防止未来短缺。缓冲库存将在第二篇和第三篇论文中更加详细地讨论。
另一种有益的库存措施是年度使用价值（AUV），总的项目成本是平均水平（按年度计算）乘以年度使用量（单个）。例如一个项目，平均每年的费用是2.50英镑，每年使用40000个的年度使用价值是需要10万英镑。我们将会看到，根据年度使用价值，知道总体水平后就能计算平均库存。这是缓冲库存和批量库存在某个时间点的部分级别的总和，并且在这一阶段，没有其他文章表明这两者是没有区别的。
年度使用价值的相关措施是每日现行利率（DGR）。这等于工作天数除以年度使用价值，就是平均每天需求的数字。
简单的库存分类
假设一个良好的库存控制程度已经实现，由库存差异或短缺情况来衡量，库
存管理的第一步是在短期内对不同项目的库存系统进行分类。这里有许多不同的库存分类的方法和依据（价值，成交量，季节性等），但最常见的库存分类方法是ABC分类法。
ABC分类采用了帕累托分布的年度使用值，如在图3所示，将三部分分配到各个类。对于传统的3级系统，累计年度使用价值从0%到介于75% - 85％的，通常归类为类'A'项目，从75％至介于85％-98%之间则为'B'项目，其余部分到 100％的为'C'项目。在界限百分比方面的设置是整体库存价值的关键，但这些界限往往是参照以前使用的参考值或凭借感觉。这可能是由于部分现成资料对不同边界点的影响方面的不足。这样常见的二八法则往往会定在80％的A类边界。
一旦所有项目被分配到一个类即设置的订单频率与商业周期兼容，在我们的3级系统中，每周是典型的'A'类项目。每月或4周为'B'类项目，双向或每年是'C'类项目。
这3类也可以被视为订购方法的不同方式，比如C类的项目可在看板（两箱）的基础上，B类是MRP系统，而A类是JIT系统。
I A , I
B
, I
C
是每个类的平均存货：
I A = 1/2 AUV
A
+ F
A
[1] AUV = 年度使用价值
= 年需求量 x 单位成本
F = 订单或交货频率年息
= 工作日期÷日期批量
交替使用的DGR;
I
A
= 1/2 A类日期批量x A类DGR
[2] 日期批量 = 2个订单之间的日期
DGR = 每日现行利率
= AUV ÷工作日期
从公式总结每个阶级的平均库存，并针对不同阶级界限重复给出总库存价值的可能范围。在每一种情况下，批量数或需求订单数可以用订单频数乘以每类零件进行计算。通过把在库库存作为总体水平的目标，可以对库存进行管理，对订单中所需要的资源进行放置、收货、检查核对并放好库存。订单频数和订货方式
可以被决定，而个别部分被责令或管理将在部分级别的评估中表现。
ABC分类的一个样例
ABC分类法可以使用一个计算表计划如Lotus 1-2-3或电子表格程序进行简单的管理。唯一的数据要求是零件编号的库存清单，包括单位成本和年度使用量。所需的步骤是：
1、导入数据到电子表格中。通常使用一个纯文本文件完成是最好的。
2、新增AUV，并计算总的AUV的累积百分比，计算：
a. 每个项目的AUV（AUV =单位成本X年使用量），并按订单价值的降序排列。
b. 累积AUV到每个项目。
c. 累积AUV百分比。注意，这相当于帕累托分布的Y轴。在X轴上绘制零件的
累积百分比就能画出帕累托分布图。
3、决心打破每一类AUV的累积百分率（例举下面开始A = 80％，B= 90％，C = 100％）和分配订单频率到每个类（例举下面A = 5个工作日，B= 20个工作日，C = 250个工作日，在这个基础上5个工作日为一周，250个工作日为一年）。计算：
a. 每类平均库存和总平均库存（0.5衍生的每类库存x 订单频率的AUV之和）
b. 每类零部件的数量
c.每类每年总订单量
4、用不同的阶级界限和每类订单的频率参数来计算不同方案的平均库存和总订单。
在我们的例子中，供参考的库存是关于80/10帕累托分布，例如：10％的部分约占每年使用价值的80％。
另一项业务措施、营业额中可以得出如下：
营业额=年度使用价值÷平均存货
替代方案通过不同的阶级界限给出价值的波动范围可以很容易地被编制。这样的一个排序分析可以辅助了解总体水平、阶级水平和部分水平。通过整体平均库存和订单数量的处理可以计算出总体水平。指定一个存货储存成本的现金指标给库存往往是一种对行为的刺激。
同样，如果有一个一致的订单处理成本，总成本可以被分配到这些活动。对企业的财务要求的范围进行评估可以通过给总库存和订单处理资源设置财务目
标来计算，并能对库存和资源水平开展讨论。
库存管理第一步的总结
本文着眼于基础知识和第一步，即以库存控制来实现库存管理第一步：
第1步库存控制
开展适当的业务流程，减少人工干预
将库存定位和实际库存数量联系起来，坚持准确的数据记录。
定下目标，并测量实际库存差异和库存不足的控制范围。
教育全体工作人员。
第2步基本的库存管理
在年度使用价值的基础上用ABC三类将库存分类
确定合适的订单频率并对每类库存排序
尝试不同的阶级界限并对总体、各类、各部分分析结果并采取适当的行动。
在接下来的论文《专业的库存管理》中，我们将引入过量的概念，当零件增加时，安全库存影响整体时及服务水平变化时会发生什么。
出处：杰夫·雷尔夫，《库存管理的第一个步骤》，IBM工业实践，2003
Floyd D. Hedrick, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. Editor: Jeannette Budding, Communications Manager National Association of Purchasing Management Inventory management Abstract Inventory management, or inventory control, is an attempt to balance inventory needs and requirements with the need to minimize costs resulting from obtaining and holding inventory. There are several schools of thought that view inventory and its function differently. These will be addressed later, but first we present a foundation to facilitate the reader's understanding of inventory and its function Inventory management is inventory management in short .As an important inventory of liquid assets, its existence is bound to take up a lot of liquidity. In general, inventories of industrial enterprises accounted for about 30% of the total assets of commercial circulation enterprises is even higher, the management of utilization is directly related to the occupation of the level of corporate funds and asset efficiency. Therefore, a business to maintain high profitability, should be attached great importance to inventory management. Inventory management at different levels, the company's average occupancy level of funding is a big difference. Through the implementation of proper inventory management methods to reduce the level of the average amount of funds used to improve the inventory turnover rate and total assets, will ultimately improve the economic efficiency of enterprises. Keyword：Inventory；Management ChapterⅠ Inventory Definition Inventory is a quantity or store of goods that is held for some purpose or use (the term may also be used as a verb, meaning to take inventory or to count all goods held in inventory). Inventory may be kept "in-house," meaning on the premises or nearby for immediate use; or it may be held in a distant warehouse or distribution center for future use. With the exception of firms utilizing just-in-time methods, more often than
An Analysis of Working Capital Management Results Across Industries Greg Filbeck. Schweser Study Program Thomas M. Krueger. University of Wisconsin-La Crosse Abstract Firms are able to reduce financing costs and/or increase the funds available for expansion by minimizing the amount of funds tied up in current assets. We provide insights into the performance of surveyed firms across key components of working capital management by using the CFO magazine’s annual Working Capital Management Survey. We discover that significant differences exist between industries in working capital measures across time. In addition. we discover that these measures for working capital change significantly within industries across time. Introduction The importance of efficient working capital management is indisputable. Working capital is the difference between resources in cash or readily convertible into cash (Current Assets) and organizational commitments for which cash will soon be required (Current Liabilities). The objective of working capital management is to maintain the optimum balance of each of the working capital components. Business viability relies on the ability to effectively manage receivables. inventory. and payables. Firms are able to reduce financing costs and/or increase the funds available for expansion by minimizing the amount of funds tied up in current assets. Much managerial effort is expended in bringing non-optimal levels of current assets and liabilities back toward optimal levels. An optimal level would be one in which a balance is achieved between risk and efficiency. A recent example of business attempting to maximize working capital management is the recurrent attention being given to the application of Six Sigma? methodology. Six Sigma? methodologies help companies measure and ensure quality in all areas of the enterprise. When used to identify and rectify discrepancies. inefficiencies and erroneous transactions in the financial supply chain. Six Sigma? reduces Days Sales Outstanding (DSO). accelerates the payment cycle. improves customer satisfaction and reduces the necessary amount and cost of working capital needs. There appear to be many success stories. including Jennifer Towne’s (2002) report of a 15 percent decrease in days that sales are outstanding. resulting in an increased cash flow of approximately $2 million at Thibodaux Regional Medical Center. Furthermore. bad debts declined from $3.4 million to $600.000. However. Waxer’s (2003) study of multiple firms employing Six Sigma? finds that it is really a “get rich slow” technique with a rate of return hovering in the 1.2 – 4.5 percent range. Even in a business using Six Sigma? methodology. an “optimal” level of working capital management needs to be identified. Even in a business using Six Sigma? methodology. an “optimal” level of working capital management needs to be identified. Industry factors may impact firm
本科毕业论文（设计） 外文翻译 原文： Multi-echelon inventory management in supply chains Historically, the echelons of the supply chain, warehouse, distributors, retailers, etc., have been managed independently, buffered by large inventories. Increasing competitive pressures and market globalization are forcing firms to develop supply chains that can quickly respond to customer needs. To remain competitive and decrease inventory, these firms must use multi-echelon inventory management interactively, while reducing operating costs and improving customer service. Supply chain management (SCM) is an integrative approach for planning and control of materials and information flows with suppliers and customers, as well as between different functions within a company. This area has drawn considerable attention in recent years and is seen as a tool that provides competitive power .SCM is a set of approaches to integrate suppliers, manufacturers, warehouses, and stores efficiently, so that merchandise is produced and distributed at right quantities, to the right locations and at the right time, in order to minimize system-wide costs while satisfying service-level requirements .So the supply chain consists of various members or stages. A supply chain is a dynamic, stochastic, and complex system that might involve hundreds of participants. Inventory usually represents from 20 to 60 per cent of the total assets of manufacturing firms. Therefore, inventory management policies prove critical in determining the profit of such firms. Inventory management is, to a greater extent, relevant when a whole supply chain (SC), namely a network of procurement, transformation, and delivering firms, is considered. Inventory management is indeed a major issue in SCM, i.e. an approach that addresses SC issues under an integrated perspective.
期末论文 院系 专业班级 学号 学生姓名 成绩评定
管理原则 也许在那些关于管理者这门学科的书中有许多关于管理的定义。许多定义是相对扼要和简单化的。一位早期的学者将它定义为“清楚地知道你想让人们去做什么，然后看着他们以最好最廉价的方式去完成它”。管理实际上是一个非常复杂的过程——远远比那些定义让我们知道的要复杂得多。因此，我们要建立一种管理的定义，从而能更好地了解这过程的实质。 管理是在一定的环境条件下通过对人员技术和资金等资源的利用和协调去设立和完成某一个组织目标的过程。这个过程有若干个核心包括计划和决策，组织，人员，领导，管理和控制。所有从事于这些工作的负责人在更大或更小的程度上都依赖于他们所承担的特殊的责任。当谈论管理的定义时，我们不应该忽略管理的原则。 管理的最基本原则在文明诞生时就存在了。当人们第一次开始群居生活和首次提高他们的生活质量时它就存在了。2500年前，巴比伦国王尼布甲尼撒二世决定把他的沙漠王国变成绿洲去取悦他的妻子。在公元前6世纪，尼布甲尼撒二世耗尽了国家财政部的金钱，雇佣劳动者和技术人员利用有限的资源建造一个宫殿，建造了完善的管网系统，把当地河流的水输送到皇宫里。当工程完成后，他在平台上种植漂亮稀有的花草树木。巴比伦的空中花园改变了这座城市。 尼布甲尼撒二世制定了一个目标。他要把沙漠中的主要城市变成绿洲。他利用和协调人员，技术和金钱去完成这一目标。他从王室金库中获得的资金去雇佣民工和技师并从附近地区购买材料。他在这种只能提供原始水管装置，建筑技术以及只能从茫茫沙漠中取得有限的材料的环境下完成了目标。最终，每个人在这个工程商所付出的努力创造了世界七大奇观之一。 2500年前，人们完成某项巨大的任务所运用的管理过程与如今运用的基本原理相似，管理者在执行这个过程是将它分成了5个部分。 这篇文章的主旨在于表达有关管理过程的一些观点和如何将它运用到我们所面临的不同的情况中去。你们所要学习的管理原则是指指导管理者的宗旨，原则或者是组织规范。他们会提供一个行动框架，为了有效的使用他们，一个人必须培养和使用技能的决策。理智决策是识别某个问题或机会，找到可行的方法去处理它并选择最好的方法的过程。因此，决策是最重要的管理活动。管理者必须决定去实施管理的每个功能以及每种情况所需要采取的相应的原则。 在这一点上，我们对于管理必须有两点最基本的理解。首先，在特定的环境下运用各种资源设立完成目标。第二，为了确保组织的成功，组织者必须满足他的技术要求，行政要求和责任制度。尽管这听起来很简单，但这两个原则却经过了几个世纪的发展才形成的。之后将要提到的所有原则都是随着时间的推移从各种来源中汲取的。一些原则来源于各人的直觉，然而其他的则反映了组织中那些成功企业家，著名商业巨子或者是富有创新精神的工作者的经验。直到十九世纪，直觉和经验仍是管理原则的基本来源 尽管本能和直觉曾经是商业管理的基础，但现在创业者创立新的企业经常以他们的直觉进行管理。在十九世纪70年代至80年代的电脑产业中，对技术很精通，但对管理知之甚少的企业家成立了数以百计的硬件和软件公司，一些存活下来，更多的则不是。许多公司开始发展得好是得益于创
淮阴工学院 毕业设计(论文)外文资料翻译 系（院）：江淮学院 专业：会计学 姓名：孙露铭 学号：3082113127 外文出处：The American Society of Mechanical (用外文写)Engineers Agency，2007:27-33 附件： 1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。
附件1：外文资料翻译译文 供应链下的多级存货管理 从历史上看，多级供应链、仓库、分销商、零售商等，已经通过大量的库存缓冲被独立管理。竞争压力的增加和市场的全球化迫使企业发展能够快速满足客户需要的供应链。为了保持竞争力，降低库存，这些企业必须交互使用多级库存管理，同时降低运营成本，改善客户服务。 因各种不同的原因，存货以不同形式存在在供应链中。在整个供应链中，存货管理失衡，经常会引起“牛鞭效应”，即需求逆流而上，逐级变异放大的一个阶段。这种效应引起企业过多的存货积压，使收入减少，运输效率降低，扰乱了库存计划和产品生产计划，同时降低了企业的服务水平。 许多学者已经对这些问题进行了研究，并且强调了对有效地满足客户需求的供应链各阶段之间进行整合的必要性。除了整合问题，为了确定一个有效地供应链库存政策，还必须处理不确定性问题。除了对供应和需求的不确定性，与生产和销售过程相关的信息延迟也是供应链的一个特点。 多级供应链中的库存管理是一项重要的内容，因为有许多方面两者都必须相互配合，协调合作。它们还必须对它们的库存进行协调安排。有许多因素使成功的库存管理变得复杂，例如。需求的不确定、交货时间、投产日期、产品价格、成本等，尤其是在不确定性的需求和交货时间下，管理者不能够将多级供应链中的存货管理得最优。 大多数制造企业被组织起来形成了一个制造和分销为一体的网络，这个网络包括了原材料的采购、加工和产品的销售。当一个产品经过多个阶段才到达最终用户时，多级或者多层次生产/分销网络这些代名词也和前面所述的这样的网络意思相
淮阴工学院 毕业设计(论文)外文资料翻译系（院） ：江淮学院 专业： 会计学 姓名： 孙露铭 学号： 外文出处：(用外文写) 3082113127 The American Society of Mechanical Engineers Agency，2007:27-33 附件： 1.外文资料翻译译文； 2.外文原文。
指导教师评语： 签名： 年月日
附件1：外文资料翻译译文 供应链下的多级存货管理 从历史上看，多级供应链、仓库、分销商、零售商等，已经通过大量的库存缓冲被独立管理。竞争压力的增加和市场的全球化迫使企业发展能够快速满足客户需要的供应链。为了保持竞争力，降低库存，这些企业必须交互使用多级库存管理，同时降低运营成本，改善客户服务。 因各种不同的原因，存货以不同形式存在在供应链中。在整个供应链中，存货管理失衡，经常会引起“牛鞭效应”，即需求逆流而上，逐级变异放大的一个阶段。这种效应引起企业过多的存货积压，使收入减少，运输效率降低，扰乱了库存计划和产品生产计划，同时降低了企业的服务水平。 许多学者已经对这些问题进行了研究，并且强调了对有效地满足客户需求的供应链各阶段之间进行整合的必要性。除了整合问题，为了确定一个有效地供应链库存政策，还必须处理不确定性问题。除了对供应和需求的不确定性，与生产和销售过程相关的信息延迟也是供应链的一个特点。 多级供应链中的库存管理是一项重要的内容，因为有许多方面两者都必须相互配合，协调合作。它们还必须对它们的库存进行协调安排。有许多因素使成功的库存管理变得复杂，例如。需求的不确定、交货时间、投产日期、产品价格、成本等，尤其是在不确定性的需求和交货时间下，管理者不能够将多级供应链中的存货管理得最优。 大多数制造企业被组织起来形成了一个制造和分销为一体的网络，这个网络包括了原材料的采购、加工和产品的销售。当一个产品经过多个阶段才到达最终用户时，多级或者多层次生产/分销网络这些代名词也和前面所述的这样的网络意思相同。因各种不用的原因，存货以不用的形式存在在整个供应链中。在任何一个制造过程中，它们可能作为原材料、在制品或者产成品存在。它们存在于配送仓库，存在于运输途中，或者存在于管道里，它们存在于这些设备的每个链接处。 制造商从供应商处采购原材料，将它们加工成产品并销售给分销商，然后由分销商销售给零售商或者用户。当一个产品经过多个阶段才到达最终用户，它就形成了一个多级库存系统。某一库存节点的级库存等于这个库存节点上的所有库
A FIELD STUDY:SMALL MANUFACTURING COMPANIES In this section, the implementation of the proposed Integrated ABC-EVA System at two small manufacturing companies is presented. The managers of the companies wished for their company names to remain anonymous. T herefore, they will be referred to as “Company X” and “Company Y” from here on. Prior to the field study, both companies were using traditional costing systems. The overhead was allocated to product lines based on direct labor hours. In both companies, managers felt that their traditional costing systems were not able to provide reliable cost information. 1 Company X Company X, located in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, was a small manufacturing company with approximately 30 employees. Company X’s main products l ines were Overlays、Membranes、Laser、Roll Labels and N’Caps. In the mid 1990’s, a group of investors purchased the company from the previous owner-manager who had retired. At the time of the study, the company was managed by its former vice-president, who was supported by a three-person management group. Investors were primarily concerned with financial performance rather than daily decision-making. The management group was very eager to participate in the field study for two reasons. First, the management was under pressure from their new investors who were not satisfied with the current return from existing product lines; Second, management was trying to identify the most lucrative product line in order to initiate a marketing campaign with the biggest impact on overall profits. 2 Company Y Company Y, also located in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, was owned and managed by three owner-managers who bought the company from a large corporation in the mid 1990’s, Company Y employed approximately 40 people. The majority of this compa ny’s business was in the area of manufacturing electrical devices and their main product lines were Motors and Motor Parts、Breakers、and Control Parts. Company Y sold its products in the domestic market as well as abroad. A portion of the company’s output was sold directly to end-users, while the remainder was sold with the help of independent distributors. The management of Company Y was
库存控制方法的文献综述 专业：物流管理 班级：1552 学号： 姓名： 摘要：在保证企业生产、经营需求的前提下，使库存量经常保持在合理的水平上；掌握库存量动态，适时、适量提出订货，避免超储或缺货；减少库存空间占用，降低库存总费用；控制库存资金占用，加速资金周转。本文参考了相关文献，总结了一系列物流库存控制方法，开展进一步研究。 关键词：库存量、控制方法 一、前言 库存量过大所产生的问题：增加仓库面积和库存保管费用，从而提高了产品成本；占用大量的流动资金，造成资金呆滞，既加重了货款利息等负担，又会影响资金的时间价值和机会收益；造成产成品和原材料的有形损耗和无形损耗；造成企业资源的大量闲置，影响其合理配置和优化；掩盖了企业生产、经营全过程的各种矛盾和问题，不利于企业提高管理水平。 库存量过小所产生的问题：造成服务水平的下降，影响销售利润和企业信誉；造成生产系统原材料或其他物料供应不足，影响生产过程的正常进行；使订货间隔期缩短，订货次数增加，使订货（生产）成本提高；影响生产过程的均衡性和装配时的成套性。
二、正文 目前，在库存管理中常用的方法有两种类型，一种是传统的库存管理方法，另一种是现代的库存管理方法。对于传统的库存管理方法，主要有定量订购与定期订购方法、ABC库存控制方法和经济订货批量等。对于现代库存控制方法，主要有MRP与MRPn库存控制方法、企业资源计划(ERP)和及时生产(JIT)库存控制方法等。 （一）、定量订货法 定量订货法是指当库存量下降到预定的最低库存量（订货点）时，按规定进行订货补充的一种库存控制方法。当库存量下降到订货点时，即按预先确定的订货量发出订单，经过订货期、交货周期，库存量继续下降，到达安全库存量时，收到订货，库存水平回升。采用定量订货方式必须预先确定订货点和订货量（见图1）。图1 定量定货法原理 其中：Q——批量或订货量，T——周转期，S——安全库存 1. 订货点的确定 通常订货点的确定主要取决于需求率和订货交货周期这两个因素。在需求为固定、均匀和订货交货期不变的情况下，订货点由以下公式确定： 订货点 = 平均交货期全年需求量 / 365 + 安全库存量（1）
企业存货管理存在的问题与对策文献综述企业存货管理存在的问题与对策文献综述 xxx 科技学院学生毕业设计(论文) 文献综述题目企业存货管理存在的问题及对策文院(系) 经济管理学院专业班级会计学本科 2006 级学生姓名 xxx 学号 xxx指导教师(签字) xxx 文献综述要求 1.文献综述是要求学生对所进行的课题搜集大量情报资料后综合分析而写出的一种学术论文。其特点“综”是要求对文献资料进行综合分析、归纳整理，使“述”就是要求对综合整理后的文献进行比较材料更加精练明确、更有逻辑层次;专门的、全面的、深入的、系统的描述和评价。 2.文献综述中引用的中外文资料，内容必须与课题或专业方向紧密相关，理工类不得少于 10 篇，其它不少于 12 篇。 3.文献综述不少于 2000 字。其所附注释、参考文献格式要求同正文。文献综述的评阅评阅要求:应根据学校“文献综述要求”，对学生的文献综述内容的相关性、阅读数量以及综述的文字表述情况等作具体的评价。指导教师的评语: 指导教师(签字) 年月日xxx 科技学院本科生毕业论文企业存货管理存在的问题及对策文 企业存货管理存在的问题及对策文摘要:存货管理是现代企业管理的重要组成部分加强存货管理是保证生产正常进行的物质基础，并能有效地服务于基本生产、技术改造的全过程。存货管理的好坏已成为衡量企业管理制度是否完善、存货储备是否合理、流动资金占用是否最低的重要标志关键词:存货管理，存货问题，对策随着经济体制改 革的深入及市场竞争的不断加剧，原有的企业存货管理方式不论是在管理模式上还是在管理效果上都已经不能满足现今市场经济的要求。原有的存货管理方式不但存在较大的风险，而且在成本的控制上属于薄弱环节，这对企业的发展造成了很大的负担及限制。本课题希望能通过对一些存货管理中存在的问题的分析研究，找
The Contractor's Role in Building Cost Reduction After Design Author：Waddle,Todd W. Nationality：UK Derivation：Cost Engineering; Feb2008, Vol. 50 Issue 2, p14-21 It has become evident from recent news articles that inflationary pressures and increased construction activity are causing many building projects to come in well over owner's budgets. This trend has increased dramatically over the past few years, as much of the construction industry has been impacted by an unprecedented increase in the cost of construction. The historical rate of increase in construction cost has been under five percent per year, as reported by the Engineering News Record. Over the last few years, the industry has seen a significant increase from historical escalation rates, up to 10-15 percent per year in many regions of the US. These increases have been caused by a variety of factors, including the following. ? Shortage of steel resulting from rapid growth in China. ? Demand for materials in the US resulting from increased hur ricane damage. ? Rising oil prices leading to higher manufacturing and transportation cost. ? Rising labor cost because of increased construction activity . To be successful in having over budget projects awarded, the building contractor has had to take a proactive role in working with owners and design teams to reduce project cost to amounts that owners are able to award. This cost reduction is normally accomplished through the following methods. ? value engineering; ? scope reduction; Value Engineering Value engineering (VE) has been defined as a systematic method to improve the value of goods and services by using an examination of function. Value, as defined, is the ratio of function to cost. Value can therefore be increased by either improving the function or reducing the cost.
互利共赢的供应商质量控制 前言 近年来，随着对供应链的重视，供应商管理正逐渐成为企业和学术界的关注对象，IS0９000族标准以及QS 9０00标准都对供应商的管理提出了相应的要求，与供应商管理有关的研究成果正逐渐增多，一些软件巨头也推出了供应商关系管理的软件，但是在这些研究成果和应用软件中，涉及到的供应商质量控制的内容只是一些最基本的要求，而供应商质量控制恰恰是供应商管理的最基本、最重要的内容。另一方而，质量管理界对质量控制的研究取得了大量的成果，遗憾的是这些成果大多依然局限于企业的内部控制，仅仅研究从企业内部各环节如何改善产品的质量，而基于供应链的角度来研究质量控制的成果尚不多见。因此，系统地研究经济全球化形势下供应商质量控制的理论与方法，将有助于推动我国企业产品质量的快速提高和供应链竞争优势的形成与巩固。 1、质量与企业共存 质量一直是一个随着时代的变化而不断变化的概念,人们对质量的认识也往往因关注点不同而有所不同。如，早在1908年，通用汽车公司的工程师们在皇家汽车俱乐部会员们的面前拆解了3辆凯迪拉克轿车，并把这些零件混在一起,而后从中选择零件重新组装成车，然后驾车绝尘而去。这令在场的会员极为震惊，认为凯迪拉克车质量之高令人惊叹。显然在当时，汽车零件具有互换性是一种了不起的质量特性,这也是福特公司的Ｎ型车和T型车取得辉煌成功的重要原因.时至今日，即使农用三轮车的零部件也具有极高的互换性，零部件的标准化和互换性已经是理所当然的事情，不再是吸引顾客的重要质量特性.可见质量的内涵是不断变化的.那么究竟什么是质量呢？ （１)市场竟争就是企业间对“顾客”的争夺，在日益激烈的“顾客"争夺战中，质量、价格、交付（交付日期、方式和手段）和服务是企业常用的四个法宝，其中质量是根本，离开质量其他三项将变得毫无意义，因此可以说质量己成为市场竞争的焦点.它反映了产品是否能够反映顾客需求、能否满足顾客需求，从面决定了产品的市场前途。有鉴于此，质量己成为一项全球性运动,世界上所有优秀企业无一不把质量作为企业战略的关键内容，从战略的角度来规划质量。 （2）对于企业经营者来说,认识到质量对企业的重要意义只是经营企业的第一步,重要的是如何利用科学的方法来保证产品和服务的质量，使顾客满意，来保证过程和工作的质量来获互利共炭的供应商质量控制得良好的业绩。 众所周知,企业管理是社会生产力发展到一定程度的历史产物,质量管理作为企业管理的组成部分,同样也是社会发展的客观要求，特别是顾客处于主导地位的今天,要使顾客满意，就必须有过硬的产品质量和服务质量，这就要求企业积极推行先进的质量管理理论与方法，不断进行质量管理创新. ２、企业与供应商质量控制 随着生产社会化的不断发展，企业的生产活动分工越来越细,专业化程度越来越强，促使生产技术水平越来越高,产品质量得到大幅度改善。通常，某一产品不可能由一个企业从最初的原材料开始加工直至形成顾客最终使用的产品，往往是通过多个企业分工协作来完成.另外，先进生产方式的广泛应用,如准时生产、敏捷制造、零库存等，使企业与供应商的关系愈加紧密，企业与供应商的关系也由单纯的买卖关系向互利共底的合作关系演变。 ISO 900０族标准自1987年诞生以来受到了世界各国的一致追捧,全球约５0多万家企业通过ISO90０1质量管理体系认证足以说明这套管理标准在引领国际管理潮流方面的巨大成功。在备受企业欢迎的新版标准ＩSO9000：2０00中，互利的供应商关系被作为八项质量管理原则之一，充分体现了供应商关系管理在企业经营实践中的作用和价值。企业要贯彻这一原则,就必须
本科毕业论文外文翻译外文译文题目（中文）：营运能力比率分析 学院: 文法与经济学院 专业: 法学 学号: 201206114002 学生姓名: 周敏 指导教师: 朱新玲 日期: 二○一一年十二月
武汉科技大学本科毕业论文外文翻译 Operating Capacity Ratio Analysis Author: Frank J. Fabozzi .Pamela P. Peterson Material Source:《Financial Management and Analysis 营运能力比率分析 作者：弗兰克.J.法财务管理与分析 博奇，帕梅拉.P.彼得
1.财务比率分析 通过财务分析，可以使不同的信息使用者得到有关企业营运状况和财务状况的信息。这些信息都是很有价值的，它可以帮助企业经营者全面了解企业的营运状况，可以帮助企业投资者预测投资风险和投资报酬，做出投资、继续投资或转移投资的决策。 2.经营比率 经营比率即周转比率，它在很大程度上可以用来评估特定资产产生的利益，诸如存货、应收账款可以用来评价公司全部资产产生的利润。 3.存货的管理 存货周转率表明公司已销售货物和服务的使用效率。存货周转率是企业营业成本与存货间的比率：存货周转率＝营业成本／平均存货 4.应收账款的管理 就像评估存货周转一样，我们可以用应收账款和信用政策评估一个公司的经营管理水平。应收账款周转率是评价企业运用信用政策效率的一种方法。提供信用期限是为了刺激销售。信用政策的使用，是为了防止客户出现不履行承诺的可能性。延长信用期限的好处就同净赊销－销售应该收到的现金少于实际到账的。 应收账款周转率＝营业收入净额／应收账款平均余额 5.全部资产的管理 存货周转率和应收账款周转率反映的是特定资产使用的效率。为了更加全面的反映一个公司的生产经营能力，我们可以将一定时期的营业收入和资产总额进行比较。
中文4800字，3200单词，1.9万英文字符 出处：Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers Part B Journal of Engineering Manufacture, 2007, 221(10):1553-1570. 原文 Multi-echelon inventory management in supply chains with uncertain demand and lead times: literature review from an operational research perspective A TaskinGu¨mu¨s* and A FuatGu¨neri Abstract: Historically, the echelons of the supply chain, warehouse, distributors, retailers, etc., have been managed independently, buffered by large inventories. Increasing competitive pressures and market globalization are forcing firms to develop supply chains that can quickly respond to customer needs. To remain competitive and decrease inventory, these firms must use multi-echelon inventory management interactively, while reducing operating costs and improving customer service. The current paper reviews the literature, addressing multiechelon inventory management in supply chains from 1996 to 2005. The behavior of the papers against demand and lead-time uncertainty is the key analysis point of the literature review presented here and it is conducted from an operational research point of view. Finally, directions for future research are suggested. Keywords: supply chain, multi-echelon inventory management, demand uncertainty, lead-time uncertainty 1 INTRODUCTION Supply chain management (SCM) is an integrative approach for planning and control of materials and information flows with suppliers and customers,as well as between different functions within a company. This area has drawn considerable attention in recent years and is seen as a tool that provides competitive power. SCM is a set of approaches to integrate suppliers, manufacturers, warehouses, and stores efficiently, so that merchandise is produced and distributed at right quantities, to the right locations, and at the right time, in order to minimize system- wide costs while satisfying service-level requirements. So the supply chain consists of various members or stages. A supply chain is a dynamic, stochastic, and complex system that might involve hundreds of participant. Inventory usually represents from 20 to 60 per cent of the total assets of manufacturing firms. Therefore inventory management policies prove critical in determining the profit of such firms [4]. Inventory management is, to a greater extent, relevant when a whole supply chain (SC), namely a network of procurement, transformation, and delivering firms, is considered. Inventory management is indeed a major issue in SCM, i.e. an approach that addresses SC issues under an integrated perspective. Inventories exist throughout the SC in various forms for various reasons. The lack of a coordinated inventory management throughout the SC often causes the