论文外文文献翻译

本科毕业论文外文参考文献译文及原文学院经济与贸易学院专业经济学（贸易方向）年级班别2007级 1 班学号3207004154学生姓名欧阳倩指导教师童雪晖2010 年 6 月 3 日目录1 外文文献译文（一）中国银行业的改革和盈利能力（第1、2、4部分） (1)2 外文文献原文（一）CHINA’S BANKING REFORM AND PROFITABILITY（Part 1、2、4） (9)1概述世界银行（1997年）曾声称，中国的金融业是其经济的软肋。

当一国的经济增长的可持续性岌岌可危的时候，金融业的改革一直被认为是提高资金使用效率和消费型经济增长重新走向平衡的必要（Lardy，1998年，Prasad，2007年）。

事实上，不久前，中国的国有银行被视为“技术上破产”，它们的生存需要依靠充裕的国家流动资金。

但是，在银行改革开展以来，最近，强劲的盈利能力已恢复到国有商业银行的水平。

但自从中国的国有银行在不久之前已经走上了改革的道路，它可能过早宣布银行业的改革尚未取得完全的胜利。

此外，其坚实的财务表现虽然强劲，但不可持续增长。

随着经济增长在2008年全球经济衰退得带动下已经开始软化，银行预计将在一个比以前更加困难的经济形势下探索。

本文的目的不是要评价银行业改革对银行业绩的影响，这在一个完整的信贷周期后更好解决。

相反，我们的目标是通过审查改革的进展和银行改革战略，并分析其近期改革后的强劲的财务表现，但是这不能完全从迄今所进行的改革努力分离。

本文有三个部分。

在第二节中，我们回顾了中国的大型国有银行改革的战略，以及其执行情况，这是中国银行业改革的主要目标。

第三节中分析了2007年的财务表现集中在那些在市场上拥有浮动股份的四大国有商业银行：中国工商银行（工商银行），中国建设银行（建行），对中国银行（中银）和交通银行（交通银行）。

引人注目的是中国农业银行，它仍然处于重组上市过程中得适当时候的后期。

第四节总结一个对银行绩效评估。

机床的论文中英文资料外文翻译文献引言机床是制造业中重要的设备，用于加工各种零部件和制造产品。

本文汇总了关于机床的论文中英文资料的外文翻译文献，以供参考和研究使用。

外文翻译文献列表Author: John Smith John SmithYear: 2015 20152. Title: Advanced Techniques for Machine Tool Analysis Title: Advanced Techniques for Machine Tool AnalysisAuthor: Jennifer Lee Jennifer LeeYear: 2016 20163. Title: Intelligent Control Systems for Precision Machining Title: Intelligent Control Systems for Precision MachiningAuthor: David Wang David WangYear: 2018 2018Abstract: This paper focuses on intelligent control systems for precision machining. It discusses the integration of artificial intelligence and control algorithms to enhance the precision and performance of machine tools. The paper presents case studies on the application of intelligent control systems in precision machining processes. This paper focuses on intelligent control systems for precision machining. It discusses the integration of artificial intelligence and control algorithms to enhance the precision and performance of machine tools. The paper presents case studies on the application of intelligent control systems in precision machining processes.4. Title: Advances in Machining Processes for Hard-to-Machine Materials Title: Advances in Machining Processes for Hard-to-Machine MaterialsAuthor: Emily Chen Emily ChenYear: 2019 2019Abstract: This paper reviews recent advances in machining processes for hard-to-machine materials. It discusses the challenges associated with machining materials such as titanium, nickel-basedalloys, and ceramics. The paper highlights the development of new cutting tools, machining strategies, and technologies to improve the machinability of these materials. This paper reviews recent advances in machining processes for hard-to-machine materials. It discusses the challenges associated with machining materials such as titanium, nickel-based alloys, and ceramics. The paper highlights the development of new cutting tools, machining strategies, and technologies to improve the machinability of these materials.5. Title: Optimization of Machining Parameters for Energy Efficiency Title: Optimization of Machining Parameters for Energy EfficiencyAuthor: Michael Liu Michael LiuYear: 2020 2020Abstract: This paper explores the optimization of machining parameters for energy efficiency. It discusses the impact of machining parameters, such as cutting speed, feed rate, and depth of cut, on energy consumption in machining processes. The paper presents optimization techniques and case studies on reducing energy consumption in machining operations. This paper explores theoptimization of machining parameters for energy efficiency. It discusses the impact of machining parameters, such as cutting speed, feed rate, and depth of cut, on energy consumption in machining processes. The paper presents optimization techniques and case studies on reducing energy consumption in machining operations.结论以上是关于机床的论文中英文资料的外文翻译文献，希望对研究和了解机床技术的人员有所帮助。

毕业设计(论文）外文文献翻译院系：财务与会计学院年级专业：201＊级财务管理姓名:学号：132148*＊*附件: 财务风险管理【Abstract】Although financial risk has increased significantly in recent years risk and risk management are not contemporary issues。

The result of increasingly global markets is that risk may originate with events thousands of miles away that have nothing to do with the domestic market。

Information is available instantaneously which means that change and subsequent market reactions occur very quickly。

The economic climate and markets can be affected very quickly by changes in exchange rates interest rates and commodity prices。

Counterparties can rapidly become problematic。

As a result it is important to ensure financial risks are identified and managed appropriately. Preparation is a key component of risk management。

【Key Words】Financial risk，Risk management，YieldsI. Financial risks arising1.1What Is Risk1.1.1The concept of riskRisk provides the basis for opportunity. The terms risk and exposure have subtle differences in their meaning. Risk refers to the probability of loss while exposure is the possibility of loss although they are often used interchangeably。

毕业论文外文翻译要求
外国文献翻译是撰写毕业论文的重要环节之一，下面是一份要求700字的毕业论文外文翻译要求：
1. 翻译时间: 需在规定时间内完成翻译任务，以确保毕业论文
后续工作的顺利进行。

2. 原文准确性: 翻译必须准确无误，不得对原文进行任何删节、增补或变动。

3. 语言流畅度: 翻译应当具有良好的语言流畅度，不得过于生
硬或呆板。

4. 专业术语准确性: 翻译时要确保专业术语的准确性，避免词
义的混淆。

5. 语法错误及标点符号: 翻译应符合英文的语法规范，避免语
法错误和标点符号的错误使用。

6. 翻译风格: 翻译应当符合学术论文的要求，措辞恰当，语气
客观中立。

7. 格式要求: 翻译部分应与论文正文的格式一致，包括字体、
字号、行间距等。

8. 校对: 完成翻译后，需要进行一次仔细的校对工作，确保翻
译的正确性。

9. 原文附录: 翻译部分要同时附上原文，以便审查人员对翻译的准确性进行核对。

10. 翻译文档: 翻译文档要以电子文档的形式提交，确保方便审查人员查看。

以上要求旨在保证翻译的质量和准确性，对于撰写毕业论文非常重要。

翻译过程中，建议使用专业的翻译工具，如翻译记忆软件、专业词典等，以提高翻译的效率和准确性。

同时，积极与导师和专业领域的人进行交流和讨论，以解决翻译中的问题和困惑。

本科毕业论文外文文献翻译本科毕业论文外文文献翻译随着全球化的不断发展，人们对外文文献的需求也越来越高。

尤其是在本科毕业论文的撰写过程中，引用和翻译外文文献是不可或缺的一部分。

本文将探讨本科毕业论文外文文献翻译的重要性以及一些技巧和注意事项。

首先，翻译外文文献对于本科毕业论文的写作至关重要。

外文文献是学术研究中的重要参考资料，可以帮助我们了解国外学者在相关领域的研究成果和观点。

通过引用外文文献，我们可以对研究问题进行深入分析和论证，提高论文的学术价值和可信度。

然而，翻译外文文献并非易事。

首先，我们需要具备良好的外语水平，特别是对于所研究领域的专业术语要有一定的了解。

其次，在翻译过程中，我们需要保持准确性和一致性。

准确性是指翻译内容要忠实于原文，不失原意。

一致性是指在整个论文中使用相同的术语和翻译方法，避免混淆读者。

在翻译外文文献时，我们还要注意一些技巧和细节。

首先，我们可以使用在线翻译工具来辅助翻译，但不能完全依赖它们。

在线翻译工具通常会存在一些语法和词汇错误，需要我们进行修正和改进。

其次，我们可以参考一些翻译指南和词典，特别是针对所研究领域的专业词汇。

这些资源可以帮助我们更准确地理解和翻译外文文献。

此外，我们还需要注意一些常见的翻译错误。

首先是直译错误，即直接将外文句子逐字逐句地翻译成中文，忽略了语言和文化的差异。

这样的翻译通常会造成中文表达不通顺和不自然的问题。

其次是漏译和误译，即在翻译过程中遗漏了一些重要信息或者错误地理解了原文的意思。

这些错误会导致我们对外文文献的理解和引用出现偏差。

在翻译外文文献的过程中，我们还应该注重文化因素的考虑。

不同的语言和文化背景下，同一概念可能有不同的表达方式。

因此，我们需要在翻译过程中充分考虑到文化差异，避免产生歧义和误解。

最后，我们还需要在引用外文文献时遵守学术道德和规范。

我们应该正确标注引用文献的来源和作者，避免抄袭和侵权行为。

同时，我们还应该遵循学术规范，不对外文文献进行删减、修改或者歪曲，保持原文的完整性和准确性。

物联网外文文献翻译
物联网是一个由许多设备彼此连接而形成的网络，这些设备可以是智能手机、传感器、汽车等。

物联网允许设备之间相互通信和交换数据，从而实现更智能、更高效和更安全的生活。

在物联网领域，一些外文文献对于我们的研究和研究非常有帮助。

以下是一些常见的物联网外文文献：
- "A Survey on Internet of Things From Industrial Market Perspective"：这篇论文介绍了物联网的概念、应用和市场现状，并分析了物联网在未来的趋势。

- "Big Data Analytics for IoT-Based Smart Environments: A Survey"：文章描述了如何使用大数据分析来处理物联网设备所产生的数据，并探讨了这种技术如何应用于智能环境中。

- "A Review of Smart Cities Based on the Internet of Things Concept"：这篇综述了物联网在智慧城市中的应用，并对物联网在智慧城市化中的挑战和机遇进行了讨论。

通过阅读这些文献，我们可以更深入地了解物联网的应用、市场和发展趋势，并且了解如何将物联网技术应用到实际生活中。

自动门的外文文献及翻译Revised as of 23 November 2020毕业论文外文文献与翻译（一）AutomaticdooranditscontrolsystemintroductionAuthor：Unit:PrincetonUniversity755CollegeRoadEast,Princeton,NJ08540Productofhumancivilization,automaticdoorshavebeendozensofyearsofdevelopment,sofar,throughtheapplicationofPLCcontrolsystemandothertechnologyprodu cts,alreadyhaveanditscontroltechnology,formedthelargescaleautomaticdoorofthefamily.Anda ccordingtodifferentrequirements,formulatedaseriesofstandards.People'sRepublicofChinainthe 2005-12-01standardofChinaautomaticdoornumber,standardcontentmainlyinclude:rulesforbuildingthec lassificationofthevariouskindsofautomaticdoor,specifications,codes,materials,requirements,te stmethods,inspectionrulesandsigns,packaging,transportandstorage.Thisstandardappliestopush -pullautomaticdoorautomaticdoors(arc),foldtheflatopenautomaticdoors,automaticdoors,revolv ingdoors.Youmayrefertootherautomaticdoor.Havespecialrequirementsofautomaticdoors,stills houldseeitsrelatedandhumancivilizationisatwin,itisaccompaniedbythedevelopmentofhumanci vilizationandchatter.Forthousandsofyears,thedoorhasbeenasthepatronsaintofthehumansociety activities,intruderintheroom,andasachannelofhumansocialactivities,carryingthedoorandciviliz ation,pursuingpeopletoyearnforthegloryoftheotherdesireisendlesstocivilization.FromancientE gypttoRomantotoday'smodernsociety,canseethedoor,passiveisolationbarrierfunctionofthedoo ris,andthechannelroleistoensurethatonlyinthe21stcentury,thedoorevenmorehighlightedsafetyc oncept,emphasizestheeffectiveness:effectivelyprevent,passage,evacuation,andalsohighlightst heconceptofarchitecturalart,doorandbuildingandthesurroundingenvironmentcoordination,the harmoniouswhole.DooradvancedformsofautomaticdoororiginatedinEuropeandtheUnitedStates,inAugust18 02,theGermanstandardcompanysuccessfullydesignedanddevelopedtheworld'sfirstsensingauto maticdoors,doorlarge-scalespecializedproductionbeganinthe150yearsago,intheprocessofconstantdevelopmentandpe rfection,emergedalargenumberofscaleofprofessionalmanufacturers.Rapiddevelopmenttotoda y,hasformedacompletekinds,functionperfect,workmanshipfineautomaticdooroftheasearlyasm orethanadecadeagobegantorefertotheautomaticdoors,andapplyitinthehotel,airport,shoppingce nters,Banks,officebuildingsandotherlargeandmedium-sizedpublicplaces,forthesebuildingsaddedbrightbeautiful,chic,dooraccordingtothedifferentuse functionandcanbedividedintoautomaticslidingdoor,automaticdoor,automaticrevolvingdoor,au tomaticarcdoor,automaticfoldingdoor,etc.,includingflatdoorwithfeweroccasions,revolvingdo orduetotheexpensiveandverybig,onlycommonlyusedinhigh-gradehotels,inneedautomaticslidingdoorismostwidelyused,peoplegenerallysayautomaticdoor, automaticinductiondoorisslidingslidingdooristhemostcommonformofautomaticdoormachinea ddradaronbothinnersideandoutsideofthedoor,automaticdoorwhenthemancamenear,theradarbyemittingmicrowaveinductiontoman'sexistence,openthedoortothecontrollerasignal,thecontroll erthroughthedrivetoopenthedoor.Whenthemanbythedoor,andthenclosedtheformofinfraredsen sor,mainlythroughtheinfraredtofeelthetemperaturechangeswithinthespecifiedrange,whenpeop lewalkinto,microwaveinductiontheemissionsignalcontrolchangesinthedoor.Microwavesensorsandinfraredsensorsdifferenceismainly:microwavesensor,alsoknownas microwaveradar,reactiontothemovementoftheobject,andreactionspeed,suitableforwalkingspe ednormalpersonnelthroughtheplace,itscharacteristicisthatoncethedoornearthestaffdon'twantto gooutandmotionless,radarwillnolongerresponse,automaticdoorwillbeclosed,likelyclampingph enomenon.Infraredsensors,existinresponsetotheobject,regardlessofwhetherornotmobilestaff,a slongasinsensorscanningrange,itwillrespond.Reactionspeedisslowerthanthemicrowavesensor ofinfraredsensors.Accordingtodifferentrequirementsofsome,somemanufacturersintheproductionofautomat icdoorscanincreasesomepersonalfunction,facilitatethemanagementandmaintenance.Suchasfu zhoublueelectronicco.,LTD.,automaticdoor,ithasthefollowingcharacteristics:1,automaticdoor sensorsreacttothemovementofobjectsinmicrowave,sensitivityisadjustable,stableperformance! 2,automaticencryptiongathermulti-functionremotecontrolintoanorganicwhole,theinductiondoorforencryption,canavoidtheproject appearsonthewelsh,baddebts,etc.Phenomenon,thuseffectivelyprotecttheinterestsofdealers,atth esametime,canrealizetheremotecontroltoopenthedoor,alwaysopen,lock,unlock;Hasconnectedt othecardreader,fingerprint,homebutton,peripheraldevices,suchaselectriclockfunctions.3,safet ylightcaneffectivelyovercometheblindareaofinductiveprobesensorislessthan,sothattheinductio ndoorsafer.4,self-helpbankcardslotmachineoveralldesign,ABSelectroplatingshelldurableandconvenienttoinstall ,canmatchanybankATMcard,nocardcapacitylimits,importedalloyhead,superwear-resistanthighsensitivity,high(400)orlowresistance(300)Oefilecanbeused;Issuitablefortheself-servicebank.Microwavemodule5,automaticdoor,kickingmedallion,IDcardpassword,remotetra nsceivermodule,electriccaralarm,telescopicdoors,electronicdisplayscreen,motorcyclealarm.PLC(ProgrammableController,hereinafterreferredtoasPLC).PLCisintheorderofthetraditi onalcontrollerisintroducedonthebasisofmicroelectronicstechnology,computertechnology,auto maticcontroltechnologyandcommunicationtechnologytoformanewgenerationofindustrialcontr oldevice,thepurposeistoreplacerelay,executethesequencecontrolfunctionsuchaslogic,timing,c ounting,establishflexibleSPCsystem.Programmablecontrollerhasthestrongability,highreliabili ty,flexibleconfiguration,simpleprogramming,etc,isamajormeansofcontemporaryindustrialpro ductionautomationandautomationcontrolequipment.DuetotheadvantagesofPLCinautomaticco ntrol,thusiswidelyquotedintheautomaticdoorsystem.DuetothePLCinthedevelopment,therefore,fortheexactdefinitionismoredifficult.American electricalmanufacturersassociation(NEMA)afterfouryearsofresearchwork,in1980,officiallyna medProgrammableControllerPC(ProgrammableController),butaPersonalComputerPC(Person alComputer)inordertodistinguish,oftenreferredtoasPLCProgrammableController,andmakesad efinitionforPLC,ProgrammableControllerisakindofwithinstructionmemoryanddigitaloranalog input/outputinterface,withanoperationisgivenpriorityto,canfinishthelogic,sequence,timing,co untingandarithmetic,andotherfunctions,isusedtocontrolthemachineortheproductionprocessaut omationcontroldevice.In1985aseconddraft,andin1987thethirddraftofPLCinthefollowingdefinition:"aPLCisadigitaloperationoftheelectronicsystem,designedforindustrialenvironmentapplicationanddesign.It USESaprogrammemory,usedinitsinternalstorageimplementationlogicoperation,sequenceoper ation,timing,countingandarithmeticoperationinstruction,andcanthroughdigitaloranaloginputa ndoutput,controlvarioustypesofmachineryorproductionprocess.Programmablecontrollerandre latedperipheralequipment,shouldbeinaccordancewiththeeasilyandindustrialcontrolsystemasa whole,easytoexpanditsfunctiondesignshowsthatthedefinitionofPLCisakindofcanbedirectlyap pliedtotheindustrialenvironmentofthedigitalelectronicdevices,isbasedonmicroprocessor,comb inedwithcomputertechnology,automaticcontroltechnologyandcommunicationtechnology,inpr ocesscontrolandtheuser's"naturallanguage"programmingofasimple,convenientoperation,highr eliabilityofanewgenerationofgeneralindustrialcontroldevice.mainfunctionsofthePLC(1)theswitchcontrollogicandorderThisisthemostwidelyPLCapplication,thebasicsituation.Itsmainfunctionistocompleteswit chlogicandsequentiallogiccontrol,andthuscanrealizevariouscontrolrequirements.(2)thesimulationcontrol(A/DandD/Acontrol)Manycontinuousvariationintheprocessofindustrialproduction,theneedtocontrolthephysic alquantities,suchastemperature,pressure,flow,level,etc.,theseallbelongtoanalog.Longerthanint hepast,thePLClogiccontrol,analogcontrolmainlybyinstrumentordistributedcontrolsystem,PLC productspossessmuchnowdealingwiththiskindofanalogfunctions,andprogrammingandeasytou se.(3)thetiming/countingcontrolPLChasastrongtimingandcountingfunctions,itcanprovideuserswithdozensorevenhundred softimersandcounters.Forthetimer,timerintervalcanbesetbytheuser;Tocounter,ifneedtocountof highfrequencysignal,canchoosehighspeedcounter.(4)thesteppercontrolPLCprovidesuserswithacertainnumberofshiftregister,useshiftregistercaneasilyfinishstep pingcontrolfunction.(5)motioncontrolInthemechanicalprocessingindustry,programmablecontrollerandthecomputernumericalc ontrol(CNC)integratedtogether,tocompletemachinetoolmotioncontrol.(6)dataprocessingMostPLChasadifferentdegreeofthedataprocessingability,itnotonlycanperformarithmetic operations,datatransmission,butalsofordatacomparison,dataconversion,datashowstheprintope ration,alsocanundertakesomePLCfloatingpointarithmetic,andfunctionaloperation.(7)communicationnetworkPLChasthefunctionofcommunicationnetwork,itmakesPLCandbetweenPLCanduppercom puter,PLCandotherintelligencetoexchangeinformationbetweendevices,formaunifiedwhole,rea lizethecentralizedcontrol.PLCcansorapiddevelopment,inadditiontotheobjectivedemandoftheindustrialautomation, hasmanyuniqueadvantages.Itwellsolvedinthefieldofindustrialcontrolwidelyconcernaboutthere liable,safe,flexible,convenient,economicandotherissues.Itsmainfeaturesareasfollows:(1)highreliabilityReliabilityreferstotheaveragetrouble-freeworkingtimeprogrammablecontroller.Duetotheprogrammablecontrollerhasadoptedaseriesofhardwareandsoftwareanti-interferencemeasures,stronganti-interferenceability,MTBFreachingtensofthousandsofhours,canbedirectlyappliedtoindustrialpr oductionfieldhaveastronginterference.Programmablecontrolleristhemassesofusersrecognizedt obeoneofthemostreliableindustrialcontrolequipment.(2)controlfunctionisstrongAsmallprogrammablecontrollerwithhundredsofthousandsofprogrammingelementsavaila bleforuserstouse,paredwiththesamefunction ofrelaysystem,ithastheveryhighcostperformance.Programmablecontrollercanbethroughtheco mmunicationnetwork,realizesthedecentralizedcontrolandcentralizedmanagement.(3)theusereasytouseProgrammablecontrollerproductshavebeenstandardization,seriation,modularization,equi ppedwithawiderangeofvarioushardwaredevicesforuserselection,userscanconvenientlyflexible systemconfiguration,systemcomposedofdifferentfunctions,differentscale.Programmablecontr ollerwouldbeveryconvenientfortheinstallationofwiring,strongloadcapacity,candirectdrivegen eralsolenoidvalveandaccontactor.Thehardwareconfigurationisdetermined,youcanchangetheus erprogram,convenienttoquicklyadapttochangesinprocessconditions.(4)programmingconvenient,simpleLadderdiagramisaprogrammablecontrolleristhemostu sedprogramminglanguage,thesymbol,expressionwayandtherelaycircuitprinciplediagramissim dderdiagramlanguage,image,intuitive,simple,easytolearn,familiarwiththerelaycircuitdi agramoftheelectricaltechnicianjustspendafewdaystimecanbefamiliarwithladderdiagramlangu age,andusedtopreparetheuserprogram.(5)thedesign,installation,commissioningperiodisshortProgrammablecontrolforsoftwarefunctionreplacedtherelaycontrolsystemofalargenumber ofintermediaterelays,timerelays,counters,etc.,makethecontrolcabinetdesign,installation,wirin ggreatlyreducetheworkload,shortentheconstructionperiod.Programmablecontrolleroftheuserp rogramcanbesimulatedinthelaboratorydebugging,simulationdebugagainaftergoodwillinthepro ductionsiteforinstallationandwiringofPLCcontrolsystem,atthesceneofproblemsfoundinthetrac kingprocessbymodifyingtheprogramcansolve,greatlyshortenthedesigncycleandwasputintoope ration.(6)easytorealizemechanicalandelectricalintegrationProgrammablecontrollerissmallinsize,lightweight,lowpowerconsumption,vibrationresist ant,moistureproofandheatresistantcapabilityisstrong,makingthemeasytoinstallinsidethemachi neequipment,producemechanicalandelectricalintegrationproducts.NowwithPLCasthecontroll erofCNCequipmentanddevicehasbecomeatypicalrobot.自动门及其控制系统介绍作者：吉恩F.富兰克林单位：普林斯顿大学地址：新泽西州普林斯顿学院东路 755号邮编08540作为人类文明的产物，自动门已经发展了几十年，到目前为止，通过PLC控制系统和其他技术产品的应用，再加上其控制技术的成熟，自动门控制系统已经成型。

生物科学论文中英文资料外文翻译文献Carotenoid Biosynthetic Pathway in the Citrus Genus: Number of Copies and Phylogenetic Diversity of Seven GeneThe first objective of this paper was to analyze the potential role of allelic variability of carotenoid biosynthetic genes in the interspecifi diversity in carotenoid composition of Citrus juices. The second objective was to determine the number of copies for each of these genes. Seven carotenoid biosynthetic genes were analyzed using restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) and simple sequence repeats (SSR) markers. RFLP analyses were performed with the genomic DNA obtained from 25 Citrus genotypes using several restriction enzymes. cDNA fragments of Psy, Pds, Zds, Lcyb, Lcy-e, Hy-b, and Zep genes labeled with [R-32P]dCTP were used as probes. For SSR analyses, two primer pairs amplifying two SSR sequences identified from expressed sequence tags (ESTs) of Lcy-b and Hy-b genes were designed. The number of copies of the seven genes ranged from one for Lcy-b to three for Zds. The genetic diversity revealed by RFLP and SSR profiles was in agreement with the genetic diversity obtained from neutral molecμLar markers. Genetic interpretation of RFLP and SSR profiles of four genes (Psy1, Pds1, Lcy-b, and Lcy-e1) enabled us to make inferences on the phylogenetic origin of alleles for the major commercial citrus species. Moreover, the resμLts of our analyses suggest that the allelic diversity observed at the locus of both of lycopene cyclase genes, Lcy-b and Lcy-e1, is associated with interspecific diversity in carotenoid accumμLation in Citrus. The interspecific differences in carotenoid contents previously reported to be associated withother key steps catalyzed by PSY, HY-b, and ZEP were not linked to specific alleles at the corresponding loci.KEYWORDS: Citrus; carotenoids; biosynthetic genes; allelic variability; phylogeny INTRODUCTIONCarotenoids are pigments common to all photosynthetic organisms. In pigment-protein complexes, they act as light sensors for photosynthesis but also prevent photo-oxidat ion induced by too strong light intensities. In horticμLtural crops, they play a major role in fruit, root, or tuber coloration and in nutritional quality. Indeed some of these micronutrients are precursors of vitamin A, an essential component of human and animal diets. Carotenoids may also play a role in chronic disease prevention (such as certain cancers), probably due to their antioxidant properties. The carotenoid biosynthetic pathway is now well established. Carotenoids are synthesized in plastids by nuclear-encoded enzymes. The immediate precursor of carotenoids (and also of gibberellins, plastoquinone, chlorophylls,phylloquinones, and tocopherols) is geranylgeranyl diphosphate (GGPP). In light-grown plants, GGPP is mainly derivedcarotenoid, 15-cis-phytoene. Phytoene undergoes four desaturation reactions catalyzed by two enzymes, phytoene desaturase (PDS) and β-carotene desaturase (ZDS), which convert phytoene into the red-colored poly-cis-lycopene. Recently, Isaacson et al. and Park et al. isolated from tomato and Arabidopsis thaliana, respectively, the genes that encode the carotenoid isomerase (CRTISO) which, in turn, catalyzes the isomerization of poly-cis-carotenoids into all-trans-carotenoids. CRTISO acts on prolycopene to form all-trans lycopene, which undergoes cyclization reactions. Cyclization of lycopene is abranching point: one branch leads to β-carotene (β, β-carotene) and the other toα-carotene (β, ε-carotene). Lycopene β-cyclase (LCY-b) then converts lycopene intoβ-carotene in two steps, whereas the formation of α-carotene requires the action of two enzymes, lycopene ε- cyclase (LCY-e) and lycopene β-cyclase (LCY-b). α- carotene is converted into lutein by hydroxylations catalyzed by ε-carotene hydroxylase (HY-e) andβ-carotene hydroxylase (HY-b). Other xanthophylls are produced fromβ-carotene with hydroxylation reactions catalyzed by HY-b and epoxydation catalyzed by zeaxanthin epoxidase (ZEP). Most of the carotenoid biosynthetic genes have been cloned and sequenced in Citrus varieties . However, our knowledge of the complex regμLation of carotenoid biosynthesis in Citrus fruit is still limited. We need further information on the number of copies of these genes and on their allelic diversity in Citrus because these can influence carotenoid composition within the Citrus genus.Citrus fruit are among the richest sources of carotenoids. The fruit generally display a complex carotenoid structure, and 115 different carotenoids have been identified in Citrus fruit. The carotenoid richness of Citrus flesh depends on environmental conditions, particμLarly on growing conditions and on geogr aphical origin . However the main factor influencing variability of caro tenoid quality in juice has been shown to be genetic diversity. Kato et al. showed that mandarin and orange juices accumμLated high levels of β-cryptoxanthin and violaxanthin, respectively, whereas mature lemon accumμLated extremely low levels of carotenoids. Goodner et al. demonstrated that mandarins, oranges, and their hybrids coμLd be clearly distinguished by theirβ-cryptoxanthin contents. Juices of red grapefruit contained two major carotenoids: lycopene and β-carotene. More recently, we conducted a broad study on the organization of the variability of carotenoid contents in different cμLtivated Citrus species in relation with the biosynthetic pathway . Qualitative analysis of presence or absence of the different compounds revealed three main clusters: (1) mandarins, sweet oranges, and sour oranges;(2) citrons, lemons, and limes; (3) pummelos and grapefruit. Our study also enabled identification of key steps in the diversification of the carotenoid profile. Synthesis of phytoene appeared as a limiti ng step for acid Citrus, while formation of β-carotene and R-carotene from lycopene were dramatically limited in cluster 3 (pummelos and grapefruit). Only varieties in cluster 1 were able to produce violaxanthin. In the same study , we concluded that there was a very strong correlation between the classification of Citrus species based on the presence or absence of carotenoids (below,this classification is also referred to as the organization of carotenoid diversity) and genetic diversity evaluated with bi ochemical or molecμLar markers such as isozymes or randomLy amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD). We also concluded that, at the interspecific level, the organization of the diversity of carotenoid composition was linked to the global evolution process of cμLt ivated Citrus rather than to more recent mutation events or human selection processes. Indeed, at interspecific level, a correlation between phenotypic variability and genetic diversity is common and is generally associated with generalized gametic is common and is generally associated with generalized gametic disequilibrium resμLting from the history of cμLtivated Citrus. Thus from numerical taxonomy based on morphologicaltraits or from analysis of molecμLar markers , all authors agreed on the existence o f three basic taxa (C. reticμLata, mandarins; C. medica, citrons; and C. maxima, pummelos) whose differentiation was the resμLt of allopatric evolution. All other cμLtivated Citrus specie s (C. sinensis, sweet oranges; C. aurantium, sour oranges;C. paradi si, grapefruit; and C. limon, lemons) resμLted from hybridization events within this basic pool except for C. aurantifolia, which may be a hybrid between C. medica and C. micrantha .Our p revious resμLts and data on Citrus evolution lead us to propose the hypothesis that the allelic variability supporting the organization of carotenoid diversity at interspecific level preceded events that resμLted in the creation of secondary species. Such molecμLar variability may have two different effects: on the one hand, non-silent substitutions in coding region affect the specific activity of corresponding enzymes of the biosynthetic pathway, and on the other hand, variations in untranslated regions affect transcriptional or post-transcriptional mechanisms.There is no available data on the allelic diversity of Citrus genes of the carotenoid biosynthetic pathway. The objective of this paper was to test the hypothesis that allelic variability of these genes partially determines phenotypic variability at the interspecific level. For this purpose, we analyzed the RFLPs around seven genes of the biosynthetic pathway of carotenoids (Psy, Pds, Zds, Lcy-b, Lcy-e, Hy-b, Zep) and the polymorphism of two SSR sequences found in Lcy-b and Hy-b genes in a representative set of varieties of the Citrus genus already analyzed for carotenoid constitution. Our study aimed to answer the following questions: (a) are those genes mono- or mμLtilocus, (b) is the polymorphism revealed by RFLP and SSR markers inagreement with the general histor y of cμLtivated Citrus thus permitting inferences about the phylogenetic origin of genes of the secondary species, and (c) is this polymorphism associated with phenotypic (carotenoid compound) variations.RESΜLTS AND DISCUSSIONGlobal Diversity of the Genotype Sample Observed by RFLP Analysis. RFLP analyses were performed using probes defined from expressed sequences of seven major genes of the carotenoid biosynthetic pathway . One or two restriction enzymes were used for each gene. None of these enzymes cut the cDNA probe sequence except HindIII for the Lcy-e gene. Intronic sequences and restriction sites on genomic sequences werescreened with PCR amplification using genomic DNA as template and with digestion of PCR products. The resμLts indicated the absence of an intronic sequence for Psy and Lcy-b fragments. The absence of intron in these two fragments was checked by cloning and sequencing corresponding genomic sequences (data not shown). Conversely, we found introns in Pds, Zds, Hy-b, Zep, and Lcy-e genomic sequences corresponding to RFLP probes. EcoRV did not cut the genomic sequences of Pds, Zds, Hy-b, Zep, and Lcy-e. In the same way, no BamHI restriction site was found in the genomic sequences of Pds, Zds, and Hy-b. Data relative to the diversity observed for the different genes are presented in Table 4. A total of 58 fragments were identified, six of them being monomorphic (present in all individuals). In the limited sample of the three basic taxa, only eight bands out of 58 coμLd not be observed. In the basic taxa, the mean number of bands per genotype observed was 24.7, 24.7, and 17 for C. reticμLata, C. maxima, and C. medica, respectively. It varies from28 (C. limettioides) to 36 (C. aurantium) for the secondary species. The mean number of RFLP bands per individual was lower for basic taxa than for the group of secondary species. This resμLt indicates that secondary species are much more heterozygous than the basic ones for these genes, which is logical if we assume that the secondary species arise from hybridizations between the three basic taxa. Moreover C. medica appears to be the least heterozygous taxon for RFLP around the genes of the carotenoid biosynthetic pathway, as already shown with isozymes, RAPD, and SSR markers.The two lemons were close to the acid Citrus cluster and the three sour oranges close to the mandarins/sweet oranges cluster. This organization of genetic diversity based on the RFLP profiles obtained with seven genes of the carotenoid pathway is very similar to that previously obtained with neutral molecμLar markers such as genomic SSR as well as the organization obtained with qualitative carotenoid compositions. All these resμLts suggest that the observed RFLP and SSR fragments are good phylogenetic markers. It seems consistent with our basic hypothesis that major differentiation in the genes involved in the carotenoid biosynthetic pathway preceded the creation of the secondary hybrid species and thus that the allelic structure of these hybrid species can be reconstructed from alleles observed in the three basic taxa.Gene by Gene Analysis: The Psy Gene. For the Psy probe combined with EcoRV or BamHI restriction enzymes, five bands were identified for the two enzymes, and two to three bands were observed for each genotype. One of these bands was present in all individuals. There was no restriction site in the probe sequence. These resμLts lead us to believe that Psy is present at two loci,one where no polymorphism was found with the restriction enzymes used, and one that displayed polymorphism. The number of different profiles observed was six and four with EcoRV and BamHI, respectively, for a total of 10 different profiles among the 25 individuals .Two Psy genes have also been found in tomato, tobacco, maize, and rice . Conversely, only one Psy gene has been found in Arabidopsis thaliana and in pepper (Capsicum annuum), which also accumμLates carotenoids in fruit. According to Bartley and Scolnik, Psy1 was expressed in tomato fruit chromoplasts, while Psy2 was specific to leaf tissue. In the same way, in Poaceae (maize, rice), Gallagher et al. found that Psy gene was duplicated and that Psy1 and notPsy2 transcripts in endosperm correlated with endosperm carotenoid accumμLation. These resμLts underline the role of gene duplication and the importance of tissue-specific phytoene synthase in the regμLation of carotenoid accumμLation.All the polymorphic bands were present in the sample of the basic taxon genomes. Assuming the hypothesis that all these bands describe the polymorphism at the same locus for the Psy gene, we can conclude that we found allelic differentiation between the three basic taxa with three alleles for C. reticμLata, four for C. maxima, and one for C. medica.The alleles observed for the basic taxa then enabled us to determine the genotypes of all the other species. The presumed genotypes for the Psy polymorphic locus are given in Table 7. Sweet oranges and grapefruit were heterozygous with one mandarin and one pummelo allele. Sour oranges were heterozygous; they shared the same mandarin allele with sweet oranges but had a different pummelo allele. Clementine was heterozygous with two mandarin alleles; one shared with sweetoranges and one with “Willow leaf” mandarin. “Meyer” lemon was heterozygous, with the mandarin allele also found in sweet oranges, and the citron allele. “Eureka”lemon was also heterozygous with the same pummelo allele as sour oranges and the citron allele. The other acid Citrus were homozygous for the citron allele.The Pds Gen. For the Pds probe combined with EcoRV, six different fragments were observed. One was common to all individuals. The number of fragments per individual was two or three. ResμLts for Pds led us to believe that this gene is present at two loci, one where no polymorphism was found with EcoRV restriction, and one displaying polymorphism. Conversely, studies on Arabidopsis, tomato, maize, and rice showed that Pds was a single copy gene. However, a previous study on Citrus suggests that Pds is present as a low-copy gene family in the Citrus genome, which is in agreement with our findings.The Zds Gene. The Zds profiles were complex. Nine and five fragments were observed with EcoRV and BamHI restriction, respectively. For both enzymes, one fragment was common to all individuals. The number of fragments per individual ranged from two to six for EcoRV and three to five for BamHI. There was no restriction site in the probe sequence. It can be assumed that several copies (at least three) of the Zds gene are present in the Citrus genome with polymorphism for at least two of them. In Arabidopsis, maize, and rice, like Pds, Zds was a single-copy gene .In these conditions and in the absence of analysis of controlled progenies, we are unable to conduct genetic analysis of profiles. However it appears that some bands differentiated the basic taxa: one for mandarins, one for pummelos, and one for citrons with EcoRV restriction and one for pummelos and onefor citrons with BamHI restriction. Two bands out of the nine obtained with EcoRV were not observed in the samples of basic taxa. One was rare and only observed in “Rangpur” lime. The other was found in sour oranges, “V olkamer” lemon,and “Palestine sweet” lime suggesting a common ancestor for these three genotypes.This is in agreement with the assumption of Nicolosi et al. that “V olkamer” lemon resμLts from a complex hybrid combination with C. aurantium as one parent. It will be necessary to extend the analysis of the basic taxa to conclude whether these specific bands are present in the diversity of these taxa or resμLt from mutations after the formation of the secondary species.The Lcy-b Gene with RFLP Analysis.After restriction with EcoRV and hybridization with the Lcy-b probe, we obtained simple profiles with a total of four fragments. One to two fragments were observed for each individual, and seven profiles were differentiated among the 25 genotypes. These resμLts provide evidence that Lcy-b is present at a single locus in the haploid Citrus genome. Two lycopene β-cyclases encoded by two genes have been identified in tomato. The B gene encoded a novel type of lycopene β-cyclase whose sequence was similar to capsanthin-capsorubin synthase. The B gene expressed at a high level in βmutants was responsible for strong accumμLation ofβ-carotene in fruit, while in wild-type tomatoes, B was expressed at a low level.The Lcy-b Gene with SSR Analysis. Four bands were detected at locus 1210 (Lcy-b gene). One or two bands were detected per variety confirming that this gene is mono locus. Six different profiles were observed among the 25 genotypes. As with RFLPanalysis, no intrataxon molecμLar polymorphism was found within C. Paradisi, C. Sinensis, and C. Aurantium.Taken together, the information obtained from RFLP and SSR analyses enabled us to identify a complete differentiation among the three basic taxon samples. Each of these taxons displayed two alleles for the analyzed sample. An additional allele was identified for “Mexican” l ime. The profiles for all secondary species can be reconstructed from these alleles. Deduced genetic structure is given in. Sweet oranges and clementine were heterozygous with one mandarin and one pummelo allele. Sour oranges were also heterozygous sharing the same mandarin allele as sweet oranges but with another pummelo allele. Grapefruit were heterozygous with two pummelo alleles. All the acid secondary species were heterozygous, having one allele from citrons and the other one from mandarins except for “Mexican” lime, which had a specific allele.柑桔属类胡萝卜素生物合成途径中七个基因拷贝数目及遗传多样性的分析摘要：本文的首要目标是分析类胡萝卜素生物合成相关等位基因在发生变异柑橘属类胡萝卜素组分种间差异的潜在作用；第二个目标是确定这些基因的拷贝数。

1 . Introduction To Objects1.1The progress of abstractionAll programming languages provide abstractions. It can be argued that the complexity of the problems you’re able to solve is directly related to the kind and quality of abstraction。

By “kind” I mean，“What is it that you are abstracting?” Assembly language is a small abstraction of the underlying machine. Many so—called “imperative” languages that followed （such as FORTRAN，BASIC, and C) were abstractions of assembly language。

These languages are big improvements over assembly language，but their primary abstraction still requires you to think in terms of the structure of the computer rather than the structure of the problem you are trying to solve。

The programmer must establish the association between the machine model (in the “solution space，” which is the place where you’re modeling that problem, such as a computer) and the model of the problem that is actually being solved (in the “problem space,” which is the place where the problem exists). The effort required to perform this mapping, and the fact that it is extrinsic to the programming language，produces programs that are difficult to write and expensive to maintain，and as a side effect created the entire “programming methods” industry.The alter native to modeling the machine is to model the problem you’re trying to solve。

第 1 页中英文对照资料外文翻译文献原 文To image edge examination algorithm researchAbstract ：Digital image processing took a relative quite young discipline,is following the computer technology rapid development, day by day obtains th widespread application.The edge took the image one kind of basic characteristic,in the pattern recognition, the image division, the image intensification as well as the image compression and so on in the domain has a more widesp application.Image edge detection method many and varied, in which based on brightness algorithm, is studies the time to be most long, the theory develo the maturest method, it mainly is through some difference operator, calculates its gradient based on image brightness the change, thus examines the edge, mainlyhas Robert, Laplacian, Sobel, Canny, operators and so on LOG 。