18. langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.
19. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).
20． Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speechsounds.
21． Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved..Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticulation.
22． V oicing: pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant) by vibrating the vocal cords.
23． Broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;while,the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription.
24． Consonant: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.
25． Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language.
26． Allophone:any of the different forms of a phoneme(eg.
27． V owl:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.
28． Manner of articulation; in the production of consonants,manner of articulation refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.
29． Place of articulation: in the production of consonants,place of articulation refers to where in the vocal tract there is approximation,narrowing,or the obstruction of air.
30． Distinctive features: a term of phonology,i.e.a property which distinguishes one phoneme from another.
31． Complementary distribution: the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in the same environment.Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution.
32． IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet,which is devised by the International Phonetic Association in 1888 then it has undergong a number of revisions.IPA is a comprised system employing symbols of all sources,such as Roman small letters,italics uprighted,obsolete letters,Greek letters,diacritics,etc.
33． Suprasegmental:suprasegmental featuresare those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principal supra-segmental features aresyllable,stress,tone,,and intonation.
34． Suprasegmental:aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principle suprasegmental features are syllable,stress,tone,and intonation.
35. morpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. 36. compound oly morphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes, such as classroom,blackboard,snowwhite,etc.
37. inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes,such as number,person,finiteness,aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.
38. affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem).
39. derivation: different from compounds,derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.
40. root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity.
41. allomorph:; any of the different form of a morpheme. For example, in English the plural morpheme is but it is pronounced differently in different environments as/s/in cats,as/z/ in dogs and as/iz/ in classes.So/s/,/z/,and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.
42. Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.
43. bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it is added to,e.g. the plural
morpheme in ―dog’s‖.
44. free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.
45. lexeme:A separate unit of meaning,usually in the form of a word(e.g.‖dog in the manger‖)
46. lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and provided with semantic interpretation.
47. grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings,such conjunction,prepositions,articles and pronouns.
48. lexical word: word having lexical meanings,that is ,those which refer to substance,action and quality,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and verbs.
49. open-class: a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and many adverbs.
50. blending: a relatively complex form of compounding,in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word,or by joining the initial parts of the two words.
51. loanvoord: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation,in some cases,to eh phonological system of the new language that they enter.
52. loanblend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.
53. leanshift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed,but the form is native.
54. acronym: is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization,which has a heavily modified headword.
55. loss: the disappearance of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system.
56. back-formation: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a long form already in the language.
57. assimilation: the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound,which is more specifically called.‖contact‖or‖contiguous‖assimilation.
58. dissimilation: the influence exercised.By one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike,or different.
59. folk etymology: a change in form of a word or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popular nation of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous
60. category:parts of speech and function,such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech,the identification of terms of parts of speech,the identification of functions of words in term of subject,predicate,etc.
61. concord: also known as agreement,is the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.
62. syntagmatic relation between one item and others in a sequence,or between elements which are all present.
63. paradigmatic relation: a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure,or between one element present and he others absent.
64. immediate constituent analysis: the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups(or phrases),which are in trun analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own,and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.
65. endocentric construction: one construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent,or approaching equivalence,to one of its constituents,which serves as the centre,or head, of the whole.Hence an endocentric construction is also known as a headed construction.
66. exocentric construction: a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any to any of its constituents.
67. deep structure: the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction,i.e.the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents ,such sa the relation between,the underlying subject and its verb,or a verb and its object.
68. surfacte structure: the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction,which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive.
69. c-command: one of the similarities,or of the more general features, in these two government relations,is technically called constituent command,c-command for short.
70. government and binding theory: it is the fourth period of development Chomsky’s TG Grammar, which consists of
X-bar theme: the basis,or the starting point,of the utterance.
71. communicative dynamism: the extent to which the sentence element contributes to the development of the communication.
72. ideational function: the speaker’s experience of the real world,including the inner world of his own consciousness.
73. interpersonal function: the use of language to establish and maintain social relations: for the expression of social roles,which include the communication roles created by language itself;and also for getting things done,by means of the interaction between one person and another..
74. textual function: the use of language the provide for making links with itself and with features of the situation in which it is used.
75. conceptual meaning: the central part of meaning, which contains logical,cognitive,or denotative content.
76. denotation: the core sense of a word or a phrade that relates it to phenomena in the real world.
77. connotation: a term in a contrast with denotation,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.
78. reference: the use of language to express a propostion,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.
79. reference: the use of anguage to express a proposition,i.e. to talk about things in context.
80. sense: the literal meaning of a word or an expression,independent of situational context.
81. synonymy: is the technical name for the sameness relation.
82. complentary antonymy: members of a pair in complementary antonymy are complementary to each field completely,such as male,female,absent.
83. gradable antongymy: members of this kind are gradable,such as long:short,big;small,fat;thin,etc.
84. converse antonymy: a special kind of antonymy in that memembers of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition,such as buy;sell,lend,borrow,above,below,etc.
85. relational opposites:converse antonymy in reciprocal social roles,kinship relations,temporal and spatial relations.There are always two entities involved.One presupposes the other. The shorter,better;worse.etc are instances of relational opposites.
86. hyponymy: a relation between tow words,in which the meaning of one word(the superordinate)is included in the meaning of another word(the hyponym)
87. superordinate: the upper term in hyponymy,i.e.the class name.A superordinate usually has several hyponyms.Under animal,for example,there are cats,dogs,pigs,etc,
88. semantic component: a distinguishable element of meaning in a word with two values,e.g<+human>
89. compositionality: a principle for sentence analysis, in which the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined.
90. selection restriction:semantic restrictions of the noun phrases that a particular lexical item can take,e.g.regret requires a human subject.
91. prepositional logic: also known as prepositional calculus or sentential calculus,is the study of the truth conditions for propositions:how the truth of a composite propositions and the connection between them.
92. proposition;what is talk about in an utterance,that part of the speech act which has to do with reference.
93. predicate logic: also predicate calculus,which studies the internal structure of simple.
94. assimilation theory: language(sound,word,syntax,etc)change or process by which features of one element change to match those of another that precedes or follows.
95. cohort theory: theory of the perception of spoken words proposed in the mid-1980s.It saaumes a ―recognition lexicon‖in which each word is represented by a full and independent‖recognistion element‖.When the system receives the beginning of a relevant acoustic signal,all elements matching it are fully acticated,and,as more of the signal is received,the system tries to match it independently with each of them,Wherever it fails the element is deactivated;this process continues until only one remains active.
96. context effect: this effect help people recognize a word more readily when the receding words provide an appropriate context for it.
97. frequency effect: describes the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to its more frequent usage in language.
98. inference in context: any conclusion drawn from a set of proposition,from something someone has said,and so on.It includes things that,while not following logically,are implied,in an ordinary sense,e.g.in a specific context.
99. immediate assumption: the reader is supposed to carry out the progresses required to understand each word and its relationship to previous words in the sentence as soon as that word in encountered.
100. language perception:language awareness of things through the physical senses,esp,sight.
101. language comprehension: one of the three strand of psycholinguistic research,which studies the understanding of language.
102. language production: a goal-directed activety,in the sense that people speak and write in orde to make friends,influence people,convey information and so on.
103. language production: a goal-directed activity,in the sense that people speak and write in order to make friends,influence people,concey information and so on.
104. lexical ambiguity:ambiguity explained by reference to lexical meanings:e.g.that of I saw a bat,where a bat might refer to an animal or,among others,stable tennis bat.
105. macroproposition:general propositions used to form an overall macrostructure of the story.
106. modular:which a assumes that the mind is structuied into separate modules or components,each governed by its own principles and operating independently of others.
107. parsing:the task of assigning words to parts of speech with their appropriate accidents,traditionally e.g.to pupils learning lat in grammar.
108. propositions:whatever is seen as expressed by a sentence which makes a statement.It is a property of propositions that they have truth values.
109. psycholinguistics: is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structure.Psycholinguistics can be divided into cognitive psycholing uistics(being concerned above all with making inferences about the content of human mind,and experimental psycholinguistics(being concerned somehow whth empirical matters,such as speed of response to a particular word).
110. psycholinguistic reality: the reality of grammar,etc.as a purported account of structures represented in the mind of a speaker.Often opposed,in discussion of the merits of alternative grammars,to criteria of simplicity,elegance,and internal consistency.
111. schemata in text: packets of stored knowledge in language processing.
112. story structure: the way in which various parts of story are arranged or organized.
113. writing process: a series of actions or events that are part of a writing or continuing developmeng.
114. communicative competence: a speaker’s knowledge of the total set o f rules,conventions,https://www.doczj.com/doc/f72590684.html,erning the skilled use of language in a society.Distinguished by D.Hymes in the late 1960s from Chomsley’s concept of competence,in the restricted sense of knowledge of a grammar.
115. gender difference: a difference in a speec h between men and women is‖genden difference‖
116. linguistic determinism: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis,https://www.doczj.com/doc/f72590684.html,nguage determines thought.
117. linguistic relativity: one of the two points in Spir-Whorf hypotheis,i.e.there’s no limit t o the structural diversity of languages.
118. linguistic sexism:many differences between me and women in language use are brought about by nothing less than women’s place in society.
119. sociolinguistics of language: one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we want to look at structural things by paying attention to language use in a social context.
120. sociolinguistics of society;one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we try to understand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community.
121. variationist linguistics: a branch of linguistics,which studies the relationship between speakers’social starts and phonological variations.
122. performative: an utterance by which a speaker does something does something,as apposed to a constative,by which makes a statement which may be true or false.
123. constative: an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false.
124. locutionary act: the act of saying so mething;it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax,lexicon,and https://www.doczj.com/doc/f72590684.html,ly.,the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference.
125. illocutionary act: the act performed in saying something;its force is identical with the speaker’s intention.
126. perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something,it’s the consequence of,or the change brought about by the utterance.
127. conversational implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literal utterances,underatandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the cooperative principle.
128. entailment:relation between propositions one of which neces sarily follows from the other:e.g.‖Mary is running‖entails,among other things,‖Mary is not standing still‖.
129. ostensive communication: a complete characterization of communication is that it is ostensive-infer-ential.
130. communicative principle of relevance:every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.
131. relevance: a property that any utterance,or a proposition that it communicates,must,in the nature of communication,necessarily have.
132. Q-principle: one of the two principles in Horn’s scale,i.e.Make your contribution necessary (G.Relation,Quantity2,Manner);Say no more than you must(given Q).
133. division of pragmatic labour: the use of a marked crelatively complex and/or expression when a corresponding unmarkeda(simpler,less‖effortful‖)alternate expression is available tends to be interpreted as conveying a marked message(one which the unmarked alternative would not or could not have conveyed).
134. constraints on Horn scales:the hearer-based o-Principle is a sufficiency condition in the sense that information provided is the most the speaker is able to..
135. third-person narrator: of the narrator is not a character in the fictional world,he or she is usually called a third –person narrator.
136. I-narrator: the person who tells the story may also be a character in the fictional world of the story,relating the story after the event.
137. direct speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form.
138. indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form.
139. indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation which is an amalgam of direct speech.
140. narrator’s repreaentation of speech acts: a minimalist kind of presentation in which a part of passage can be seen as a summery of a longer piece of discourse,and therefore even more backgruonded than indirect speech representation would be. 141. narrator‖srepresentation of thought acts: a kind of categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their of characters are exactly as that used to present speech acts.For example,,she considered his unpunctuality.
142. indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect speech.For example,she thought that he woule be late.
143. fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur,which is an amalgam of direct speech and indirect speech features.
144. narr ator’s representation of thought acts:a kind of the categories used by novelists to present the thoughts of therir characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech e.g.He spent the day thinking.
145. indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect speech.For example,she thought that he would be late.
146. fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur,which is an amalgam of direct speech and indirect speech features.
147. narrator‖s representation of thought: the categories used by novelists to present the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech e.g.He spent the day thinking.
148. free indirect thought: the categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech,e.g.He was bound to be late.
149. direct thought: categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech..
150. computer system: the machine itself together with a keyboard,printer,screen,disk drives,programs,etc.
151. computer literacy: those people who have sufficient knowledge and skill in the use of computers and computer software.
152. computer linguistics: a branch of applied liguistics,dealing with computer processing of human language.
153. Call: computer-assisted language learning(call),refers to the use of a computer in the teaching or learning of a second or foreign language.
154. programnded instruction: the use of computers to monitor student progress,to direct students into appropriate lessons,material,etc.
155. local area network: are computers linked together by cables in a classroom,lab,or building.They offer teachers a novel approach for creating new activities for students that provide more time and experience with target language.
156. CD-ROM: computer disk-read only memory allows huge amount of information to be stored on one disk with quich access to the information.Students and teachers can access information quickly and efficiently for use in and out of the classroom.
157. machine translation: refers to the use of machine(usually computer)to translate texts from one language to another. 158. concordance: the use of computer to search for a particular word,sequence of words.or perhaps even a part of speech in a text.The computer can also receive all examples of a particular word,usually in a context,which is a further aid to the linguist.It can also calculate the number of occurrences of the word so that information on the frequency of the word may be gathered.
159. annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated-it appears in its existing raw state of plain text,whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic information,
160. annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated—it appears in its existing raw state of plain text,whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic information.
161. informational retrieval: the term conventionally though somewhat inaccurately,applied to the type of actrvity discussed in this volume.An information retrieval system does not infor(i.e.change the knowledge of)the user on the subject of his inquiry.it merely informs on the existence(or non-existence)and whereabouts of documents relating to his request.
162. document representative: information structure is concerned with exploiting relationships,between documents to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of retrieval strategies.It covers specifically a logical organization of information,such as document representatives,for the purpose of information retrieval.
163. precision: the proportion of retrieval documents which are relevant.
164. recall: the proportion of retrieval documents which are relevant.
165. applied linguistics: applications of linguistics to study of second and foreign language learning and teaching,and other areas such as translation,the compiling of dictionaries,etc
166. communicative competence: as defined by Hymes,the knowledge and ability involved in putting language to communicative use.
167. syllabus:the planning of course of instruction.It is a description of the cousr content,teaching procedures and learning experiences.
168. interlanguage:the type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language,i.e.the language system between the target language and the learner’s native language.
169. transfer: the influence of mother tongue upon the second language.When structures of the two languages are similar,we can get positive transfer of facilitation;when the two languages are different in structures,negative transfer of inference occurs and result in errors.
170. validity: the degree to which a test meansures what it is meant to measure.There are four kinds of validity,i.e.content validity,construct validity,empirical valiodity,and face validity.
171. rebiability: can be defined as consistency.There are two kinds of reliability,i.e.stability reliability,and equiralence reliability.
172. hypercorrection: overuse of a standard linguistic features,in terms of both frequency,i.e.overpassing the speakers of higher social status,and overshooting the target,i.e.extending the use of a form inalinguistic environment where it is not expected to occur,For example,pronouncing ideas as[ai’dier],extending pronouncing post-vocalic/r/ in an envorienment where it’s not supposed to occur.
173. discrete point test: a kind of test in which language structures or skills are further divided into individual points of phonology,syntax and lexis.
174. integrative test: a kind of test in which language structures or skills are further divided into individual points of phonology,syntax and lexis
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics 1.3 Design features of language The features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication. 1.3.1 Arbitrariness Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings. 1.3.2 Duality Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. 1.3.3 Creativity Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences. 1.3.4 Displacement Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation. 加1 Each sound in the language is treated as discrete. 加2 the direct/non-arbitrary/non-symbolic relation between meaning and form. There are resemblances between the language form and what they refer to. That relationship is called icon. Iconicity exists in sounds, lexicons and syntax. It is the motivation between language forms and meanings. It is a relation of resemblance between language form and what they refer to. 1.5 Functions of language As is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions: 1. Referential: to convey message and information; 2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake; 3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions; 4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties; 5. Phatic: to establish communion with others; 6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings. three metafunctions: 1. function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is
《语言学纲要》名词解释 导言 4.交际工具：人类交际活动所使用的工具。语言是人类最重要的交际工具。此外，身势等伴随动作是非语 言的交际工具；旗语之类是建立在语言、文字基础上的辅助性交际工具；文字是建立在语言基础之上的一种最重要的辅助交际工具； 5.思维：是认识现实世界时的一种动脑筋的过程，也指动脑筋时进行比较、分析、综合以认识现实的能力。 是人脑能动地反映客观现实的机能和过程。根据思维活动的不同形态可分为三种类型：直观动作思
维、形象思维、抽象思维。 6.社会：指生活在一个共同的地域中、说同一种语言、有共同的风俗习惯和文化习惯的人类社会的共同体， 即一般所说的部落、部族和民族。与此相关联的现象就是社会现象。 7.社会现象：指那些与人类共同体的一切活动——产生、存在和发展密切联系的现象。 取渐变，不能爆发突变。 8.语言发展的不平衡性：指语言结构体系发展变化是不平衡的，即词汇、语义、语音、语法的发展速度是 不一样的。与社会联系最直接的词汇、语义变化最快，语音次之，语法最慢。 9.表层结构和深层结构：表层结构和深层结构相对，表层结构赋予句子以一定的语音形式，即通过语音形
式所表达出来的那种结构，表层结构是由深层结构转换而显现的；深层结构是赋予句子以一定的语义解释的那种结构。 10.组合关系：符号和符号组合起来的关系。符号和符号的组合形成语言的结构。 11.聚合关系：在链条的某一环节上能够相互替换的符号具有某种相同的作用，它们自然聚集成群。它们彼 此的关系称为聚合关系。 23.音高：声音的高低，是由发音体形状及振动频率快慢决定的。 24.音重：声音的强弱，它取决于声波振幅的大小，而振幅的大小与发音时用力大小有关。 25.音质：也叫音色，指声音的品质或个性。
Chapter 2 Speech sounds Contents ?How sounds are made? ?Consonants and vowels ?Phonological processes, phonological rules and distinctive features ?Suprasegmentals 超音段 ?Two major areas for studying speech sounds: phonetics and phonology ?Phonetics: it studies how speech sounds are made, transmitted and perceived. ?Three branches of phonetics: ?Articulatory phonetics发声语音学 is the study of the production of speech sounds. ?Acoustic phonetics声学语音学 is the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech. Auditory phonetics听觉语音学 is concerned with the perception of speech sounds ?Phonology：it deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme 音素 as the point of departure. ?It studies the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. ?Ultimately it aims to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages. How speech sounds are made? ? speech organs 言语器官 ?Speech organs are also known as vocal organs（发音器官）. ?Parts of human body involved in the production of speech sounds: lungs, trachea (windpipe) 气管, throat, nose, mouth ? organs of speech (Figure 2.2, p.26 on our books)
胡壮麟语言学名词解释总结 1.design feature: are features that define our human languages,such as arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc. 2.function: the use of language tocommunicate,to think ,https://www.doczj.com/doc/f72590684.html,nguage functions inclucle imformative function,interpersonal function,performative function, emotive function,phatic communion,recreational function and metalingual function. 3.etic: a term in contrast with emic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.Being etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper. 4.emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than via qppeal to the investigator’s ingenuith or intuition alone. 5.synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,the present),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind. 6.diachronic:study of a language is carried through the course of its history. 7.prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,https://www.doczj.com/doc/f72590684.html,ying down rules for language use. 8.descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described. 9.arbitrariness: one design feature of human language,which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. 10.duality: one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. 11.displacement: one design feature of human language,which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present c in time and space,at the moment of communication. 12.phatic communion: one function of human language,which refers to the social interaction of language. 13.metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies. 14.macrolinguistics: the interacting study between language and language-related disciplines such as psychology,sociology,ethnograph,science of law and artificial intelligence etc.Branches of macrolinguistics include psycholinguistics,sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics,et https://www.doczj.com/doc/f72590684.html,petence: language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules. 16.performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation. https://www.doczj.com/doc/f72590684.html,ngue: the linguistic competence of the speaker. 18.parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances). 19.Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speechsounds. 20.Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved..Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticulation. 21.Voicing: pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant) by vibrating the vocal cords. 22.Broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;while,the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription.
Literary linguistics studies the language of literature. It focuses on the study of linguistic features related to literary style. 9.1 Theoretical background
9.2.1 Foregrounding and grammatical form 9.2.2 Literal language and figurative language Simile Metaphor Metonymy Synecdoche 9.2.3 The analysis of literary language
9.3.1 Sound patterning 9.3.2 Different forms of sound patterning Rhyme Alliteration Assonance Consonance Reverse rhyme Pararhyme Repitition
-Metre(Dimetre, Trimetre, Tetrametre, Hexametre, Heptametre, Octametre) -Foot (Iamb, Trochee, Anapest, Dactyl,Spondee, Pyrrhic) 9.3.4 Conventional forms of metre and sound Couplets Quatrains Blank verse Sonnet 9.3.5 The poetic functions of sound and metre 9.3.6 How to analyse poetry?
绪论、第一章、第二章 一、名词解释 1．语言学 2．语言 5．文言文 6．符号 7．符号形式 8．符号的任意性 9．语言符号 10．组合关系 11．聚合关系 二、填空 1．__________、________ 、________________ 具有悠久的历史文化传统，是语言学的三大发源地。 2．__________ 是我国古代的书面语，用它写成的文章称为__________。 3．__________ 、__________ 、__________ 是我国传统的语文学。 4．研究语言的结构，主要是研究 __________、____________ 、__________ 三个部分。 5．运用语言传递信息的过程，可以分为________、________ 、_________ 、__________ 、__________ 五个阶段。 6．语言是人类社会的______________，而且也是思维的______________。 7．在一定条件下，身体姿势等伴随动作还可以离开语言独立完成交际任务。例如汉民族点头表示____________，摇头表示____________，送别时挥手表示 ______________，____________表示欢迎，咬牙切齿表示_____________，手舞足蹈表示____________。 8．人的大脑分左右两半球，大脑的半球控制语言活动，右半球掌管不需要语言的感性____________。 9．汉语的“哥哥”、“弟弟”，英语用________________表示，汉语的“舅舅、姨父、姑父、叔叔、伯伯”，英语用______________表示。 10．英语可以直接用数词修饰名词，汉语数词修饰名词一般要加上一个 _____。 11．儿童最早的智力活动就是学习_________。 12．任何符号，都是由和两个方面构成的。 13．一个符号，如果没有_______，就失去了存在的必要，如果没有_______，我们就无法感知，符号也就失去了存在的物质基础。 14．语言符号是_________和_________的统一体，声音是语言符号的______。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》术语表 第一章 phonology音系学 grammar语法学 morphology形态学 syntax句法学 lexicology词汇学 general linguistics普通语言学theoretical linguistics理论语言学historical linguistic s历史语言学descriptive linguistics描写语言学empirical linguistics经验语言学dialectology方言学 anthropology人类学 stylistics文体学 signif ier能指 signif ied所指 morphs形素 morphotactics语素结构学/形态配列学 syntactic categori es句法范畴syntactic classes句法类别序列 sub-structure低层结构 super-structure上层结构 open syllable开音节 closed syllable闭音节 checked syllable成阻音节 rank 等级 level层次 ding-dong theory/nativistic theory本能论 sing-song theory唱歌说 yo-he-ho theory劳动喊声说 pooh-pooh theory感叹说 ta-ta theory模仿说 animal cry theory/bow-wow theory模声说 Prague school布拉格学派 Bilateral opposition双边对立Mutilateral opposition多边对立Proportional opposition部分对立Isolated opposition孤立对立 Private opposition表缺对立 Graded opposition渐次对立Equipollent opposition均等对立Neutralizable opposition可中立对立Constant opposition恒定对立Systemic-f unctional grammar系统功能语法 Meaning potential意义潜势Conversational implicature会话含义Deictics指示词 Presupposition预设 Speech acts言语行为 Discourse analysis话语分析Contetualism语境论 Phatic communion寒暄交谈Metalanguage原语言 Applied linguistic s应用语言学Nominalism唯名学派Psychosomatics身学 第二章trachea/windpipe气管 tip舌尖 blade舌叶/舌面 front舌前部 center舌中部 top舌顶 back舌后部 dorsum舌背 root舌跟 pharynx喉/咽腔 laryngeals喉音 laryngealization喉化音 vocal cords声带 vocal tract声腔 initiator启动部分 pulmonic airstream mechanism肺气流 机制 glottalic airstream mechanism喉气流 机制 velaric airstream mechanism腭气流机 制 Adam’s apple喉结 Voiceless sound清音 Voiceless consonant请辅音 Voiced sound浊音 Voiced consonant浊辅音 Glottal stop喉塞音 Breath state呼吸状态 Voice state带音状态 Whisper state耳语状态 Closed state封闭状态 Alveolar ride齿龈隆骨 Dorsum舌背 Ejective呼气音 Glottalised stop喉塞音 Impossive内爆破音 Click/ingressive吸气音 Segmental phonology音段音系学 Segmental phonemes音段音位 Suprasegmental超音段 Non-segmental非音段 Plurisegmental复音段 Synthetic language综合型语言 Diacritic mark附加符号 Broad transcription宽式标音 Narrow transcription窄式标音 Orthoepy正音法 Orthography正字法 Etymology词源 Active articulator积极发音器官 Movable speech organ能动发音器官 Passive articulator消极发音器官 Immovable speech organ不能动发音 器官 Lateral边音 Approximant [j,w]无摩擦延续音 Resonant共鸣音 Central approximant中央无摩擦延续 音 Lateral approximant边无摩擦延续音 Unilateral consonant单边辅音 Bilateral consonant双边辅音 Non-lateral非边音 Trill [r]颤音trilled consonant颤辅音 rolled consonant滚辅音 Labal-velar唇化软腭音 Interdent al齿间音 Post-dental后齿音 Apico-alveol ar舌尖齿龈音 Dorso-alveol ar舌背齿龈音 Palato-alveolar后齿龈音 Palato-alveolar腭齿龈音 Dorso-palat al舌背腭音 Pre-palat al前腭音 Post-palatal后腭音 Velarization软腭音化 Voicing浊音化 Devoicing清音化 Pure vowel纯元音 Diphthong二合元音 Triphthong三合元音 Diphthongization二合元音化 Monophthongization单元音化 Centring diphthong央二合元音 Closing diphthong闭二合元音 Narrow diphthong窄二合元音 Wide diphthong宽二合元音 Phonetic similarity语音相似性 Free variant自由变体 Free variation自由变异 Contiguous assimilation临近同化 Juxtapostional assimilation邻接同化 Regressive assimilation逆同化 Anticipatory assimilation先行同化 Progressive assimilation顺同化 Reciprocal assimilation互相同化 Coalescent assimilation融合同化 Partial assimilation部分同化 Epenthesis插音 Primary stress主重音 Secondary stress次重音 Weak stress弱重音 Stress group重音群 Sentence stress句子重音 Contrastive stress对比重音 Lexical stress词汇重音 Word stress词重音 Lexical tone词汇声调 Nuclear tone核心声调 Tonetics声调学 Intonation contour语调升降曲线 Tone units声调单位 Intonology语调学 Multilevel phonology多层次音系学 Monosyllabic word多音节词 Polysyllabic word单音节次 Maximal onset principle最大节首辅 音原则 第三章词汇 liaison连音 contract ed f orm缩写形式 frequency count词频统计 a unit of vocabulary词汇单位 a lexical item词条 a lexeme词位 hierarchy层次性 lexicogrammar词汇语法 morpheme语素 nonomorphemic words单语素词 polymorphemic words多语素词 relative uninterruptibility相对连续性 a minimum f ree f orm最小自由形式 the maximum f ree f orm最大自由形式 variable words 可变词 invariable words不变词 paradigm聚合体 grammatical words(function words)语 法词/功能词 lexical words(cont ent words)词汇词/ 实义词 closed-cl ass words封闭类词 opened-class words开放类词 word class词类 particles小品词 pro-f orm代词形式 pro-adjective(so)代形容词 pro-verb(do/did)代副词 pro-adverb(so)代动词 pro-locative(there)代处所词/代方位词 determiners限定词 predeterminers前置限定词 central determiners中置限定词 post determiners后置限定词 ordinal number序数词 cardinal number基数词 morpheme词素 morphology形态学 free morpheme自由词素 bound morpheme黏着词素 root词根 aff ix词缀 stem词干 root morpheme词根语素 pref ix前缀 inf ix中缀 suff ix后缀 bound root morpheme黏着词根词素 inf lectional aff ix屈折词缀 derivational aff ix派生词缀 inf lectional morphemes屈折语素 derivational morphemes派生语素 word-f ormation构词 compound复合词 endocentri c compound向心复合词 exocentri c compound离心复合词 nominal endocentric compound名词性 向心复合词 adjective endocentric compound形容 词性向心复合词 verbal compound动词性复合词 synthetic compound综合性复合词 derivation派生词 morpheme语素 phoneme音位
英语语言学教程（胡壮麟版） Chapter one. Invitation to Linguistic. 1.What is language? “Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in French, “shu” in Ch inese. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific. 2.Design Features of Language. “Design features” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability (1)Arbitrariness: By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. (2)Duality: The property of having two levels of structures (phonological and grammatical), units of the primary level being composed of elements of the secondary level and each level having its own principles of organization. (3)Productivity: Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. The property that enables native speakers to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of utterances, including utterances that they have never previously encountered. (4)Displacement: “Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. (5)Cultural transmission: This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. (6)Interchangeability: Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. 3.Functions of Language. Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative. (1)Phatic function: The “phatic function” refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. (2)Directive function: The “directive function” means that language may be used to get the hearer
语言学纲要名词解释 导言 1.语言学：以语言作为专门研究对象的一门独立学科，其主要任务是研究语言的性质、结构和功能，通过考察语言及其应用的现象，来解释语言存在和发展的规律。 2.语文学：指19世纪历史比较语言学之前的语言研究，这时的语言研究尚未独立，语言学作为其他学科的附庸而存在，语言研究的主要目的是为了阅读古籍和语言教学，从而为统治者治理国家或为其他学科的研究服务。 3.小学：中国传统的语文学，由于汉语书面语使用的文字——汉字的特点，中国传统语言研究抓住汉字，分析它的形体，探求它的古代读音和意义，形成了统称“小学”的文字、音韵、训诂之学，也就是中国传统的语文学。 4.理论语言学：也称普通语言学，是关于语言的一般规律的理论研究。理论语言学的水平在很大程度上决定于具体语言学的研究成果。 5.共时语言学：以同时的、静态的分析方法，研究语言相对静止的状态，描写分析语言在某一时期、某一阶段的状况，是从横的方面研究语言。 6.历时语言学：研究语言发展的历史，观察一种语言的各个结构要素在不同发展阶段的历史演变，是从纵向的方面研究语言的历史。涉及到一种语言的叫做历时语言学，如历史语音学，历史词汇学，历史语法学等；涉及到多种语言和方言的叫做历史比较语言学。 7.索绪尔：瑞士语言学家，现代语言学的奠基人，结构主义语言学的开创者，著有《普通语言学教程》，被人们誉为“现代语言学之父”。他提出语言是符号体系；符号由能指所指两部分构成，这两部分的关系是任意的，一旦形成以后又是约定性的；符号系统内部存在“组合关系”和“聚合关系”；区分了“语言”和“言语”；“内部语言学”和“外部语言学”；“历时语言学”和“共时语言学”。他的学说标志着现代语言学的开始，在不同的程度上影响着20世纪的各个语言学派。 8.布龙菲尔德：美国描写语言学派的代表人物，它的主要贡献是将语言学从哲学理念建设成为一门科学。早期的著作是出版于1914年的《语言研究导论》，立足于心理学来阐释语言、刺激—反应论来解释语言的产生和理解的过程。1933年他的最有影响的著作《语言论》出版。这时，他已经从构造心理学转到行为心理学。他在该书中提出了美国结构语言学派研究语言的基本原则和描写语言结构的总框架。 9.乔姆斯基：转换生成语法的创始人，著有《句法结构》。最出他用结构主义的方法研究希伯来语，后来发现这种方法有很大的局限性，转而探索新的方法，逐步建立了转换生成语法，1957年出版的《句法结构》就是这一新方法的标志。这种分析方法风靡全世界，冲垮了结构语言学的支配地位，因而被人们成为“乔姆斯基革命”，对语言学的发展方向产成了巨大影响。 10.韩礼德：英国语言学家，功能主义语言学派的代表人物，继承了以弗斯为首的伦敦学派的基本理论，并吸收布拉格学派和哥本哈根学派的某些观点的基础上发展起来和创立了系统功能语法，著有《普通语言学教程》《语法功能论》等著作。他从人类学和社会学的角度出发研究语言与社会的关系，把语言看做“社会符号”，其包括功能系统、层次和语境等概念，在语法中认为系统中存在连锁系统和选择系统，在功能语法中他用功能的配置来解释语法结构，提出了概念功能、人际功能、语篇功能。20世纪70年代后，他将注意力转移到语言与社会学、符号学的关系上，对社会语言学进行研究。 11.赵元任：字宣仲，江苏常州人，生于天津。赵元任是“中国语言学之父”。他将科学运用于语言学研究的结果：用自然科学中的基本概念说明语言问题；用自然科学的先进成果记录和分析语音；把自然科学中的研究方法引入语言学；引入科学的描述事物的方式以及解决问题的程序等等。中国的传统语言学在他和同时代的一批学者的努力下，逐步走向现代化。 12.历史比较语言学：出现于18世纪末19世纪初，中心在德国。该学派采用历史比较的方法，通过语音和词形的比较研究语言的发展和演变，发现了语言之间的亲缘关系并建立了语言的谱系分类。历史比较语言学的兴起，是语言学成为一门独立的学科。经过一个多世纪的探索研究，弄清了世界上很多语言的同源关系，建立了世界语言的谱系分类，为语言学的发展做了很大贡献。历史比较语言学也有局限：他强调了语言的历史比较，忽视了语言的共时研究；孤立地研究语言单位，缺乏对语言系统性的研究。 13.结构主义语言学：1916年索绪尔的《普通语言学教程》标志着结构主义语言学的诞生。索绪尔语言理论的核心是语言是符号系统，突破了历史比较语言学的局限，开拓了语言研究的新领域，给语言学带来革命性的变化。