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Dynamics with Infinitely Many Derivatives The Initial Value Problem

Dynamics with Infinitely Many Derivatives The Initial Value Problem
Dynamics with Infinitely Many Derivatives The Initial Value Problem

a r X i v :0709.3968v 3 [h e p -t h ] 7 J a n 2008Preprint typeset in JHEP style -HYPER VERSION

Neil Barnaby Canadian Institute for Theoretical Astrophysics,University of Toronto,60St.George St.Toronto,Ontario M5S 3H8Canada Email:barnaby@cita.utoronto.ca Niky Kamran Department of Mathematics and Statistics,McGill University,Montr′e al,Qu′e bec,H3A 2K6Canada Email:nkamran@math.mcgill.ca Abstract:Di?erential equations of in?nite order are an increasingly important class of equations in theoretical physics.Such equations are ubiquitous in string ?eld theory and have recently attracted considerable interest also from cosmologists.Though these equa-tions have been studied in the classical mathematical literature,it appears that the physics community is largely unaware of the relevant formalism.Of particular importance is the fate of the initial value problem.Under what circumstances do in?nite order di?eren-tial equations possess a well-de?ned initial value problem and how many initial data are required?In this paper we study the initial value problem for in?nite order di?erential equations in the mathematical framework of the formal operator calculus,with analytic initial data.This formalism allows us to handle simultaneously a wide array of di?erent nonlocal equations within a single framework and also admits a transparent physical in-terpretation.We show that di?erential equations of in?nite order do not generically admit in?nitely many initial data.Rather,each pole of the propagator contributes two initial

data to the ?nal solution.Though it is possible to ?nd di?erential equations of in?nite order which admit well-de?ned initial value problem with only two initial data,neither the dynamical equations of p -adic string theory nor string ?eld theory seem to belong to this class.However,both theories can be rendered ghost-free by suitable de?nition of the action of the formal pseudo-di?erential operator.This prescription restricts the theory to frequencies within some contour in the complex plane and hence may be thought of as a sort of ultra-violet cut-o?.Our results place certain recent attempts to study in?ation in the context of nonlocal ?eld theories on a much ?rmer mathematical footing.

Keywords:di?erential equations of in?nite order,string ?eld theory,p -adic strings,cosmology of theories beyond the SM.

1.Introduction

1.1Di?erential Equations of In?nite Order in Theoretical Physics

Di?erential equations containing an in?nite number of derivatives(both time and space

derivatives)are an increasingly important class of equations in theoretical physics.Nonlocal

?eld theories with in?nitely many powers of the d’Alembertian operator2(given by2=

??2t+ ?2in?at space)appear ubiquitous in string?eld theories[1]-[10](for a review see[11]).This nonlocal structure is also shared by p-adic string theory[12](see also

[13]),a toy model of the bosonic string tachyon.Yet another example of a?eld theory

containing in?nitely many powers of2can be obtained by quantizing strings on a random

lattice[14](see also[15]).Moreover,?eld theories containing in?nitely many derivatives

have recently received considerable attention from cosmologists[16]-[34]due to a wide

array of novel cosmological properties including the possibility of realizing quintessence

with w

behaviour[22,23],bouncing solutions[22]-[24]and self-in?ation[25](see also[30]for

applications both to bouncing cosmologies and also to dark energy and see[29,31]for a

discussion of the construction of cosmological solutions in in?nite order theories).In[32]it

was shown that cosmological models based on p-adic string theory can give rise to slow roll

in?ation even when the potential is extremely steep.This remarkable behaviour was found

to be a rather general feature of nonlocal hill-top in?ationary models in[33].In[34]it was

shown that nonlocal hill-top in?ation is among the very few classes of in?ationary models

which can give rise to a large nongaussian signature in the Cosmic Microwave Background

(CMB).

Di?erential equations with in?nitely many derivatives which arise frequently in the

literature include the dynamical equation of p-adic string theory[12]

p?2/2φ=φp(1.1) where p is a prime number(though it appears that the theory can be sensibly continued to other values of p also[35])and we have set m s≡1.A second popular example is the dynamical equation of the tachyon?eld in bosonic open string?eld theory(SFT)which can be cast in the form(see,for example,[36])

(1+2)e?c2?2 φ=φ2(1.2)

where c=ln(33/42).In both cases the?eldφis a tachyon representing the instability of some non BPS D-brane con?guration.More generally,there is considerable interest in applications of a wide class of equations of the form[24,26,27,28]

F(2)φ=U(φ)(1.3) where U(φ)=V′(φ)is the derivative of some potential energy function V(φ)associated with the?eldφand we refer to F(z)as the kinetic function.Equations of the form(1.3) are interesting in their own right from the mathematical perspective and some special cases have received attention recently[37]-[40].

Somewhat more general classes of in?nite order di?erential equations,in which the derivatives do not necessarily appear in the combination2=??2t+ ?2,arise in noncom-mutative?eld theory[41],?uid dynamics[42,43]and quantum algebras[42].

1.2The Importance of the Initial Value Problem

Of particular interest is the fate of the initial value problem for in?nite derivative theories. When does equation(1.3)admit a well-de?ned initial value problem-even formally,that is ignoring issues of convergence-and how many initial data are required to determine a solution?Such questions are fundamental to any physical application.To emphasize the nature of the problem that we are solving,let us consider a few trivial examples.First consider the equation

(?2t?m2)2φ=0(1.4) It is easy to see that,due to the presence of the operator?2t?m2,the function

φ1(t)=Ae mt+Be?mt(1.5) provides a two-parameter solution of(1.4).Of course,this is not the most general solution. Toφ1one could also append

φ2(t)=t Ce mt+De?mt (1.6) Since equation(1.4)is fourth order in derivatives it is not surprising that the four parameter solutionφ(t)=φ1(t)+φ2(t)provides the most general possible solution and the initial value problem is well-posed with four initial conditions.We now consider the somewhat less trivial example

Ai(??2t)φ(t)=0(1.7) where Ai(z)is the Airy function.It is perhaps obvious that a solution is provided by

φ(t)= n a n e m n t+b n e?m n t (1.8)

where{m2n}are the zeroes of the Ai(?z)(the?rst few roots are m21~=1.17,m22~=3.27,···).What is probably less obvious is whether(1.8)provides the most general solution of (1.7).Could there be additional solutions which are not as trivial to construct as(1.8)? Since the original equation(1.7)was in?nite order,it is not entirely obvious.An even less trivial example is provided by the equation

theories which is su?ciently general to handle a wide variety of di?erent types of nonlocality. (In particular,our formalism is su?ciently general to handle the motivational examples (1.4,1.7,1.9).)Though we do not derive any new solution of(1.1,1.2)we nevertheless feel that it is instructive to re-consider such equations in the context of our formalism.Our approach may be readily applied also to other nonlocal equations which arise in physical applications.

It is not uncommon to see equations of the form(1.3)described as“a new class of equations in mathematical physics”in the string theory and cosmology literature.However, it happens that di?erential equations of in?nite order have been studied in the mathematical literature for quite some time.Indeed,the study of linear di?erential equations of in?nite order was the subject of an extensive treatise by H.T.Davis as early as1936[51]!This treatise and papers by Davis[52]and Carmichael[53]give an account of this theory as it stood at the time.The topic was further developed from an analytical perspective by Carleson[54],who showed that the solutions of di?erential equations of in?nite order need not be analytic functions,and obtained su?cient conditions in terms of the coe?cients of the equation for the solutions of the initial value problem to be analytic.We should also mention that initial value problems for some special classes of di?erential equations of in?nite order which are not of the type studied in this paper appear in the modern theory of pseudo-di?erential operators[55].However,for the purposes of this paper,the symbolic calculus described in the classical papers[51]and[53]will be su?cient,since our main focus is on the determination of the number of parameters on which the analytic local solutions of the initial value problem could possibly depend.It is a bit surprising that the physics community has apparently not been aware of this classical mathematical literature, given the simplicity of the mathematical formalism which relies only on some basic results from complex analysis and the theory of integral transforms.One of our primary goals in the current note is to bring this mathematical literature to the attention of the physics community and to apply the formalism to certain equations of particular physical interest.

Since di?erential equations of N-th order(in the time derivative)require N initial data it is sometimes reasoned that equations of the form(1.3)admit a unique solution only once in?nitely many initial data are speci?ed(as in our toy example(1.7)).Such a situation would pose serious di?culties for any physical application:by suitable choice of in?nite data one could freely specify the solutionφ(t)to arbitary accuracy in any?nite time interval?t[49].In such a situation the initial value problem completely looses predictivity. Fortunately,it is not generically the case that di?erential equations of in?nite order admit in?nitely many initial data.We will show that for free?eld theories every pole of the propagator contributes two initial data to the solution of the?eld equation.This result is simple to understand on physical grounds since each pole of the propagator corresponds to a physical excitation in the theory and,on quantization,the two initial data per degree of freedom are promoted to annihilation/creation operators.

In the context of quantum?eld theory the question of counting initial data is intimately related to the question of whether the theory su?ers from the presence of ghosts-quantum states having wrong-sign kinetic term in the Lagrangian.The presence of ghosts signals a pathology in the underlying quantum?eld theory since these states either violate unitarity

or else carry negative kinetic energy and lead to vacuum instability[57].One must worry

about the presence of ghosts in theories which give rise to equations of the form(1.3)

since the addition of?nitely many higher derivative terms in the Lagrangian generically

introduces ghost-like excitations into the theory.As we shall see later on,this is not

necessarily the case in nonlocal?eld theories containing in?nitely many higher derivative

terms.A related worry is the presence of the Ostrogradski instability[44](see[48,49]

for a review)which generically plagues?nite higher derivative theories.The Ostrogradski

instability is essentially the classical manifestation of having ghosts in the https://www.doczj.com/doc/f44535593.html,ter

on we will elucidate more carefully the relationship between these issues.

Though it is possible to constuct nonlocal equations which evade the Ostrogradski

instability,we will show that neither the dynamical equations of p-adic string theory(1.1)

nor SFT(1.2)belong to this class.However,we illustrate a simple nonperturbative pre-

scription for re-de?ning these theories in such a way as to evade such di?culties.This

prescription restricts the theory to frequenciesωwithin some contour C in the complex

plane and may be analogous to placing an ultra-violet(UV)cut-o?on the theory.

The plan of this paper is as follows.In section2we consider linear ordinary di?erential

equations of in?nite order,laying down the necessary formalism for counting initial con-

ditions.In section3we generalize this analysis to partial di?erential equations of in?nite

order(in the case that the derivatives appear in the combination2=??2t+ ?2)showing that the initial data counting has a transparent physical interpretation and commenting

also on the failure of the Ostrogradski construction.In section4we apply our prescrip-

tion for initial data counting to some particular in?nite order di?erential equations which

appear frequently in the literature.In section5we discuss the nonlinear problem and

illustrate the application of our formalism to nonlinear equations by studying the equation

of p-adic string theory using a perturbative expansion about the unstable vacuum of the

theory.We present our conclusions in section6.Appendix A reviews the relation between

(1.1)and a certain nonlinear Fredholm equation;appendix B gives some technical details

concerning our conventions for the Laplace transform and appendix C applies our initial

data counting to open-closed p-adic string theory.

2.Linear Ordinary Di?erential Equations of In?nite Order:Counting the

Initial Data

Before specializing to particular equations of immediate physical interest we?rst develop

the general theory of linear ordinary di?erential equations(ODEs)of the form

f(?t)φ(t)=J(t)(2.1) where the function f(s)is often called the generatrix in mathematical literature.Equations of the form(2.1)are closely associated with both Fredholm integral equations and this relation is illustrated in appendix A for the case of the p-adic string.There are various prescriptions which one might use to de?ne the action of the formal pseudo-di?erential operator f(?t).In the case that f(s)is an analytic function one might represent it by the

convergent series expansion

f(s)=

∞ n=0f(n)(0)

n!?(n)

t

f(t)=J(t)

In the case where f(s)is non-analytic however,some alternative de?nition is required. (Notice that the possibility of non-analytic generatrix is not purely academic.The zeta-strings model of[28]involves a nonanalytic kinetic function.)A natural prescription is to de?ne the pseudo-di?erential operator f(?t)through its action on Laplace transforms.1 Let us assume that we are given a functionφ(t)which admits a Laplace transform?φ(s) de?ned by

φ(t)=

1

2πi C ds e st f(s)?φ(s) (2.4) where we drop the additional term involvingφ(i)(0)(see appendix B)which can be absorbed into the arbitrary coe?cients in the solutions of(2.1)(this will become clear shortly).If we make the natural choice of taking C to be an contour which encloses all the poles of the integrand in(2.3)then(2.4)reproduces the in?nite series de?nition(2.2)for f(s)analytic. Moreover,this de?nition reproduces the one used in[58].This is the choice of C which is mathematically well-motivated and we will make this choice for the most part.However, later on we will consider a particular alternative choice of C which is motivated by physical considerations.

We will be particularly interested in equations of the form(2.1)for which the generatrix may be cast in the form

f(s)=γ(s)

M

i=1(s?s i)r i(2.5)

withγ(s)being everywhere non-zero,which implies that f(s)has precisely M zeros at the points s=s i,the i-th zero being of order r i.For simplicity we assume that all the r i are positive integers,though this assumption is relaxed in subsection2.4.We further assume that|s1|<|s2|<···<|s M|.The functionγ(s)?1is nonsingular on the disk|s|<|s M|but is otherwise arbitrary.It is useful also to introduce the resolvent generatrix f(s)?1which

has simple poles at the points s=s i,the i-th pole being of order r i.

2.1The Homogeneous Equation

We?rst assume that we are given a solution of(2.1)in the case that J(t)=0,and that this solution admits a Laplace transform?φ(s)de?ned by(2.3).Substituting(2.3)into(2.1), yields

1

γ(s)

M

i=1r i j=1A(i)j

2πi C ds h(s)(j?1)!h(j?1)(s i)

(valid for h(s)analytic inside C and j>0).The resulting solutionφ(t)in con?guration space takes the form

φ(t)=

M

i=1P i(t)e s i t(2.9)

where each P i(t)is a polynomial of order r i?1

P i(t)=

r i

j=1p(i)j t j?1(2.10)

The N coe?cients{p(i)j}are arbitrary(re?ecting the fact that A(i)j were arbitrary)and will serve to?x N initial conditionsφ(n)(0)for n=0,···,N?1.

2.2The Particular Solution of the Inhomogeneous Equation

Having determined the solution of the homogeneous equation

(2.1)

we now consider the

situation where J(t)=0and focus on the particular solution due to the source J(t).We assume that the source term has a Laplace transform?J(s)de?ned by

J(t)=

1

2πi C ds f(s)?φ(s)??J(s) =0(2.12) so that the particular solution is?φ(s)=?J(s)/f(s)or,in con?guration space

φ(t)=1

f(s)

(2.13)

From(2.13)it is clear that the resolvent generatrix is the Laplace-space Green function ?G(s)=f(s)?1.

2.3The Initial Value Problem

It is natural to expect that in order to obtain the most general solution of(2.1)we should append to(2.13)the solution of the homogeneous equation(2.9).One may prove the following theorem,which we now state without proof but whose verisimilitude should be clear from the preceding analysis(for a detailed and elegant proof,see[53]).

Theorem:Consider the linear di?erential equation of in?nite order(2.1)with the function f(s)analytic within the region|s|≤q where q is a given positive constant or zero and further suppose that f(s)may be written in the form(2.5).If J(t)is a function of exponential type not exceeding q then the most general solutionφ(t),subject to the condition that it shall be a function of exponential type not exceeding q,may be written in the form

φ(t)=1

f(s)

+

M

i=1P i(t)e s i t(2.14)

where P i(t)is an arbitrary polynomial of order r i?1and?J(s)is the Laplace-space source. The?rst term in(2.14)corresponds to the particular solution due to the source J(t)and the second term is the solution of the homogeneous equation.If the generatrix f(s)does not vanish inside|s|≤q then the latter solution is identically zero.

Armed with the solution(2.14)the interpretation of the initial value problem for (2.1)is clear:the solution contains N arbitrary coe?cients p(i)j which serve to?x N initial conditionsφ(n)(0)for n=0,···,N?1.This result has a transparent physical interpretation in terms of poles of the propagator,which we shall return to in the next section.It is important to note that the signi?cance of this theorem is that(2.14)provides the most general solution of(2.1).Returning to the motivational example(1.7)we see that (1.8)is,indeed,the full solution because the zeros of the Airy function are order unity.

An interesting consequence of this theorem,whose signi?cance we shall return to later on,is that for J(t)=0the solution(2.14)is identical to the solution of the equation ˉf(?

t)φ(t)=0where

ˉf(s)=f(s)

?2t+m2φ(t)=0(2.15) If we seek solutionsφ(t)which admit a Laplace transform?φ(s),we obtain

1

s2+m2?φ(s)e st =0(2.16) which implies that

?φ(s)=A

(2.17)

s2+m2

up to an additive analytic function which does not alter the con?guration-space solution. Taking the inverse Laplace transform using the formula

L?1 1s2+m2 =J0(mt)(2.18) (where Jνis the Bessel function of the?rst kind)we have

φ(t)=AJ0(mt)(2.19) So that equation(2.15)admits only one initial condition.

It is also straightforward to consider

?2t+m2 3/2φ(t)=0(2.20)

which implies that

1

(s2+m2)1/2+

b

(s2+m2)3/2 =t

(s2+m2)(2i+1)/2

which contains a total of(n+1)/2arbitrary coe?cients.The inverse Laplace transforms may be performed by successively di?erentiating(2.18)with respect to m and using the well-known Bessel function identity

J′ν(x)=?Jν+1(x)+

ν

In the tachyonic case m 2=?μ2<0one simply replaces the Bessel functions J νwith modi?ed Bessel functions I νto obtain real-valued solutions.We ?nd that the equation

(n ?1)!

t 0dt ′(t ?t ′)n ?1φ(t ′)dt ′(2.29)

A natural continuation to noninteger n is

(I αφ)(t )=1dt

n (I n ?αφ)(t )=

1dt n t 0dt ′φ(t ′)

4That is to say (α?1)!≡Γ(α)(where Γis the gamma-function)for non-integer α.We do not use the gamma-function notation explicitly to avoid confusion with another function which we denote by Γ(z )which will be introduced in the next section.

Of course for integerαequation(2.31)reproduces the usual derivative.This de?nition also has the following nice properties[59]

(DαIαφ)(t)=φ(t)ifα>0

(DβIαφ)(t)=(Iα?βφ)(t)ifα>β>0

Dαtβ?1=

(β?1)!

sα?mα

Now,inverting the Laplace transform we?nd the solution

φ(t)=

l j=1d jφj(t)

where

φj(t)=L?1 s j?1

It can be veri?ed that in fact any summation

φ(t)=

l

j=1a jφj(t)(2.36)

with l arbitrary coe?cients{a j}yields a solution to(2.34).We see,then,that equation (2.34)admits a well-posed initial value problem with l initial conditions.In particular,for 1<α≤2equation(2.34)admits two initial conditions.

It is also straightforward to consider the inhomogeneous equation,following the ap-proach of(2.13).In fact,one may de?ne a fractional Green function

Gα(t)=1

sα?mα(2.37)

so that the particular solution is

φ(t)= t0dt′Gα(t?t′)J(t′)(2.38) which can be proved to provide a unique solution to(2.34)withφ(0)=0[59].

2.4.4Properties of Fractional Operators

It is worth commenting on the fact that our de?nition of the operator(?2t+m2)1/2and also the Liouville5de?nition of the fractional derivative Dαlead to some a-priori unex-pected properties,the most notable of which is that the degrees of the fractional derivative operators which we have de?ned are not,in general additive.In other words,Dαdoes not satisfy DαDβ=Dα+βfor general(non-integer)α,β[59].As simple illustration of this fact is given by considering the functionφ(t)=t?1/2,which satis?es D1/2φ=0,while D1φ=?tφ=?1/2t?3/2=0.A similar property can be inferred in the case of the operator (?2t+m2)1/2by noting that(2.15)does not have solutions cos(mt),sin(mt).Indeed,it is straightforward to see that the solution(2.19)of(2.15)is not a solution of the equation (?2t+m2)φ(t)=0.

Given that,using our conventions,acting twice with the operator(?2t+m2)1/2does not necessarily return the same result as acting once with the operator(?2t+m2),the reader may wonder whether the de?nition that we have employed is the most sensible one. We would like to argue that,although the de?nition we have adopted has the unpleasant property that the degrees are in general not additive,it is the most physically reasonable approach.To see this,we consider an alternative de?nition of(?2t+m2)1/2and contrast this with ours.As an alternative to our approach let us consider de?ning f(?t)=

?2t+m2=?t+Q0+Q?1??1t+Q?2??2t+Q?2??2t+···(2.39)

Substituting this into the de?ning identity

?2t+m2=?2t+m2,(2.40) and applying the formal identity

??1t.Q=

∞ i=0(?1)i Q(i)??i?1t,(2.41)

to solve for the coe?cients Q0,Q?1,Q?2,Q?3...we arrive at

2??1t?1

2πi C ds e st s+m28m4s?3+··· ?φ(s)(2.43)

The reader will recognize that the series in the square braces coincides with the Taylor series for

s2+m2.However,in the region|m/s|<1the in?nite series fails to converge.It is due to the behaviour of the in?nite series in this low energy part of phase space that(2.43)and(2.4)do not yield the same results.(Notice that the series fails to converge at the zeroes of the generatrix s2=?m2which is not surprising because these are branch points of the function

3.Physical Interpretation of the Result

3.1Linear Partial Di?erential Equations of In?nite Order

The analysis of section2is actually somewhat more general than what is required in order to study(1.1,1.2).For di?erential equations of in?nite order which arise from Lorentz invariant?eld theories the time derivatives?t must always appear within the d’Alembertian operator2=??2t+ ?2.Hence we would now like to apply the preceding analysis to linear partial di?erential equations(PDEs)of in?nite order of the form

F(2)φ(t,x)=J(t,x)(3.1)

We refer to the function F(z)in(3.1)as the kinetic operator,which is closely related to the generatrix.We will be particularly interested in kinetic operators which can be written

in the form

F(z)=Γ(z)

N

i=1(?z+m2i)(3.2)

whereΓ(z)?1contains no poles in the complex plane,but is otherwise arbitrary.6With the ansatz(3.2)equation(3.1)describes N physical states with masses{m i}.For simplicity we assume the m i to be non-degenerate,however,it is simple to drop this restriction. (Including degenerate masses corresponds to choosing some of the r i in equation(2.5)to be di?erent from unity.)

We now proceed to construct the particular solution of(3.1).Assuming that the?eld φ(t,x)can be expanded into Fourier modes as

φ(t,x)= d3k

k2and

J k(t)= d3x

k2+m2i(3.6)

Following (2.13)we see that the particular solution of (3.4)may be written as

φk (t )=1

F (?s 2?k 2)(3.7)

so that Laplace-space Green function is ?G

k (s )=F (?s 2?k 2)?1.The momentum-space propagator is G (p 2)≡?G

k (iω)=1

(2π)3/2

a (i )k φ(i )k (t )e i k ·x +c .c . (3.12)where “c.c.”denotes the complex conjugate of the preceding term.In the classical solu-tion the coe?cients a (i )k ,a (i )?k serve to ?x 2N initial data φ(0,x ),˙φ

(0,x ),···,φ(2N ?1)(0,x ).However,in the quantum theory these coe?cients are promoted to annihilation/creation operators.It is clear that in this context the solution (3.12)describes N physical degrees of freedom,one for each pole of the propagator.The solutions ξ(i )k evolve di?erently depending on the value of m 2i .There are three qualitatively distinct cases:

1.Stable modes:m 2i >0.This case corresponds to real ω(i )k .The solution of (3.4)takes the form (3.10,3.11)with mode function

φ(i )k (t )=e ?iω(i )k t

2ω(i )k (3.13)

(The normalization of the modesφ(i)

k

is purely conventional since the constant pre-factor may be absorbed into the arbitrary coe?cients a(i)k.)

2.Tachyonic modes:m2i≡?μ2i<0.In this caseω(i)k is real for k2>μ2i and pure

imaginary for k2<μ2i.We consider only the latter modes(the instability band) since the former possibility is identical to the previous case.For tachyonic modes within the instability band the solution of(3.4)takes the form(3.10,3.11)with

mode functions

φ(i)k(t)=

1

2?(i)k e?(i)k t+ie??(i)k t (3.14)

where?(i)k=

is supposed to be UV complete.On the other hand,notice that the particular contour which we have discussed still allows for in?nitely large frequencies.Rather,what we are constraining is the direction in the complex plane in which the frequency can be made large.

3.2Generalization to Curved Backgrounds

Though our analysis has been restricted to3+1-dimensional?at Minkowski space,it should be clear that these conclusions readily generalize to D-dimensions.In curved backgrounds one might consider generalizing our analysis to equations of the form

F(2g)φ(t,x)=J(t,x)(3.16) where2g=gμν?μ?νis the covariant d’Alembertian operator and we take F(z)of the form(3.2).In the homogeneous case J=0a solution may be constructed by taking

φ(t,x)=

N

i=1φi(t,x)(3.17)

where eachφi(t,x)obeys an eigenvalue equation

2gφi=m2iφi(3.18) (this approach of taking eigenfunctions of the d’Alembertian was employed to study the cosmology of nonlocal theories in[32]and also in[27,33,34]).Each solution of(3.18) (assuming that solutions exist)should admit two initial data and hence the full solution (3.17)admits2N initial data,as in our previous?at-space analysis.However,it is not so clear if this analysis can be generalized to include inhomogeneous equations of the form (3.16).Any speci?c analysis will require detailed knowledge of the pole structure of the propagator which is,in general backgrounds,a highly nontrivial task.

It is,however,straightforward to generalize our discussion to include homogeneous solutions in de Sitter space.For a kinetic function of the form(3.2)the de Sitter space generatrix is

f(s)=Γ(?s2?3Hs) n s2+3Hs+m2n (3.19) (the restriction to homogeneous solutions means that we are considering only k=0).There are two zeros for each mass m n

s(±) n =?

3H

1?

4m2n

theories since during in?ation m2/H2~O(η)where m is the characteristic mass scale in the problem andη?1is a slow roll parameter.In this case the almost-constant term in

(3.21)coincides with the slowly rolling solution.

3.3Partial Di?erential Equations Involving Fractional Operators

Using the results of subsection2.4.1it is straightforward to consider equations of the form

(?2+m2)n/2φ(t,x)=0

with n an odd integer.Assuming thatφ(t,x)can be represented as a Fourier integral,we

have,in Fourier space,

?2t+k2+m2 n/2ξk(t)=0(3.22) Let us?rst consider n=1which has only a single mode function.For stable modes m2>0

we have the solution

ξk(t)=(a k+a??k)1

2ωk

J0(ωk t)(3.23)

whereω

k=

ωk

μ2?k2and we are assuming that k<μ.As one would expect the solution (3.24)grows exponentially

ξk(t)~=(a k+a??k)Aπt e?k t

at late times?k t?1.The case m=0has been studied in2+1-dimensions[60]where it has applications to bosonization[61].(Equations involving fractional powers of the d’Alembertian have also been studied in[62].)This special case admits a canonical quan-tization and both causality and Huygens’principle are both respected[60].

We now consider(3.22)with n=3.In the stable case m2>0the solutions can be cast in the form(3.11)with mode function

φk(t)=1

2ωk

[J0(ωk t)+i(ωk t)J1(ωk t)](3.25)

while,for the tachyonic case m2=?μ2<0,we would have

φk(t)=1

2?k

[I0(?k t)+i(?k t)I1(?k t)](3.26)

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