Activation of the human innate immune system by Spirulina:augmentation of interferon production and NK cytotoxicity by oral
administration of hot water extract of Spirulina platensis
Tomohiro Hirahashi a,b ,Misako Matsumoto a ,Kaoru Hazeki a,b ,Yoshiko Saeki a ,
Michio Ui c ,Tsukasa Seya a,*
a
Department of Immunology,Osaka Medical Center for Cancer and Cardiovascular Diseases,Higashinari-ku,Osaka 537-8511,Japan
b
Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences,Hiroshima University,School of Medicine,Hiroshima,Japan
c
The Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical Science,Tokyo 113,Japan
Received 28March 2001;received in revised form 30September 2001;accepted 7October 2001
Abstract
Spirulina platensis is a cyanobacterial species that is surmised to potentiate the immune system leading to suppression of cancer development and viral infection.Here,we identified the molecular mechanism of the human immune potentiating capacity of Spirulina by analyzing blood cells of volunteers with pre and post oral administration of hot water extract of Spirulina.NK functions represented by IFN gamma production and cytolysis were enhanced after administration of Spirulina in >50%subjects.IFN gamma was produced in an IL-12/IL-18-dependent fashion.In vitro stimulation of blood cells with BCG cell wall skeleton (CWS)allowed more potent IL-12p40production in cells from volunteers given Spirulina than in cells without pre-exposure to Spirulina.As BCG–CWS serves as a ligand for Toll-like receptor (TLR)2and 4to raise the maturation stage of monocytes/macrophages,Spirulina may be involved in the signaling responses through Toll in blood cells even when orally administered.These observations indicated that in humans Spirulina acts directly on myeloid lineages and either directly or indirectly on NK cells.The presence of co-operative IL-12and IL-18is critically important for NK-mediated IFN gamma production.D 2002Elsevier Science B.V .All rights reserved.
Keywords:IL-12;IL-18;Toll-like receptors;IFN gamma;Cyanobacteria;Macrophages
1.Introduction
The cyanobacterium Spirulina platensis here inhab-its carbonate-rich lakes in torrid zones [1].It has been utilized as a source of protein and vitamin supplements,and has been sold as a health drink or pills in tablet form
for more than 10years without any undesirable effect on humans [2].Its safety for human consumption has also been established through numerous toxicological studies.Recently,Spirulina has been speculated to be associated with modulation of the host immune system [3].A hot water extract of Spirulina has been orally administered to patients as an anti-cancer and anti-viral agent although the molecular mechanism by which Spirulina acts on the immune system remains largely undefined.
1567-5769/02/$-see front matter D 2002Elsevier Science B.V .All rights reserved.PII:S 1567-5769(01)00166-7
*
Corresponding author.Fax:+81-6-6973-1209.E-mail address:seya-tu@mc.pref.osaka.jp (T.Seya).
https://www.doczj.com/doc/f54555531.html,/locate/intimp
International Immunopharmacology 2(2002)423–
434
The experimental immunomodulatory function of Spirulina was first reported in mice since1994[4]. The results are summarized as follows.In mice, Spirulina facilitated antibody production,increased the ratio of activated peritoneal macrophages,and in-duced spleen cells to grow better in response to Con A [4].In spleen cells in culture,addition of the hot water extract of Spirulina leads to enhanced IL-1and then antibody production[5].These results suggested that the initial target cells for Spirulina could be macro-phages,although the mechanism by which these in vivo and in vitro responses are induced again remains elusive.
In this study,healthy male volunteers were given orally with Spirulina every day for several weeks or months to be analyzed for the activity of their natural killer(NK)cells withdrawn at weekly or monthly intervals.The cells originating from the thus collected blood were incubated with IL-12alone or together with increasing concentrations of IL-18to observe the release of IFN gamma therefrom in response to these cytokines,which are currently known to be the major ones secreted from activated macrophages or dendritic cells,as an index of the NK cell activity.In some ex-periments,the cells were incubated with51Cr-labeled erythroblastoid cells(K562)to see cytolysis as an ad-ditional activity of the NK cells.The NK activities, measured as the IFN gamma production in response to IL-12/IL-18,were much higher for the cells taken2 months after the inset of the Spirulina administration than for the cells taken from the same volunteers before the administration.
2.Materials and methods
2.1.Materials
The functionally active recombinant IL-18(rIL-18) preparation was a kind gift from Dr.H.Okamura (Hyogo Medical College)and was used for the pre-viously reported functional studies[6].Recombinant IL-12(rIL-12)was purchased from Pepro Tech,EC (Rocky Hill,NJ).These samples were stored atà70°C for>2days and used within2h after thawing fol-lowed by centrifugation(2200?g,10min).
The mAb125-2H,which recognizes the‘active’form of human IL-18,and the ELISA kit for determi-nation of‘functionally active’IL-18were purchased from MBL-Immunotech(Nagoya,Japan)[6].A mAbs against IL-12receptor beta1subunit was purchased from Pharmingen(San Diego,CA).IL-18receptor consists of alpha and beta chains and only the former is reported to be inducible[7].pAb against alpha chain of IL-18receptor was made in our laboratory to assess the level of the alpha chain.Mouse IgG was purchased from Sigma(St.Louis,MO).ELISA kits for determi-nation of human IFN gamma and IL-12p40were purchased from Amersham-Pharmacia Biotech.,Up-psala,Sweden and Genzyme Techne,respectively.IL-12p70was determined by specific ELISA(detection limit<25pg)(MBL-Immunotech).
Spray-dried powder of S.platensis propagated under basic conditions(pH11)in outdoor open tanks was extracted with water in an autoclave for1h at120°C.Citric acid was added to the hot water extract to adjust the pH to4.0[8].The water-soluble extract was prepared by removal of insoluble fractions by centri-fugation.The soluble extract of Spirulina was con-densed for oral administration as described previously [8].
2.2.Administration of Spirulina to volunteers
Fifty milliliters of the Spirulina extract was orally administered every day to12healthy male volunteers (No.1–12)at the age of40–65with each subject’s informed consent.This trial was approved in the ethic committee in our institute.The appropriate amount of Spirulina for oral administration was determined according to a previous report[9].The quality and safety of the Spirulina extract used in this trial were published in previous papers[9,10].Blood samples (20ml)were drawn before and1,2,4and8weeks after the start of administration.In some experiments, blood samples were prepared after the stop of admin-istration of Spirulina.Blood samples of these of volunteers were collected in our clinic again with each subject’s informed consent prior to the inves-tigation procedure.
2.3.Cell preparations from volunteers treated or not treated with Spirulina
Healthy volunteers(age40–65)continued daily drinking of50ml of the Spirulina extract for several
T.Hirahashi et al./International Immunopharmacology2(2002)423–434 424
weeks or months before the end of the administration. Blood specimens(20ml)were withdrawn from these volunteers at intervals to give specific populations of blood cells by the experimental procedures described below.Throughout the present communication,the cells collected from the volunteers just before the start of the administration will be referred to,for brevity,as ‘‘the cells before Spirulina’’.Likewise,the cells col-lected at the decisive time point during the continuation or after the cessation of the administration,will be referred to as‘‘the cells during Spirulina(weeks or months)’’or‘‘the cells after Spirulina(weeks or months)’’,respectively,where the length of the period of continuation or after the cessation of the adminis-tration will be shown in the parenthesis.
Fresh human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC)were prepared from the heparin-supple-mented blood(20units/ml)of the volunteers treated or not treated with Spirulina.Briefly,PBMC were collected by methylcellulose sedimentation followed by centrifugation on a Ficoll-Hypaque cushion as re-ported previously[11].The cells at the interface were recovered and washed twice with RPMI1640/10% FCS[11].In some experiments,CD4+T cells or CD56+NK cells were isolated by high-gradient magnetic cell separation(MACS)using superpara-magnetic streptavidin microparticles for labeling CD4-or CD56-positive cells(Miltenyi Biotec),res-pectively,according to the manufacturer’s booklet. The positive cells were eluted from the columns after removal from the magnetic field.CD8+T cells were negatively selected as a byproduct after removal of CD56+NK and CD4+T cells.Purity of the col-lected cells was>95%,based on evaluation by flow cytometry.Cells were suspended in RPMI1640/10% FCS.
2.4.Assay for IFN g-inducing activity
Aliquots(3?105of PBMC,1?105of CD4+T or 1?105of NK cells)of the cell preparations were in-cubated with IL-12(10ng/ml)plus‘active’rIL-18(40 ng/ml)in96-well plates,and the supernatants were collected48h later.The levels of IFN gamma were determined by sandwich ELISA(Amersham Pharma-cia Biotech,Buckinghamshire,UK)[12].
For determination of IL-12p40,heparinized blood (1ml each)was used as the cell source,and incubated with15m l of vehicle(emulsion buffer,PBS contain-ing1%Drakeol and1%Tween80),Con A(15m g/ml) or BCG–CWS(15m g/ml)in24-well plates at37°C [13].After20h,plasma was harvested by centrifuga-tion and aliquots were stored atà70°C until use. The amounts of IL-12p40released into the plasma were determined by ELISA(Genzyme Techne).IL-12 p70could not be detected by ELISA(Genzyme Techne)(data not shown).
2.5.NK-mediated cytolysis
The cytotoxic activity of NK cells was determined by the51Cr release assay[14].Effector cells(E),PBMC or NK cells,were stimulated with IL-18at a concen-tration of20ng/ml in100m l of RPMI-1640/10%FCS for24h.The human erythroblastoid cell line K562(T) had been labeled with Na251CrO4for1h at37°C in RPMI medium.After three washes,labeled target cells were suspended in RPMI1640/10%FCS.A constant amount of PBMC(1?104cells)were incubated with varying numbers of51Cr-labeled K562cells at the E/T ratio of5–50in200m l of RPMI-1640/10%FCS for4 h.At timed intervals,cells were spun down and the radioactivity in the supernatants was counted with a gamma counter(Pharmacia,Sweden).The percentage of specific51Cr release was calculated as follows: %lysis=100?[(sample release)à(spontaneous re-lease)]/[(maximal release)à(spontaneous release)]. Spontaneous release was obtained by counting the supernatant of51Cr-labeled target cells with no effector cells.Maximal release was obtained by counting the supernatant of target cells solubilized by1%NP-40. The assay was performed in96-well microplates,and all cultures were set up in triplicate.
2.6.Flow cytometry
Cells(2?105)suspended in50m l of DPBS con-taining0.5%BSA and0.1%NaN3(BSA/NaN3/DPBS) were mixed with50m l of EDTA-plasma containing5 m g of mouse IgG,mAb,rabbit IgG or pAb and incubated for30min at4°C.After washing with BSA/NaN3/DPBS,the cells were suspended in90m l of BSA/NaN3/DPBS and incubated with FITC-labeled goat F(ab0)2of anti-mouse or anti-rabbit IgG at4°C. After30min,the cells were washed twice with DPBS and fixed with paraformaldehyde.The samples were
T.Hirahashi et al./International Immunopharmacology2(2002)423–434425
analyzed on an FACSCalibur (Becton-Dickinson,Franklin Lakes,NJ).
3.Results
3.1.Cells responsible for IFN gamma production in response to IL-12in volunteers having Spirulina Four volunteers were randomly chosen for pilot studies to test the immune modulatory effect of Spir-ulina on lymphocytes by monitoring in vitro IFN gam-ma production.CD56-positive NK,CD4-positive T and CD8-positive T cells were utilized as sources of IFN gamma.In Fig.1,the NK cell fraction prepared from ‘‘the cells before Spirulina’’,i.e.,the cells originating from blood specimen collected from vol-
unteers prior to the start of the Spirulina administra-tion,did not respond to IL-12added in vitro.In contrast,‘‘the cells during Spirulina (2months)’’,or the same cell preparations from the same volunteers daily treated with Spirulina for 2months,produced significant amounts of IFN gamma in response to added IL-12.The IL-12-induced IFN gamma was also observed with ‘‘the cells after Spirulina (3months)’’or with the cells originating from the same volunteers 3months after the cessation of the Spirulina therapy.CD4+and CD8+T cells barely responded to added IL-12throughout the period we tested except one case (volunteer No.2),whose CD8+T cells exhibited a significant level of IFN gamma in ‘‘cells after Spir-ulina (3months)’’in response to IL-12.Thus,NK cells are mainly involved in IL-12-dependent IFN gamma
production.
Fig.1.IL-12-mediated IFN gamma production by NK,CD8-positive,and CD4-positive T cells isolated from Spirulina-treated subjects.Each lymphocyte population was prepared as described in Materials and methods.These lymphocyte subsets were stimulated with 10ng/ml of IL-12.The levels of IFN gamma in the supernatants were measured by ELISA at the indicated time points.The levels of IFN gamma were calculated and represented as (NK cells),&(CD4+T cells)and 5(CD8+T
cells).
T.Hirahashi et al./International Immunopharmacology 2(2002)423–434
426
3.2.Effect of IL-18on IL-12-mediated IFN gamma production in lymphocytes from volunteers having Spirulina
The cooperative effect of IL-18on IL-12-dependent IFN gamma production by lymphocytes was next examined with variable doses of IL-18(Fig.2).Addi-tional four volunteers were chosen for this study.NK, CD4+and CD8+cells in‘‘the cells before Spirulina’’failed to effectively produce IFN gamma regardless of the amount of IL-18added.NK cells of‘‘the cells during Spirulina(2months)’’acquired the capacity to effectively produce IFN gamma in response to IL-12 plus IL-18.CD8+T cells were competent to produce IFN gamma in response to IL-12plus IL-18,although CD4+helper T cells were far less or barely responsive to IL-18compared to CD8+cells at this stage.In‘‘the cells after Spirulina(3months)’’,the IFN gamma-inducing abilities of these lymphocyte subsets had returned to close to the initial levels,except in one case (subject No.1).
3.3.IFN gamma-producing profiles in in vitro PBMC from volunteers having Spirulina for short terms Sequential studies shown in Figs.1and2suggested that‘‘the cells during Spirulina(2months)’’exert potent activity to produce IFN gamma in an IL-12/IL-18-dependent manner.We then examined the cells with short-term exposure to administered Spirulina.Four alternative volunteers were recruited for this study. PBMC were used in this study since NK cells
were Fig.2.Dose of IL-18critically affects IL-12-mediated IFN gamma production by lymphocyte subsets isolated from Spirulina-treated subjects. Blood samples were collected from four subjects treated with Spirulina as indicated.NK cells(5),CD4+T cells()and CD8+T cells(^) were stimulated with varying concentrations of IL-18and10ng/ml of IL-12.The cells were allowed to stand for48h at37°C,and the supernatants were collected for determination of IFN gamma,which was measured by sandwich ELISA as in Fig.1.
T.Hirahashi et al./International Immunopharmacology2(2002)423–434427
found to be a major source of the generated IFN gamma.The doses of IL-18were reduced to<20ng for this study based on the results of Fig.2in which linear dose response curves were obtained with0–25 ng of IL-18.The results are shown in Fig.3where‘‘the cells during Spirulina(1,2and4weeks)’’were em-ployed for analysis of IFN gamma-inducing capacity. Increased IFN gamma production was usually observed from1week after administration in these cases.It is notable,however,that individual differences were found in IFN gamma-induction by PBMC in response to IL-12/IL-18.Stable and reproducible pro-duction of IFN gamma in PBMC by function of IL-12/ IL-18appeared not to be in parallel with the term of Spirulina administration in these volunteers at least until4weeks.Hence,>4weeks administration of Spirulina may be required for sufficient responses to IL-12and IL-18to produce IFN gamma in lympho-cytes.
Spirulina-mediated augmented IFN gamma produc-tion by PBMC usually continued for>4weeks and then decreased to the background levels>5weeks after the end of administration(data not shown).
To confirm the administration terms for the effect of Spirulina,we next use the major target,purified NK cells,instead of PBMC,and compare the results with those in Figs.1and2.Reproducible IFN gamma production was observed with‘‘the NK cells after Spirulina(4weeks)’’(Fig.4a)and to a lesser extent with‘‘the NK cells after Spirulina(2weeks)’’
(data Fig.3.IL-12/IL-18-dependent IFN gamma production by human PBMC prepared from Spirulina-treated subjects.Blood samples were prepared from volunteers treated with Spirulina for the indicated length of periods.PBMC were isolated as described in Materials and methods.PBMC (1?104cells)were stimulated with the indicated concentrations of IL-18together with10ng/ml of IL-12in96-well flat-bottomed plates for48h at37°C.The concentrations of IFN gamma released into the culture medium are plotted as a function of IL-18concentrations used.
T.Hirahashi et al./International Immunopharmacology2(2002)423–434
428
not shown).The IL-12(without IL-18)-mediated augmentation of IFN gamma production was subtly observed in ‘‘the NK cells after Spirulina (4weeks)’’(Fig.4b),also.These results again reinforced the finding that >4weeks administration of Spirulina should be the essential requisites for Spirulina-medi-ated immune activation and that IL-18markedly potentiates the IL-12-mediated IFN gamma produc-tion in ‘‘the NK cells after Spirulina’’.
3.4.Enhancement of NK cytolytic activity by Spirulina NK cytotoxic activity was determined using 51
Cr-labeled K562as the target cells (Fig.5).PBMC were collected from the four volunteers shown in Fig.3before and after taking Spirulina.%Cytotoxicity was determined at E/T ratios of 5–50as previously des-cribed [14].NK cytolytic activity was enhanced in ‘‘cells during Spirulina’’in two cases,while in the re-maining cases (Nos.11and 12)virtually no enhance-ment was observed.The levels of NK activity are known to vary among individuals.NK cells with high
cytotoxic activity (Nos.11and 12)may not respond to administered Spirulina.Unexpectedly,neither IL-18(Fig.5)nor IL-12(not shown)significantly increased cytotoxicity in either case,which is inconsistent with a previous report using mouse IL-12/IL-18[7].NK cytotoxity may be another marker of the effects of Spirulina.
3.5.Spirulina-mediated augmentation of IL-12p40production by BCG–CWS-treated PBMC
BCG–CWS is a ligand for TLR2and TLR4in myeloid cells.In vitro addition of BCG–CWS to monocytes (expressing TLR2/4)or PBMC results in induction of IL-12p40,which can be detected in the culture medium of cells [13].The effect of Spirulina on BCG–CWS-mediated IL-12p40production was tested using PBMC prepared from the volunteers (Fig.6).Throughout the pre-and post-administration peri-ods,no IL-12p40was detected in control samples,which contained vehicle only.Con A often induced the minimal production of IL-12p40in PBMC,but
in
Fig.4.IL-12/IL-18-dependent IFN gamma production by purified NK cells of Spirulina-administrated volunteers.Blood samples were prepared from volunteers having Spirulina for 4weeks.NK cells were purified as described in Materials and methods.NK cells (1?104cells)were stimulated with 20ng/ml of IL-18and 10ng/ml of IL-12(Panel a)or 10ng/ml of IL-12alone (Panel b)in 96-well flat-bottomed plates for 48h at 37°C.The IFN gamma released into the culture medium are measured by ELISA.Control,NK cells with no stimulation;N.D.,not detected.,"NK cells before Spirulina";&,"NK cells after
Spirulina".
T.Hirahashi et al./International Immunopharmacology 2(2002)423–434429
most cases no up-regulation of IL-12by Spirulina administration was observed.In contrast,IL-12p40production by BCG–CWS was markedly augmented by administration of Spirulina.However,we could not detect IL-12p70by specific ELISA (detection limit <25pg)under any condition (data not shown),sug-gesting that a p40complex such as IL-23or p40dimer is produced in immune competent cells.The
p40
Fig.5.Administration of Spirulina extract enhances NK cytotoxicity.PBMC were prepared as a source of NK cells (E,effector cells).PBMC (1?104cells/0.1ml)were plated in 96-well plates in triplicate,and cultured with or without IL-18(20ng/ml)for 24h at 37°C.Then,51Cr-labeled K562cells (T,target cells)were added to each well at the indicated E/T ratios,and the plates were incubated for an additional 4h at 37°C.The levels of 51Cr released from the target cells were measured with a gamma-counter.Data represent the means of triplicate observations.
T.Hirahashi et al./International Immunopharmacology 2(2002)423–434
430
complexes are produced in mature myeloid cells involved in innate immune responses [13].Thus,myeloid lineage cells,most likely monocytes or ma-crophages,should be first targets of Spirulina,which enhances TLR-mediated cytokine induction in innate immune competent cells.
3.6.The receptor levels of IL-12/IL-18do not contribute to Spirulina-augmented IFN gamma pro-duction by NK cells
To see the molecular basis for enhanced IFN gamma production by NK cells after Spirulina admin-istration,the expression levels of IL-12receptor (beta1subunit)and the alpha chain (inducible ele-ment)of IL-18were tested with NK cells by flow cytometry.Representative profiles of two samples are shown in Table 1.Both IL-12receptor and IL-18
receptor were not inducible through Spirulina admin-istration for 4weeks.Thus,we hypothesized that the assembly of receptor complexes rather than
up-regu-Fig.6.Administration of Spirulina extract enhances BCG–CWS-mediated IL-12p40production from peripheral blood cells.Peripheral blood samples were collected from volunteers as indicated.Aliquots (1ml)of samples were stimulated with vehicle only (indicated as Control),Con A (15m g/ml)(indicated as Con A)or BCG–CWS (15m g/ml)(indicated as BCG–CWS)for 24h at 37°C.Then,the levels of IL-12p40in the plasma supernatants were determined by ELISA as in Materials and methods.
Table 1
Flow cytometric analysis of IL-12/IL-18receptors on ‘‘NK cells before and after Spirulina’’Receptors
V olunteers
Mean fluorescence shift a NK cells before Spirulina b
NK cells after Spirulina b IL-12R c No.90.750.89No.100.240.32IL-18R d
No.939.0642.06No.1037.10
40.66
a
Determined by flow cytometer.
b
NK cells were harvested from blood samples of volunteers before and 4weeks after administration of Spirulina.
c
Determined with mAb against IL-12receptor beta 1subunit.d
Determined with pAb against IL-18receptor alpha subunit.
T.Hirahashi et al./International Immunopharmacology 2(2002)423–434431
lation of receptor components would be important for the receptor functions of these initial cytokines[15]. Spirulina may participate in reconstitution of the functional receptor complex formation.
4.Discussion
The goal of this study was to establish the immune-potentiating function of the hot water extract of Spir-ulina in humans.The targets of Spirulina,although not specified as primary or secondary,are monocytes and NK cells.In NK cells,both IFN gamma and cytolysis are up-regulated by Spirulina in50%of subjects,and IL-18levels critically affect the yield of IFN gamma.In myeloid cells,Spirulina may exhibit an additive effect on TLR-mediated cytokine production pathways.
It is generally accepted that IL-12is secreted from myeloid cells to induce IFN gamma in NK cells[3,4]. If this is the case,Spirulina might first act on mono-cytes to induce IL-12,which in turn drives NK cells to produce IFN gamma.It is noteworthy,however,that purified NK cells depleted of myeloid(CD14-posi-tive)cells still exhibited the high capacity to produce IFN gamma in vitro only after oral administration of Spirulina.Thus,certain Spirulina components should be internalized via the intestine/colon into the blood stream for prestimulation of monocytes in these vol-unteers.Studies are currently in progress in our group to identify these components,which is the most tantalizing issue in this context.
Structural investigation of Spirulina indicated that it contains glycolipids,such as O-b-D-galactosyl-(1-10)-20,30-di-O-acyl-D-glycerol,which possess fatty acid moieties,palmitic acid and linoleic or linolenic acids [16].It is currently accepted that lipid moieties of microbes often serve as ligands of Toll receptors. Thus,it is not surprising that Spirulina glycolipids serve as Toll ligands for stimulation of TLR2and TLR4together with BCG–CWS[11,17].Although most cell wall components of microbes are insoluble in water,that of Spirulina can be disrupted mechan-ically[5].It remains to be tested that some fragmented cell wall components are readily extractable in the hot water-soluble fraction.Furthermore,absorption effi-cacy of the relevant components in the hot water extract of Spirulina has not been determined.These points again need to be addressed.
There have been a number of reports concerning the functions of Spirulina in rodents.Zhang et al.[18] reported that the hot water extract of Spirulina showed significant hydroxy radical scavenging activity in mice. In another study,the methanolic extract of Spirulina showed weak anti-oxidant activity in rats[19].Several papers suggested that the relevant substance is phyco-cyanin in Spirulina[19,20].Using an experimental squamous cell cancer model of hamsters,administra-tion of Spirulina extract has been reported to result in total tumor regression in30%of animals[21].Intra-peritoneal injection of a polysaccharide extract of Spirulina was shown to inhibit proliferation of ascitic hepatoma cells in mice[22].Calcium Spirulan,a polysaccharide isolated from S.platensis,inhibited lung metastasis of mouse B16melanoma cells by i.v. administration[23].Hence,phycocyanin and water-soluble components,presumably polysaccharides,may be responsible for anti-oxidant and anti-cancer effects in rodents.
In humans,rough Spirulina was reported to alle-viate oral leukoplakia in pan tobacco chewers[24]. Water-soluble Spirulina components also inhibited the replication of human viruses,herpes simplex,cyto-megalo,measles,mumps and influenza A viruses[25]. The water extract also inhibited HIV replication in human T cells,T cell lines and Langerhans cells[26]. Again,water-soluble polysaccharides appear to par-ticipate in the anti-oxidant,anti-cancer and anti-viral effects of Spirulina.These reports,together with our finding of modulation of Toll signaling by the water extract in concert with immune modulation(Hazeki, Matsumoto and Seya,unpublished),imply that the target of Spirulina-mediated immune activation is the innate immune system.
Plants have unique constituents from the viewpoint of animals,all of which including vertebrates and invertebrates possess a host defense system consisting of bacterial receptors[27].Toll is a representative of such receptors.Spirulina is a cyanobacterium species, which is regarded as a foreign material in the side of animals.Chlorella[28],mushrooms[29,30]and aga-rics[31]are also categorized as plants and have been suggested to have immune potentiating abilities sim-ilarly to Spirulina.Although there is little scientific background or results of physicochemical analyses to support these activities,it is becoming clear that animal cells,particularly those of the myeloid lineage,
T.Hirahashi et al./International Immunopharmacology2(2002)423–434 432
are equipped with a repertoire of microbe-recognizing receptors[32].It is likely that some components of these materials can stimulate certain microbe recep-tors.Immune potentiation is representative of the anti-cancer and anti-viral effects of Spirulina.In fact,we have obtained evidence that a partially purified mate-rial of Spirulina provokes NF-k B and MAPK in human and mouse macrophages(Hazeki,Hirahashi, Masuda,Matsumoto and Seya,unpublished observa-tion).Clarification of the mechanism of immune potentiation by Spirulina would help to complete the outline of the primary or ancient host defense system and to understand its significance with regard to maintenance of health in humans. Acknowledgements
We are grateful to Ms.M.Kurita-Taniguchi,S. Kikkawa,K.Shida and H.Masuda for technical as-sistance,and to Drs.H.Koyama,M.Tatsuta,M. Nomura,S.Tsuji and O.Hazeki(Osaka Medical Center for Cancer)for support of this work.We also appreciate Drs.Takagaki,Katoh and Aoki(DIC,Japan)for helpful information about Spirulina.This work was supported in part by Organization for Pharmaceutical Safety and Research(OPSR),Grant-in-Aids from the Ministry of Culture,Technology and Sciences,and Grant-in-Aids from the Ministry of Health and Welfare, of Japan.
References
[1]Jassby A.Spirulina:a model for microalgae as human food.
In:Lembi J,Waland S,editors.Algae and human affairs.Cam-bridge,UK:Cambridge Univ.Press;1988.
[2]Kay RA.Microalgae as food and supplement.Critical rev in
food science and nutr.,https://www.doczj.com/doc/f54555531.html,A:CRC Press;1991.p.
555–73.
[3]Qureshi MA,Ali RA.Spirulina platensis exposure enhances
macrophage phagocytic function in cats.Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol1996;18:457–63.
[4]Cheng-Wu ZP.Effect of polysacchride and phycocyanin from
Spirulina on peripheral blood and hematopoietic system of bone marrow in mice.Proc.of2nd Asia Pacific Conf.on algal biotech.Garland Publishers,NY,1994;(Abstr.).
[5]Hayashi O,Katoh T,Okuwaki Y.Enhancement of antibody
production in mice by dietary Spirulina.J Nutr Sci Vitaminol (Tokyo)1994;40:431–41.
[6]Ushio S,Namba M,Okura T,Hattori K,Nukada Y,Akita K,et
al.Cloning of the cDNA for human IFN-g-inducing factor, expression in Escherichia coli,and studies on the biologic activities of the protein.J Immunol1996;156:4274–82. [7]Nakanishi K,Yoshimoto T,Tsutsui H,Okamura H.Interleu-
kin-18regulates both Th1and Th2responses.Annu Rev Im-munol2001;19:423–74.
[8]Quoc KP,Dubacq JP.Effect of growth temperature on the
biosynthesis of eukaryotic lipid molecular species by the cya-nobacterium Spirulina platensis.Biochim Biophys Acta1997;
1346:237–46.
[9]Nakaya N,Homma Y,Goto Y.Cholesterol lowering effect of
Spirulina.Nutr Rep Int1988;37:1329–37.
[10]Akatsuka K,Hashimoto T,Takeuchi K,Kogure M,Miyasaka
T.Pharmacological studies of Linagreen(Spirulina).Clin Rep 1978;12:50–60.
[11]Tsuji S,Matsumoto M,Azuma I,Hayashi A,Toyoshima K,
Seya T.Cell-wall skeleton of BCG participates in a maturation step of human dendritic cells(DC);role of Toll-like receptors in DC maturation.Infect Immun2000;68:6883–90.
[12]Shida K,Matsumoto M,Kikkawa S,Okamura H,Tsuji S,
Fukumori Y,et al.An alternative form of human IL-18in human blood plasma:complex formation with IgM defined by monoclonal antibodies.J Immunol2001;166:6671–9. [13]Matsumoto M,Seya T,Kikkawa S,Tsuji S,Shida K,No-
mura M,et al.IFN g-producing ability in blood of patients with lung cancer:production of IL-12p40and IL-18in response to BCG–CWS.Int Immunopharmacol2001;1: 1559–69.
[14]Shiratori I,Tsuji S,Matsumoto M,Nomura M,Toyoshima K,
Seya T.Molecular cloning and functional characterization of guinea pig IL-12.Int Immunol2001;13:1129–39.
[15]Smeltz RB,Chen J,Hu-Li J,Shevach EM.Regulation of
interleukin(IL)-18receptor a chain expression on CD4T cells during T helper(Th)1/Th2differentiation:critical downregu-latory role of IL-4.J Exp Med2001;194:143–53.
[16]Kataoka T,Misaki A.Glycolipids isolated from Spirulina
maxima:structure and fatty acid composition.Agric Biol Chem1983;47:2349–55.
[17]Means TK,Wang S,Lien E,Yoshimura A,Golenbock DT,
Fenton MJ.Human Toll-like receptors mediate cellular activa-tion by Mycobacterium tuberculosis.J Immunol1999;163: 3920–7.
[18]Zhang S,Xie J,Zhang J,Zhao J,Jiang L.Electron spin res-
onance studies on photosensitized formation of hydroxyl rad-ical by C-phycocyanin from Spirulina platensis.Biochim Biophys Acta1999;1426:205–11.
[19]Miranda MS,Cintra RG,Barros SB,Filho J.Antioxidant ac-
tivity of the microalga Spirulina maxima.Braz J Med Biol Res 1998;31:1075–9.
[20]Romay C,Ledon N,Gonzalez R.Phycocyanin extract reduces
leukotriene B4levels in arachidonic acid-induced mouse-ear inflammation test.J Pharm Pharmacol1999;51:641–2. [21]Schwartz JL,Shklar G,Reid S,Tricker D.Prevention of ex-
perimental oral cancer by extracts of Spirulina–Dunaliella algae.Nutr Cancer1988;11:127–34.
[22]Li ZY,Li YG,Guo SY,Li L,Zhang SL.Study of the factors of
T.Hirahashi et al./International Immunopharmacology2(2002)423–434433
Cr(III)bioaccumulation on Spirulina platensis.Sheng Wu Gong Cheng Xue Bao2000;16:108–12.
[23]Mishima T,Murata J,Toyoshima M,Fujii H,Nakajima M,
Hayashi T,et al.Inhibition of tumor invasion and metastasis by calcium spirulan(Ca-SP),a novel sulfated polysaccharide derived from a blue-green alga,Spirulina platensis.Clin Exp Metastasis1998;16:541–50.
[24]Mathew B,Sankaranarayanan R,Nair PP,Varghese C,Soma-
nathan T,Amma BP,et al.Evaluation of chemoprevention of oral cancer with Spirulina fusiformis.Nutr Cancer1995;24: 197–202.
[25]Hayashi K,Hayashi T,Kojima I.A natural sulfated polysac-
charide,calcium spirulan,isolated from Spirulina platensis:in vitro and ex vivo evaluation of anti-herpes simplex virus and anti-human immunodeficiency virus activities.AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses1996;12:1463–71.
[26]Ayehunie S,Belay A,Baba TW,Ruprecht RM.Inhibition of
HIV-1replication by an aqueous extract of Spirulina platensis (Arthrospira platensis).J Acquired Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol1998;18:7–12.[27]Medzhitov R,Janeway CA.Innate immunity:the virtues of a
nonclonal system of recognition.Cell1997;91:295–8. [28]Tanaka K,Tomita Y,Tsuruta M,Konishi F,Okuda M,Himeno
K,et al.Oral administration of Chlorella vulgaris augments concomitant antitumor immunity.Immunopharmacol Immu-notoxicol1990;12:277–91.
[29]Borchers AT,Stern JS,Hackman RM,Keen CL,Gershwin
ME.Mushrooms,tumors,and immunity.Proc Soc Exp Biol Med1999;221:281–93.
[30]Chang R.Functional properties of edible mushrooms.Nutr
Rev1996;54:S91–3.
[31]Ebina T,Fujimiya Y.Antitumor effect of a peptide-glucan
preparation extracted from Agaricus blazei in a double-grafted tumor system in mice.Biotherapy1998;11:259–65.
[32]Begum NA,Matsumoto M,Tsuji S,Nomura M,Matsuhisa A,
Suzuki Y,et al.Molecular mechanisms of activation of the human innate immune system.Curr Trends Immunol2000;
3:59–74.
T.Hirahashi et al./International Immunopharmacology2(2002)423–434 434
网红经济行业研究报告 '网红 行业研究 无论是大众的关注度还是网红的产业化，2016年都是网红经济爆发的元年。网红经济的商业模式是什么？VC/PE又是如何看待网红的投资？这一市场是否还有投资机会？ 无论是大众的关注度还是网红的产业化，2016年都是网红经济爆发的元年。资本市场、上市公司以及VC/PE纷纷对网红经济产业产生了强烈的兴趣。但是，目前市场对于网红经济产业的理解仅限于泛泛的场景畅想，对这一行业并没有十分专业的认知。网红是如何的，网红与火爆的直播平台又有什么关系，直播平台的发展现状如何，网红经济的商业模式是什么，直播平台与网红经济未来的发展如何，VC/PE又是如何看待网红的投资，这一市场是否还有投资机会？ 投中研究院秉承专业严谨的研究风格，近期对网红经济进行了深度调研。 粉丝成就网红经济 网红经济是指网红在社交媒体上聚集人气，依托庞大的粉丝群体进行定向营销，对一般受众的价值观念和生活方式产生特定的影响，由此衍生出实际利益和经济效应。 网红经济还没有形成独立的产业，还是基于内容+社交的消费经济，大量粉丝是网红产生经济效益的基础。Papi酱作为“2016年第一网红”是不得不提及的。从2015年8月开始，Papi酱在个人微博上发布一系列的秒拍视频以及原创短视频，凭借其张扬的个性、浮夸的表演、毒舌的吐槽迅速引爆 ；2016年3月，Papi酱获得了真格基金、罗辑思维、光源资本和星图资本共计1200万元的投资；2016年4月，Papi酱的第一次视频贴片广告以2200万元的天价卖出。Papi酱的走红也标志着中国的网红开始向着优质内容输出转型升级。 另外，随着智能手机硬件的长足进步和无线网络的改善，直播平台迅速爆发，平台上的各类主播也随之爆红网络，成为新兴的一代网红。由于直播平台多为实时直播，主播与粉丝之间交互性极强，拉近了主播与粉丝之间的距离，因而吸引了更多的粉丝观看。最近最具话题感的主播当属“ 你球姐baby”，真名赵一涵，是赵本山之女。她最近玩起了网络直播，拥有众多粉丝，部分本山传媒的明星都在直播平台上捧场支持，赵本山也时隔5年再度更新微博为网红女儿参加“十大网络主播”评选拉票。 直播平台成为资本宠儿 根据投中研究院的 ，目前约有53.7%的直播平台获得融资，直播平台以一种掩耳不及迅雷之势成为资本市场争相追逐的 。如17获得乐视体投、未名资本1.5亿元的B轮融资；果酱直播获得安芙兰创投、梅花天使创投、创新谷数百万元Pre-A轮融资；映客也在2016年1月获得昆仑万维6800万元的A+轮融资等。同时一些大型企业也推出直播平台，如360推出花椒直播、网易推出BOBO直播、秒拍推出一直播等。 直播平台背后的投资者主要分为三类：一是各大投资机构，涉及到的投资机构共计67家，包括IDG、红杉投资中国、紫辉创投、启明创投等。其中，IDG对于直播平台的投资最为成熟，它在2008年投资了早期PC秀场端的9158。随后投资了做体育直播的章鱼TV、弹幕直播的哔哩哔哩、电视直播的风云直播、泛娱乐直播的ULOOKTV，以及提供技术服务的V直播，并且对于章鱼TV、哔哩哔哩和V直播都进行了次轮融资跟投。二是上市公司，这其中包括腾讯、360、京东、欢聚时代等，三是赵宝刚、王刚、李笑来等天使投资人。 同时，各大平台之间也开始了不计成本的相互挖角大战，目前直播平台已经陷入了非理
电影专业术语中英文对 照 集团文件版本号：（M928-T898-M248-WU2669-I2896-DQ586-M1988）
documentary (film) 记录片,文献片filmdom 电影界literary film 文艺片 musicals 音乐片comedy 喜剧片tragedy 悲剧片dracula movie 恐怖片 sowordsmen film 武侠片 detective film 侦探片 ethical film 伦理片affectional film 爱情片 erotic film 黄色片western movies 西部片 film d’avant-garde 前卫片serial 系列片 trailer 预告片 cartoon (film) 卡通 片,动画片 footage 影片长度 full-length film, feature film 长片 short(film) 短片 colour film 彩色片 (美作:color film) silent film 默片,无 声片 dubbed film 配音复 制的影片,译制片 silent cinema, silent films 无声电 影 sound motion picture, talkie 有 声电影 cinemascope, CinemaScope 西涅玛 斯科普型立体声宽银 幕电影,变形镜头式宽 银幕电影 cinerama, Cinerama 西涅拉玛型立体声宽 银幕电影,全景电影 title 片名 original version 原 着 dialogue 对白 subtitles, subtitling 字幕 credits, credit titles 对原作者及其 他有贡献者的谢启和 姓名 telefilm 电视片 演员actors cast 阵容 film star, movie star 电影明星 star, lead 主角
全球治理与中国方案 摘要： 随着经济全球化、世界多极化趋势不断向纵深发展,西方主导的国际秩序正面临前所未有的巨大挑战。新兴大国的崛起推动建立公正合理的国际政治经济新秩序,中国正在起引导作用。然而，什么是全球经济治理体系？全球经济治理究竟面临着什么挑战？什么原因导致全球经济治理低效率运作？“中国方案”如何回应全球经济治理的核心关切？上述问题的分析对于理解或者促进未来全球宏观经济稳定健康发展具有重大的意义。 关键词：全球失衡治理合作共赢 一、全球治理的背景与挑战 虽然全球经济治理越来越受关注，但对什么是全球经济治理的问题仍然缺乏统一的观点，全球经济治理尚没有一致的概念。重要原因在于全球经济治理涉及内容十分广泛，难以简单地进行定义。然而，综合世界经济发展及相关问题的研究来看，全球经济治理大致包含三层要素，即全球经济谁来治理、治理什么及如何治理。尽管世界各国都是全球经济治理的参与者，但大国巨大的体量及较强的实力注定了全球经济运行通常由大国主导。这套国际规则与制度并非总是最优的，它是某一时期世界主要国家通过自身综合实力在国际舞台上博弈形成的，更多体现强国的意志。 全球化能够促进全球经济更快发展，能给人类社会带来更大的财富，为世界带来巨大好处，那为何当前会出现去全球化的问题呢？观察当前反全球化的相关现象，全球失衡是最重要的原因。虽然全球化为人类提供了创造更多财富的机会，但世界各国从中得到的好处却并不相同。 新兴及发展中经济体在全球化过程中受益较大，这也就不难理解金融危机以来为何发达大国更热衷于推动去全球化的进程。金融危机以来发达大国对中国等国商品采取更严厉的反倾销、反补贴等调查，虽然其中有很多原因，但显然与发达大国在全球化中收益下降有关。2016 年英国脱欧等事件的发酵突出了一体化过程中各国的权责分配矛盾问题，欧盟一体化虽然推动了欧盟经济的发展。虽然欧盟与全球化并不一致，但欧盟代表着全球化更深层次的发展，客观上也揭示了开放合作的问题所在。 二、合作共赢的“中国方案” 如何推动全球经济治理创新以遏制去全球化的问题，已经成为世界各国政府及业界关心的重要内容。中国作为世界上最大的发展中国家，通过改革开放融入了全球化，成为全球化的参与者、受益者，中国希望自身的发展能够带动其他经济体的共同发展，希望其他经济体能够搭中国经济发展的顺风车。在此背景下，中国提出了合作共赢的全球经济治理新理念，借此保障世界各国在全球化过程中共同受益，希望从根本上解决全球失衡的问题。国际社会对此充满较高的期待。为了更好地推动中国与外部开展互利共赢的合作，中国近年来正在加速探索构建合作共赢的开放型经济新体制。一是通过自贸园区战略探索国内高标准开放型经济新体制的构建。自贸园区战略将着力推动制度创新，探索如何构建合作共赢的开放型经济新体制。二是通过自贸区战略深化中国与其他经济体的双向或者多边开放，推动区域经贸规则的转型升级，促进区域合作共赢治理体系的构建。三是通过“一带一路”等战略推动全球经济治理体系朝着合作共赢的方向发展。伴随着相关战略的稳步推进，合作共赢的“中国方案”日益清晰，全球失衡的问题理论上有望从“中国方案”中逐步得到解决。
龙源期刊网 https://www.doczj.com/doc/f54555531.html, 浅析电商型网红经济 作者：赵玉倩 来源：《大东方》2017年第09期 摘要：电商型网红是伴随图文时代和网红2.0时代的来临在网络上聚集极高人气的网络红人，通过与电商手段结合将自己的粉丝效应变现的一类网红。本文试图通过对电商型网红的传播、变现方式和现状分析进一步浅析当下电商型网红发展趋势。 关键词：电商网红经济变现方式 一、电商型网红的定义 电商网红大多是由小模特、小设计师或淘宝卖家演变而来，最终也是通过电商平台变现。电商网红的主要特点是年轻貌美、懂时尚穿搭、经营淘宝店，她们善于在社交媒体上通过美图展示自己的穿搭和新品，并频繁与粉丝互动。 电商网红一般会选择与网红孵化机构/经纪公司合作，使用后者提供的店铺运营、供应链管理等服务，并与其分成。一些孵化机构还提供数据分析服务，根据粉丝的回复、转发、点赞以及回复内容的关键词，可以预测某款商品的热销程度从而估计产量，做到按需生产。 2015年淘宝的“618大促”中，销量TOP10的淘宝女装店铺中有7家为“网红”店铺。从数量上来看，电商网红已占到中国网红的一半。电商网红的变现模式非常清晰和顺畅，并具有可复制性，在一定程度激活了中国的传统服装产业。 二、电商型网红的内容分发和传播管道 在内容分发环节，各类平台是主体，网红依托于平台进行内容分发。典型的平台包括双微、网络媒体、短视频平台、视频网站和音频平台和垂直类社区。 对平台而言，网红既是优秀内容生产者也是流量收割机，能生产优质内容的头部网红成了平台竞相争取的对象。 电商第一网红张大奕的微博运营充分使用了微博各种工具，微博橱窗或短链+短视频+一直播，开展微博活动给粉丝送福利，并且以亲民姿态跟粉丝进行互动。各类微博运营均可以的相互借鉴，某些代表性电商网红的成功对企业微博和个人IP均有不小有借鉴意义。 三、电商型网红变现方式 目前主流的变现方式有三种，分别为向粉丝卖产品（电商）、卖服务、卖广告三类变现方式。
语文课程与教学论 名词术语中英文对照表 the Chinese Course and Teaching and Learning Theory in Chinese and English Teaching materials editing teaching materials /Chinese Teaching Materials /edit teaching materials /Uniformed Chinese Teaching Materials /Experimental Teaching Materials /Mother Tongue Teaching Materials /Teaching Materials of the New Course *textbook *reading book *teaching reference book *exercises book *studying plan Technology /Educational Technology /Modern Educational Technology /Educational Technology in Chinese Teaching /multi-media technology /net technology /cloud serving technology *white board *net meeting *chat room *blog Teaching Basic Theory of the Teaching teaching aim teaching task teaching objective teaching model teaching tactics teaching principle teaching program teaching reform teaching case Courseware teaching resources teaching experiment /mother tongue teaching A Term List of 1. 教材（ JC ） 教材编写 /语文教材 /编写教材 / 统编教材 /实验教材 /母语教材 /新课程教材 * 课本 * 读本 * 教学参考书（教参） * 练习册 *学案 2. 技术（ JS ） / 教育技术 /现代 教育技术 /语文 教育技术 /多媒 体技术 / 网络 技术 /云服务技 术 * 白板 *网 络会议 *聊天室 * 博克 3. 教学 （JX ） 教学基本理论 教学目的 教学 任务 教学目标 教学模式 教学 策略 教学原则 教学大纲 教学 改革 教学案例 教学课件 教学 资源 教学实验 /母语教学
全球化过程中的问题与治理 一、全球化过程中出现的问题 1.经济危机。随着全球经济联系日益紧密,能源价格大幅攀升、金融秩序严重失控、大国经济明显衰退诱发全球经济衰退甚至危机的可能性增大。这种情况一旦发生,其传导的速度、影响的深度可能远远超过以往的世界经济危机。此外,气候变化、环境恶化等问题长期得不到有效治理,也会威胁全球与各国经济可持续发展。 2.社会动乱。全球化导致国家间和国家内部贫富差距扩大,国家内部社会矛盾有可能激化。如美、英、法等发达国家传统产业大量外移,失业问题突显。全球化还使各国国内因素与国际因素的联系与互动增强,国际问题诱发国内动荡、国内问题引发国际动荡的几率都在增大。 3.大国对抗。部分大国实行霸权主义,战略扩张,军备竞赛,遏制其他新兴国家。 4.地区动荡。全球化中边缘化的国家、霸权主义、恐怖主义、核扩散等,可能使21世纪头20年内地区热点不是随全球化深入逐步减少而是继续增多,使地区热点对全球安全形势的牵动作用增大,使国际形势在总体和平状态下局部动荡继续加剧。 5.文化冲突。全球化将使得各个民族的文化特质消长不等、凸显不一。这不利于文化的发展,更不符合百花齐放、百家争鸣的文化演进原则。但随着经济全球化趋势的加快,不同文化、不同价值观、不同生活方式、不同信念,有些在相互冲突和撞击中形成了新质——世界大文化,有些则会改变本民族的生活方式、价值观念和文化特性。 二、逆全球化 1.表现 (1)自由贸易理念边缘化,贸易保护主义不断升级。 (2)全球经济陷入持续的结构性低迷,下行风险和不确定性上升。美国和部分欧盟国家的移民、投资、监管和社会保障政策等去全球化趋势明显。
电气的专业术语英文（一） 11. interfere with 有害于。。。 12. indicating needle仪表指针 13. hazardous 危险的 14. pivot 支点 15. terminal 端子 16. spiral 螺旋形的 17. spring 弹簧 18. shunt 分流，分路，并联，旁路 19. rectifier 整流器 20. electrodynamometer 电测力计 21. strive for 争取 22. vane 机器的叶，叶片 23. strip 条，带，(跨接)片 24. crude 不精细的，粗略的 25. polarity 极性 26. fuse 保险丝，熔丝 27. rugged 坚固的 28. depict 描绘，描写 29. cartridge 盒式保险丝 30. blow (保险丝)烧断
31. plug fuse 插头式保险丝 32. malfunction 故障 33. deenergize 不给… 通电 34. insulation 绝缘 35. generator 发电机 36. magneto 磁发电机 37. humidity 湿度 38. moisture 潮湿湿气 39. abbreviate 缩写，缩写为 40. transformer 变压器 41. thumb 检查，查阅 42. milliammeter 毫安表 43. multimeter 万用表 44. dynamometer 测力计，功率计 45. aluminum 铝 46. deteriorate 使….恶化 47. eddy current 涡流 48. gear 齿轮，传动装置 49. dial 刻度盘 50. semiconductor 半导体 51. squirrel 鼠笼式
经济全球化与反全球化p52 经济全球化的影响： 正面影响： 有效地利用世界各地的资源，为各国提供了更多的发展机会，也极大地丰富和方便了人们的日常生活。经济全球化使一些国家变得更具有竞争力、创造力和创新精神，从而使国家能富裕起来。全球化意味着新的经济增长，虽然在这期间存在着增长的风险，但发达国家和发展中国家的国民财富在日益增长，都是全球化的受益者。由于世界范围的国际分工，经济全球化使每个民族和民族国家都在经济和技术的进步中得到自己应得的一份机会。经济全球化促进了国家间特别是大国间的协调与合作。经济全球化使南北关系长期以来的紧张态势得到一定程度的缓解，南北经济交往的规模和密切程度空前增强。一些发展中国家抓住新的发展机遇，缩短了与发达国家的经济差距，发展中国家的国际地位有所提高。推动了知识经济的兴起和发展。 负面影响： 由于民族国家内部和民族国家之间的社会、经济发展的不平衡，经济全球化可能会扩大南北的贫富差距。 经济全球化会造成全球生态系统的过度开发与破坏，威胁着人类的生存。 经济全球化是以发达国家为主导的，他们往往凭借强大的经济实力、先进的科技手段和制定国际规则的便利，冲击着发展中国家的主权和转嫁危机，1997年东南亚金融危机就是例证。 在经济全球化背景下，由于南方国家间经济实力有限，经济结构趋同而缺少互补性，发展中国家之间的差距也在扩大，使南南合作的进一步发展受到限制，面临挑战。 现在全球化是在生产贸易、金融、投资、消费、物流这些领域，全方位的都有表现。全球化大大提升了国际间的相互依存度，它不但表现为国家间相互更加依存，也表现在工业间相互更加依存、市场间相互更加依存、各种生产要素和物流采购相互更加依存、同时金融市场的关联度也越来越高。 全球化所涉及的领域主要就体现在国际贸易、国际投资和国际旅游业等领域中。这里需要说明的一点就是，我们在统计的时候，经常把国际旅游作为国际贸易当中服务贸易的一块，但其实不太准确，它们还是有些不同的。贸易，简单来说，是相当于把产品送到世界各地的消费者手中去；而旅游，是把消费者搬到当地市场来消费。从这个意义上来讲，二者还是有差别的。很有趣的是，从80年代以后，我们都知道，世界经济一直在上下波动，但是唯独国际旅游业始终发展的比较稳健，呈现平稳增长的态势。从85年前后到最近20年时间，全球旅游业的年均增长始终保持在5%到8%这个幅度，而且一直是保持一个比较平稳的增长态势。全球化使各国、各地区之间的经济依存度越来越高，国家间、市场间、各种生产要素和商品、物流采购相互依存着，同时金融、服务市场的关联度也越来越高。在早期，“中国制造”对美国一些当地的产业造成很大的冲击。这里举一个小例子。我在美国工作时的一位同事，一位社会学家。她提出一个命题，“现在市场上到处都是中国制造的产
全球化与全球治理 第一讲全球化理论 本讲主要容全球化的概念及全球化进程 一．什么是全球化？ 技术：人类可以利用先进的通讯技术，克服自然地理因素的限制进行信息的自由传递； 经济：由于生产要素在世界围的自由流动而形成的各国相互依存的状态； 文化：（1）人类文明、文化发展要达到的共同的目标，世界的实现；（2）美国化、西方化； 问题：人类在环境恶化、核威胁等共同问题下达成的共识和利益与共的现实； 全球化是个进程，指的是物质和精神产品的流动冲破区域和国界的束缚，影响到地球上每个角落的生活。全球化还包括人员的跨国界流动。人的流动是物质和精神流动最高程度的综合。 简言之：一个全球在社会、文化、经济和政治各方面变得越来越紧密联系、相互依存的过程。 二．治理理论与全球治理 （一）治理的概念 治理是各种公共的或私人的个人和机构管理其共同事务的诸多方式的总和。是使冲突或不同的利益得以调和并采取联合行动的持续过程。既包括迫使人们服从的正式制度和规则，也包括人们同意或以为符合其利益的非正式制度安排。 治理与统治在权威、主体、手段与方法、围以及管理向度上存在着本质性的差别，涉及权威、合法性、服从性的质变，也涉及世界政治结构、制度体系与思想观念的质变。 （二）全球治理的涵 全球治理是指通过具有约束力的国际规制和行为规，通过国家、国际组织、跨国公司、私人企业以及公民社会自治组织的共同参与和协商行动，解决全球性的共同问题，以维持正常的国际政治经济秩序。
全球治理是治理概念在国际关系和国际事务中的应用，但并非传统国际关系理论的翻版，而是一个全新的观念。全球治理是建立在信任基础上，以共同利益为目标，并在相当程度上保持各个主体相对自主和独立的多主体互动过程，以寻求利益平衡点，形成共同的行动指向，扩展了传统管理模式、层次和决策当局。 第二讲全球问题与全球治理 本讲主要容全球化的概念及全球化进程 治理与全球治理理论 一．全球性问题 （一）全球问题的由来 1．工业文明的异化 ①坚持无限制经济增长的经济主义； ②片面追求物质享受的唯物质主义、消费主义，忽视了人类的精神追求，导致了人的异化； ③坚持征服、主宰自然的人类中心主义，造成人与自然关系的全面紧，并引发资源与环境危机。 2．全球治理危机 围绕着人、社会与自然而形成的全球问题，导致全球治理危机，无法在工业文明的框架求得超越，也无法在民族国家体制的传统治理中求得解决。 （二）全球问题的涵和特点 1．涵 全球公共问题是指当代全球社会所面临的一系列超越国家和地区界限，关系到整个人类生存与发展的严峻问题，是全球社会的综合安全问题。 全球公共问题的三大领域：社会与社会之间的问题；社会与自然之间的问题；人与社会之间的问题。 2.特点 全球性挑战性综合性
浅谈网红经济学现象 一、网红经济学现象的概述 大批网络红人雨后春笋般出现以及传播热度的持续走高，网红传播和网红经济也被推到风口之上，围绕网红产生的商业链条和盈利模式开始浮出水面，被称为“网红经济”。网红的概念逐渐从“人”和“物”延伸到“个性化品牌”层面。当下，基于数据的网红包装、基于社交的网红传播以及基于品牌的商业变现成为网红经济构成的三 个主要环节，越来越多的“网红”们正通过内容营销将粉丝价值迅速变现，一边创造出令人惊叹的经济价值，一边冲击着互联网时代的商业逻辑。大量的粉丝、强大的话题性、资本认可的商业变现能力、日益延伸的产业链……“网红经济”已经成为移动互联网时代一个重要的社会现象。 二、网红经济的形成与发展 网红经济是以年轻貌美的时尚达人为形象代表，以红人的品味和眼光为主导，进行选款和视觉推广，在社交媒体上聚集人气，依托庞大的粉丝群体进行定向营销，从而将粉丝转化为购买力。 在网红的定义出现之前，网红便已经产生。只不过在互联网的快速发展中，特别是“互联网＋”时代，网红经济的理念才逐渐被人们提出并得到广泛的关注和认可，成为新经济下一个重要的发展趋势。 随着网红经济走热,为了将关注度变现,网络平台、公司、经纪人、策划以及“表演者”逐渐形成了一个完整的生态链。在这个新生意里,既有令人不解的大起大落和浮华喧闹,也有着传统产业中的规则与竞
争。网红经济的发展，颠覆了传统价值理念和经济模式，实现了对传统经济的升级和重构，为“大众创业，万众创新”的理念提供了更真实的例子，拓展了新时代经济发展的途径。互联网的发展变化，为网红及网红经济的发展带来了极大的便利，也改变着网红经济的发展趋势。随着互联网发展，网红经济也将找到自身的发展优势，不断扩大自己的影响力。 三、网红经济成功的原因 （1）互联网带来的去中心化 随着互联网的高速发展，每个人都在成为一个自己的媒体来源，这就让媒体传播的方式变得越来越多种多样。在多元化自媒体的作用下，原来只属于一线偶像级巨星的明星人气开始被分割化，垂直化，每个人都开始在某个方面成为明星，可能他们颜值很高，就像“雪梨”；可能他们有一技之长，比如说罗振宇；可能他们善于表达生活中的喜怒哀乐，比如说“Papi酱”。这些人都具备成为明星的潜质，明星 已经开始变得多元化，变得去中心化。 （2）网红的草根属性引起共鸣 当下的网红具有着显著的草根属性，不是说只要具有高颜值，拥有锥子脸就能够成为网红。现在的网红越来越多的由传统的文艺表演、卖萌等简单的表现形式向网络传播、网络教学转变，很多的网红可能是网上的时装导师，可能是粉丝的化妆教练，也可能是大众的穿衣搭配达人。这些人拥有着较强的专业属性，从而能在网红之中脱颖而出。并且与高冷的明星不同，网红通常拥有较强的粉丝互动能力，与粉丝
英文專有名詞介紹 1. General (一般專有名詞) 2. Clean Room (潔淨室專有名詞)
3. Factory Automation (工廠自動化專有名詞)
*註.OPI(Operation POSEIDON Instruction)海神生產作業系統專有名詞介紹
6.Cell段製程專有名詞介紹
7. 日常使用的英文名詞
通用术语 Array Line进行Thin Film, Photo, Etch工艺的生产Line是Array Line，主要制造Glass上面TFT (Thin Film Transistor) 结构。 Cell Line进行PI Coating, Rubbing, Filling, Seal/TR印刷工艺等生产Line是Cell Line，主要生产TFT-LCD Cell状态产品的过程。 Module Line是用TCP (Tape Carrier Package) 将PCB与CELL进行连接，并使用BEZEL进行组装的Ass’y工艺等的生产Line ，是生产TFT Module产品的过程。 LCD Liquid Crystal Display的简称。用电场、磁场等外部影响,改变液晶分子排列,改变液晶分子结构的光学特性后,利用其明暗效果的显示元件. TFT-LCD 在形成FET (Field Effect Transistor)结构的TFT Glass与Color Filter之间注入液晶而制成的显示元件,使用于Note Book PC、Monitor、中小型TV 等。 Polarizer (POL)偏光片将入射光分为2个直交的偏光，透射其中特定方向的光线,吸收或分散别的光线后,将透射光变为偏振光的高分子Film Backlight (B/L)为了给LCD提供光源,在Panel后部组装的发光部件,有EL, LED, CCFL 等。 Color Filter (C/F) 制造Color液晶显示元件时使用的主要原材料,指按一定的顺序排列了Red，Green， Blue像素的薄膜。 Pixel and Dot Pixel 是Picture Element的简称, Color Filter Stripe上的3个R,G,B Dot统称为单位像素, Dot（or Sub-pixel)指上述R,G,B的各个像素. Lot以一定的目的捆绑为一个单位的状态.制造工艺上考虑作业时间及库存等情况后决定最佳的Lot Size,并使用. Lot =》批次，在生产中用来表示一CST的玻璃的命名 LOT ID = LOT NAME Particle是大气灰尘及装备/DI Water产生的污染物质等的总称.一般指大小在0.001~1000?的固体及液体粒子. Smock Room是出入Clean Room时穿着的外衣,也成为洁净服. Smock Room是出入Clean Room 时,换着Smock 的场所. Material Handling System =》物料处理系统 CONV The full name is Conveyor全称是输送机 FFU The full name is Fan Filter Unit全称是风机过滤单元 MCS The full name is Material Control System全称是材料控制系统 2. Product/Process =》产品/过程 Model =》模型, 型号Panel =>平板,面板panel type =》液晶屏型号, 液晶类型 Process Flow =》工艺流程Product =》产品Operation =》操作 Chamber =》室，储存腔Equipment =》设备，器材Shortened form is EQP. Machine Port =》终端PORT. Cassette Stage (Loader/Unloader) CST承载机台，入口，出口 Cassette =>装GLASS或Panel的盒子Pitch =》尺寸System =》系统 OIC =》操作系统Operator Interface Client操作界面客户端
（一）促进发展模式创新。全球化促进生产、资源、人员、贸易、投资和金融等生产要素全球优化配置、降低成本和提高效率。跨国公司已发展到在全球布设研发、生产、销售链条的全球公司阶段。经验显示，一国经济开放度提高与其人均GDP增长之间成正比。无论一个国家的发展模式如何调整变化，不考虑全球化因素，不利用全球化机遇，就不可能探索出先进的发展模式。 （二）促进国际利益融合。利益融合既表现在经济领域，又表现在其他领域；既表现在双边领域又表现在多边领域。国家间经济相互依赖逐步深化，俱荣俱损局面开始形成。全球经济链条越拧越紧，一国经济发展对全球经济发展的依赖增强。除国家利益外，共同地区利益和全球利益明显增多。利益融合有利于国家关系改善，国家间协调合作增多，出于不同利益而形成的不同“志愿者联盟”不断出现。谋霸权、搞对抗，坚持集团政治和冷战思维越来越不得人心。 （三）促进安全内涵扩展。安全已从传统安全领域扩展到非传统安全领域。恐怖主义、经济安全、环境恶化、气候变暖、疫病蔓延、移民浪潮和跨国犯罪等非传统安全问题威胁增大，涉及到经济、民生、社会和自然等广泛领域。非传统安全主要由人类发展的不科学、发展与社会和自然的不协调引起，其实质是发展问题。非传统安全问题模糊了安全与发展的界限，增大了国际安全合作的紧迫性，挑战着传统安全的主导地位，缓和了国家间的军事对抗关系。如恐怖主义和气候变化不是任何单一国家能够解决得了的，美国在反恐中不得不多方借重国际社会。又如，美俄在导弹防御问题上矛盾尖锐，但在非传统安全领域总的来说合作顺利。 （四）促进国家主权转移。全球化促进了国际组织的发展。仅1990至1998年，国际组织就从26656个增至48350个，其中政府间国际组织250多个。政府间国际组织成为全球性规则的制定者和监督实施者、全球性问题的管理者和全球性争端的解决者。WTO在其《关于解决争端的规则与程序的谅解》中，全面规定了WTO解决贸易争端的政治方法、法律方法、裁决执行与监督以及救济办法等，并专门设立了争端解决机构（DSB）。的确，国家仍然是国际社会的主要行为体，国家主权仍然是国家至高无上的权利，但在全球化背景下，一个不争的事实就是国家主权在越来越多地向政府间国际组织转移。比如，向联合国、地区组织转移政治、外交和军事权利，向WTO、国际货币基金组织、世界银行和全球公司转移经济权利，
房务部：Rooms Division 前厅部：Front Office 客房部：Housekeeping 大堂副理：Assistant Manager 宾客关系主任：Guest Relation Officer 前台：Front Desk 接待处：Reception/Check-in 收银处：Cashier/Check-out 领班：Captain 主管：Supervisor 班次负责人：Shift Leader 商务中心：Business Center 客房服务代表：Guest service agent(接待和收银合并之后的前台人员的称呼)简称GSA 电话总机：Switch Board 接线员：Operator 预订处：Room Reservation 礼宾服务处：Concierge 大厅服务处：Bell Service 金钥匙：Golden Key 行政楼层：Executive Floor 行政酒廊：Executive Lounge 行李生：Bellman 迎宾员：Doorman 夜审：End of Day /Night auditor 2．前厅服务项目专业术语介绍 入住：Check-in 退房：Check-out 外币兑换：Foreign Currency Exchange 问询：Information 接送机服务：Pick up service 叫醒服务：Wake up call 请勿打扰服务：DND Do not disturbed 失物招领：Lost and Found 国内直拨和国际直拨电话：DDD and IDD Domestic Direct Dial and International Direct Dial对方付费电话：Collect Call 3．前厅常用物品术语介绍： 住宿登记单：Registration card 欢迎卡：Welcome card 订房凭证：Voucher 交接本：log book 信封：Envelope 房卡钥匙：Room key 安全保管箱：Safe Deposit Box 客房统计和出售率统计的术语 预离房：Expected Departure 预抵房：Expected Arrival
全球化带来了哪些问题？产生根源和总特征？ 粮食 资源、能源 卫生、人口 环境、气候 全球经济 种族主义、民族主义 恐怖主义 失去控制的人口增长，社会的沟壑和分层，社会的不公平、饥饿和营养不良，广泛的贫困和失业，对增长的狂热，通货膨胀，能源危机，现实的和潜在的资源匮泛，国际贸易和货币瓦解，保护主义，文盲和不合乎时代的教育，青年的反叛，异化，难以控制的扩张和城市衰退，犯罪和吸毒，暴行的爆发和新式的警察残酷，拷打和恐怖主义，对法律和秩序的藐视，愚蠢的核行动，制度的无效和不健全，政治腐败，官僚主义，环境恶化，道德价值的下降，信念丧失，不稳定感……——还有对这一切问题和它们之间的相互联系认识不足，等等 全球化时代既产生于现代西方文化的危机中，也产生于促使全球化到来的各种力量中。这些力量主要是指技术全球化、经济全球化和人道主义全球化 不能否认经济全球化、金融全球化、贸易全球化、投资全球化为全球化时代的到来提供了巨大的动力 人道主义因素就构成了全球化动力的主观部分 一、全球联系密切，容易产生连锁反应，波及范围小到区域、大到全球。 二、全球问题需全球解决，已经超越区域范畴，全球国家都责任共同参与解决之。 三、国际性组织成为协调解决全球问题的重要机构，其影响力对民族国家主权造成干预。 四、经济问题越来越成为影响国际社会的重要问题 五、文明协商已经基本取代战争，成为解决国际争端的主要方式。 六、全球问题的解决有助于平衡国家间的经济社会发展。 七、全球问题的关注和解决有助于推荐民主价值的全球化。 中国在人口治理取得哪些成就？对全球人口治理的影响？ 过去的三十年里我国人口理论不断更新，人口数量得到有效控制，人口素质不断提高，人口与 社会协调发展，我国完成了人口再生产由高出生、高死亡、低增长类型向低出生、低死亡、低增长类型的转变逐步建设新型生育文化促进了生育文明进程。
NBA篮球专业术语汇集 NBA球队分区及主场 ABA(American Basketball Association)：创立于1967年的美国职篮联盟，1976年倒闭。All-American Team：简称全美第一队。 NBA(National Basketball Association)：职篮联盟。 NCAA(national collegiate athletic association)：美国大学运动协会。 HBL(high school of basketball league)：高中篮球联赛。 Atlantic Division大西洋区 Boston Celtics ：波士顿凯特尔队Fleet Center 福利特中心球馆 New Jersey Nets ：新泽西网队 Continental Airline Arena 大陆航空球场 New York Knickerbockers ：纽约尼克斯队Madison Square Garden 麦迪逊广场花园Philadelphia 76ers ：费城76人队First Union Center 第一联盟中心 Toronto Raptors ：多伦多猛龙队Air Canada Centre 加拿大航空中心球场Central Division中央区 Chicago Bulls ：芝加哥公牛队United Center 联合中心球馆 Cleveland Cavaliers：克里夫兰骑士队Gund Arena 冈德体育馆 Detroit Pistons：底特律活塞队The Palace of Auburn Hills 奥本山球场 Indiana Pacers ：印地安纳步行者队 Market Square Arena 城市广场球馆Milwaukee Bucks ：密尔沃基雄鹿队 Bradley Center 布拉德利中心 Southeast Division东南区 Atlanta Hawks：亚特兰大鹰队Philips Arena 飞利浦斯球场 Charlotte Bobcats ：夏洛特山猫队 Bobcats Arena 夏洛特体育馆 Miami Heat ：迈阿密热队 American Airlines Arena 美航球馆 Orlando Magic：奥兰多魔术队TD Waterhouse Centre 水屋中心体育馆Washington Wizards ：华盛顿奇才队 MCI Centre MIC中心球馆 Southwest Division西南区 Dallas Mavericks ：达拉斯小牛 American Airlines Center 美国航空中心球场Houston Rockets ：休斯敦火箭队 Toyota Center 丰田中心球馆 New Hornets ：新奥尔良黄蜂队 New Orleans Arena 新奥尔良球馆 Memphis Grizzlies ：孟菲斯灰熊队 General Motors Place 金字塔球场 San Antonio Spurs ：圣安东尼马刺队SBC Center SBC中心球馆 Northwest Division西北区 Denver Nugget ：丹佛金块Pepsi Center 百事中心球馆 Minnesota Timberwolves ：明尼苏达森林狼队。Target Center 标靶中心球馆Portland Trailblazers：波特兰开拓者队The Rose Garden 玫瑰花园球馆 Seattle Supersonics ：西雅图超音速队。 KEY Arena 钥匙球场 Utah Jazz：犹他爵士队。 Delta Center 德尔塔中心球馆 Pacific Division太平洋区
经济全球化与对外开放 一、判断题(正确的在题后括号内写T，错误的写F) 1．经济全球化主要是生产全球化、信息全球化、资本全球化。( F ) 2．经济全球化导致发展中国家受发达国家控制。( F ) 3．经济全球化一定使世界各国普遍受益。( F ) 4．经济全球化是一把“双刃剑”，我国应置身事外，防范风险。( F ) 5．(2019·温州期末检测)世贸组织是世界上最大的多边贸易组织，其最重要的原则是非歧视原则。( T ) 二、选择题(每小题给出的四个选项中，只有一项是符合题目要求的) 6．海南航空海外并购再下一城，以4.5亿美元的价格收购巴西第三大航空公司蓝色航空23.7%的股权，成为蓝色航空的单一最大股东。这主要体现了( ) A．生产全球化B．贸易全球化 C．资本全球化D．并购全球化 解析：选C。海南航空海外并购属于对外投资，体现了资本全球化，C项正确且符合题意； A、B、D三项不符合题意。 7．近年来，许多跨国公司投资由东南沿海地区转向了快速发展中的中西部地区，中西部地区逐渐成为跨国公司投资的热土。跨国公司的战略调整( ) ①是基于对中国未来经济趋向区域平衡发展的判断 ②是基于新形势下我国实施“走出去”战略的需要 ③将为我国中西部地区的经济发展提供根本的动力 ④会给我国中西部地区的经济发展带来更多的机遇 A．②④ B．①④ C．②③D．①③ 解析：选B。许多跨国公司投资由东南沿海地区转向了快速发展中的中西部地区，是基于对中国未来经济趋向区域平衡发展的判断，会给我国中西部地区的经济发展带来更多的机遇，①④正确。跨国公司对华投资是“引进来”而不是“走出去”，②不选；③说法错误，排除。 8．近几年，不满足于在国内购物的消费者开始将眼光转向境外，轻点鼠标，去海外“淘宝”，这种购物方式被称为“海淘”。现在，越来越多的中国人开始加入海淘大军，成为海淘一族。下列对“海淘”的认识正确的是( ) ①这是贸易全球化的表现 ②交易过程中使用的是虚拟货币 ③这是资本全球化的体现 ④这会使货币的基本职能发生变化 A．①②B．③④
英语专业四级考试词汇语法真题及解析 文件管理序列号：[K8UY-K9IO69-O6M243-OL889-F88688]
2016年英语专业四级考试词汇语法真题 参考答案与解析 11. How can I concentrate if you _________ continually ______ me with silly questions? A. have… interrupted B. are… interrupted C. had… interrupting D. were… interrupting 选A。虽然我觉得更应该说you are continually interrupting me with silly questions。不过这里用现在完成时表示的是一个动作发生过成为过去经历，有可能多次发生，也就是打断一次、两次、三次等等不断重复到现在。 12. Among the four sentences below, Sentence ___ expresses the highest degree of possibility? A. It may take a long time to find a solution to the problem. B. It might take a long time to find a solution to the problem. C. It could take a long time to find a solution to the problem. D. It should take a long time to find a solution to the problem. 选D。四个里把握度最高的是should，其次是may，最后是might和could。 13. She is a better speaker than _____ in the class. A. any boy B. the other boys C. other any girl