高效课堂解读
编者按：
新课程改革已经进行了十一个年头，伴随着课程改革，各校的课堂教学也都在发生着变化，好课应该如何上？什么样的课堂是高效的课堂？各地都在探索和思考。课堂是教学的主阵地，教学改革，改到深处是课堂。一所学校课堂教学的好坏，直接决定了该校教育教学质量的高低，决定着该校学生的综合素质。课堂改革深处是模式，课堂教学模式是一堂课的操作规范和流程。洋思中学的“先学后教、当堂训练”课堂教学模式、杜郎口中学“三三六”自主学习课堂教学模式、昌乐二中“二七一”课堂教学模式都使学校的课堂教学发生了翻天覆地的变化，教学质量得到显著提高。为了便于全县教师学习和借鉴，教科研中心通过组织骨干教师观摩和研讨，结合我们的思考，对高效课堂教学模式的基本流程和操作规范进行了认真的解读和梳理，望各学校结合自己的课堂教学实际进行借鉴和创新。在课堂教学模式研究的路上，我们都是学习者、探索者，对课堂教学模式的解读可能有不当和片面之处，恳请工作在教学一线的各位老师批评指正。
东平县教科研中心二0一二年四月
高效课堂解读
一、高效课堂的基本内涵
高效课堂，从一堂课的过程看：应该是学生参与度高和学生思考问题深刻的课堂；从一堂课的效果看：应该是学生满意度高和当堂达标率高的课堂。高效课堂的四个标准：
1.引发学生学习的浓厚兴趣；
2.促使师生、生生多维互动；
3.促进学生积极思维；
4.关注人的全面发展的教育。
二、高效课堂的基本理念
1.核心理念：自主、合作、探究。
2.高效课堂的一个中心：一切以学生为中心。
（1）由追求知识的完整性、全面性到更加关注学生的性格、人格的健全；
（2）由注重知识能力的培养到更加关注学生的心理需求和精神成长；（3）由传统共性和整齐划一的教育到更加关注学生的不同需求；
（4）由注重课堂环节、程序的编制到更加关注学情、氛围和师生、生生关系。
3.高效课堂的终极目标是致力于学习能力的培养
（1）高效课堂出发“原点”是从“两率”入手，即解决课堂精力流失率和提高高效学习率；
（2）通过高效课堂走向高效学习，从而实现终身学习；
（3）素质教育的“素质”最主要的是“学习能力”即思维力、生成力、表达力（听、说、读、写）。
三、高效课堂教学基本模式 1.有效预习
包括精心设计预习学案、优化预习实施过程两大步骤。
（1）精心设计预习学案
预习内容的确立，即根据课标、教材和学情确定预习内容。预习学案的基本形式包括①自主学习目标和任务；②自主构建知识基本框架；③预习效果自我检查达标题目；④预习情况信息反馈表。
（2）优化预习实施过程
下发预习学案，学生自主预习，教师上课前通过批阅、查阅、小组反馈等形式了解学生预习情况。
2.课堂教学
基本操作程序是：明确目标----点评预习----合作探究----展示交流----点评拓展----当堂达标----课堂小结----布臵作业
明确目标：教师展示目标，包括课程目标和学习目标，教师解释并圈点强化学习目标，让学生带着问题激情投入课堂学习。
点评预习：教师点评预习情况，通过查阅、批阅、小组反馈等形式了解预习情况，并对小组预习情况通过赋分等形式进行评价。
合作探究：展示合作探究问题，明确小组探究任务，对组内不同层次的学生提出不同的具体要求，并规定合作探究的时间。
组长具体安排探究任务，调控讨论节奏，小组成员积极参与；教师充分发挥作用，要即时参与到小组合作学习中去，和学生共同
探讨交流，适时点拨，引导、了解学生学习中存在的问题，做到心中有数，为进一步开展全班交流做准备。
展示交流：展示要注重四点:重点、难点、易错点、联想点。展示结束时要问一句“同学们还有什么补充？”非展示学生应学会倾听、学会整理、学会质疑和思考，随时进行提问和补充。
点评拓展：小组组长（或按任务分配)点评交流展示情况。教师根据展示交流和点评情况进行精讲点拨，引导学生进一步探究、质疑，教师通过“背一背”“划一划”“议一议”等语言提示逐步达到知识巩固、能力提升和情感升华。
当堂达标：目标明确、方法灵活、注重实效。
课堂小结：回顾探究过程，反思合作效果，体现本节课的知识线索、重点和易错点，并把它们记录整理在课堂笔记本、训练本、纠错本上。
布臵作业：可以是巩固训练、书面作业或预习提示。
四、三种课型的基本操作流程
1．新授课
学案导学、自主学习----合作探究、交流展示----突破疑难、精讲点拨----当堂达标、迁移应用----链接生活、拓展提升
（1）“学案导学、自主学习”向前延伸：课前一至两天提前发放学案，学生根据学案自主学习。该环节教师应该提出明确的时间要求和任务要求，以提高自主学习的针对性，提高学习效率；对学生自主学习进行必要的方法指导；指导学生填写“信息反馈表”。
（2）“合作探究、交流展示”在课堂：根据对学案的批阅情况以及整合“信息反馈表”中的信息，对有思维含量和难度的问题，组织学生进行合作探究。该环节教师要善于及时鼓励和评价。学生在相互质疑问难、辩驳解疑的过程中，理清思路，解决问题，形成观点。
（3）“突破疑难、精讲点拨”在课堂：在巡视检查．掌握学生的合作学习与交流展示情况基础上，找准问题所在；对学生不能解决的、新发
现的疑难问题，教师要进行重点讲解、点拨、归纳和提升，保证学生形成明确的观点。
（4）“当堂达标、迁移应用”在课堂：引导学生完成学案中的自我测评题目，限定时间，让学生独立思考作答，以实现当堂达标、当堂反馈、当堂矫正，提高课堂效率。完成任务后，让小组成员互换批改，并相互借鉴，完善答案。教师巡回检查学生的作答情况，掌握学生易出错的地方，然后进行针对性的讲评点拨。
（5）“链接生活、拓展提升”向后延伸：教师要根据本课的重点、难点、易错点、易混点、提升点紧密结合当前的社会现实和学生生活实际设计题目，让学生尝试运用所学知识解决身边的问题，把课本上的知识迁移到生活中加以应用，以增强学习的实效性和有用性。
2．复习课
目标解读、知识再现----自主学习、构建网络----展示交流、互助深化----典例精析、体悟规律----对应训练、形成能力----反馈矫正、拓展提升
（1）“目标解读、知识再现”：教师根据目标的类别，抓住关键词语进行剖析，生成本节课的重点、难点，使学生对本节课要达成的目标有一个初步的、较系统的认识。学生在教师指导下标注本课学习重点，并由此明确本节课的内容要求及考点。基础知识需要记忆的要强化记忆，需要深化理解的，用问题或题组为载体，精讲点拨。
（2）“自主学习、构建网络”：依据教材和导学案，学生自主进行知识网络结构、逻辑关系的梳理和构建。之后在同伴间进行补充、调整和
完善，形成比较完整的网络结构图。教师主要观察学生的问题所在，再展示时要给与引导。
（3）“展示交流、互助深化”：以一个小组成员的结构图为基础，每个小组在小组长的带领下再进行归纳、概括，形成本小组最完整的图示结构。各小组把结构图展示在黑板上，进行比较分析，借鉴其他小组的图示不断完善自己的结构，并就有关问题提出质疑，寻求小组的帮助。之后，教师引导各小组讨论，找出在本部分学习内容上最欠缺的地方，并把内容问题化，先由本小组内合作探讨，解决不了的，写在黑板上。各小组归纳整理后，集中为几个突出的问题，小组集体探讨，形成解决方案，凡是对该问题不明确的学生集中起来进行讲解答疑。最大限度地发挥“兵教兵”的作用。
（4）“典例精析、体悟规律”：教师根据新授课出现的问题，结合对学情的了解，抓住关键要害选择、设计典型的例题，与学生一起进行精要剖析，从中学习答题的方法，探寻解题的规律，逐渐形成分析解决问题的能力。
（5）“对应训练、形成能力”：老师根据在教学过程和学生参与过程中的表现，准确地判断出学生知识、能力、情感态度价值观的欠缺，推测出学生可能出现的易错点、易混点、易漏点、难点、疑点等，设计出一组训练题，供课堂检测之用。检测时，创设真正的考试氛围，要求独立自主，限时完成。
（6）“反馈矫正、拓展提升”：在规定的时间内，早完成检测的同学的试卷由老师面批，后完成的试卷由小组间互批，得分计入小组平时成
绩。批阅后，由批阅者负责错题矫正，出错者及时订正，做成满分卷。教师可以根据学生的出错情况，对共性的问题进行统一讲解，并适时进行补偿性教学，拓展提升学生的能力。
3.讲评课
评析试卷、锁住重点-----还原思维、自悟自纠----合作讨论、展示交流-----讲解重点、归类方法-----变式训练、巩固提升-----反思整理、内化吸收
（1）“评析试卷、锁住重点”向前延伸：教师提前做好试卷分析，作好统计和记录。分析考试基本情况：一是分析整体成绩，激励优秀，鼓励进步；二是分析得失情况，突出典型，抓住重点；三是分析失分原因，把准脉搏，对症下药。
（2）“还原思维、自悟自纠”向前延伸：给予充足的时间让学生对自己的试卷进行自查自评，学生独立地对照答案分析出现失误的原因（包括知识、思路、方法、技巧、规范等方面），寻求解决问题的方法，更正解题的过程与结果；教师主要是进行巡视指导。
（3）“合作讨论、展示交流”在课堂：明确小组分工，确定讨论的主题，小组成员之间交流答案，不明确的地方充分讨论解决，学生在充分讨论的基础上形成答案，并选出主讲人，在课堂上展示，其它小组可补充．可反驳，互帮互助。如果小组讨论都不能解决的问题，留待师生共同解决。
（4）“讲解重点、归类方法”在课堂：教师对小组讨论都不能解决的问题及重点问题，设臵一些小台阶，步步引导、启发学生解决问题，分
析错因，集体解决好学生的共性问题，抓住典型问题带动知识的深化、系统化，利用典型题目归纳方法和规律。
（5）“变式训练、巩固提升”在课堂：变式训练题的设计要围绕易错易混点，围绕重点．难点多角度设问；变式训练题要限时限量，学生当堂独立完成。
（6）“反思整理、内化吸收”向后延伸：学生建立错题本，学会揣摩领悟；教师及时追踪检查落实，保证讲评效果。
五、高效课堂的保障
1.学习小组建设是提高课堂效率的最关键环节之一，应切实做好小组的组建、培训、评价和奖励等工作。
（1）组建学习小组
第一，遵循“组内异质，组间同质”的原则。“组内异质”是指小组内部根据学习成绩、能力方面的差异分成A、B、C三个层次；所谓“组间同质”，是指合作小组间尽量保持相对平衡的水平和一定稳定性，有利于小组间的公平竞争。
第二，合作学习小组一般以4—6人为宜。
第三，以民主与自愿相结合的方式选举组长、记录员，并进行有效分工。（2）培训组长和小组成员
学习小组在学习中起着发动机的作用，所以要特别重视小组建设、组长培训。重视学习小组文化建设，坚持分层次学习理念，利用学习小组间的良性竞争，让每一个层次的学生享受成功学习的快乐；要培养组长的组织、协调能力，发挥组长的带头作用和检查督促作用。
①培训组长
培训小组组长至关重要，可以考虑以下几种措施：第一，明确组长的责任和作用；第二，定期召开组长会议，及时了解并解决组长在思想上、学习上和生活上的困难；第三，帮助组长培养各学科组长；第四，及时地肯定、表扬、激励。
②小组成员培训
第一，加强学生互助意识的培养；
第二，给学习困难的同学更多的交流展示机会，并及时给予肯定和赞扬；第三，建立以小组为单位的评价方式；
第四，利用班会和集体活动培养学生的团队精神。
（3）小组评价策略
小组评价是对小组合作过程和学生合作表现的监控，是促进合作小组健康发展的重要环节。课堂教学中的小组评价包括小组自评、小组互评和教师评价。
小组自评，学生运用合作技能自评，能够促进学生参与小组学习的深度。小组自评初期，老师可以明确一个自评的结构，使学生的评价可以参照一定的程序、围绕一个中心或突出一个重点。小组互评，主要看一堂课中小组学生的参与度，上课听讲以及合作讨论情况等。
教师评价，教师对小组群体之间的观察、比较、甄别，偏重于对小组合作模式和行为的肯定、褒扬。
通过小组互评和教师评价，评出本节课的优秀展示小组，使评价体系成为一个动态的、开放的系统，最终成为一个增强学生发展动力的“泵”。
（4）小组奖励策略
奖励的方式是多种多样的，可采用口头表扬、经验介绍、颁发证书，授予小组荣誉称号等。 2.导学案的科学编制、使用是高效课堂的重要保障。
（1）导学案的构成。导学案的基本结构可分为：预习案、探究案和训练案，其中可设臵预习导航、预习任务、问题探究、精讲点拨、达标测试、巩固训练等环节。（2）导学案的编制及使用
①导学案的编制：通过集体备课完成。主备人根据授课内容和要求完成自己的学案编写，集体备课时由主备人谈自己的学案设计，然后组长和骨干教师提出修改建议，主备人进一步完善学案；对完善后的学案统一印制，共同使用。
②导学案的使用：提前1-2天下发，对学案要求批阅的部分全批全改，讲课人在学案批阅检查的基础上，进行二次备课。
③学案的检查、评比。每周由级部或者教导处检查，每月学校大检查，并对检查结果量化赋分公示，并把结果纳入量化考核。④学校通过学案评比、考核来推进学案教学的进一步深化。
六、高效课堂的教师常用语
1.提示用语想一想、议一议、背一背、记一记、说一说、做一做、看一看、划一划、写一写、整理整理、讨论讨论、交流交流
2.询问用语
你听懂了吗？
你记下了吗？还有谁能补充一下？
还有什么不明白的吗？ 3.评价用语
这么难的题你能回答得很完整，真是了不起！
你的想法很有创意，看来你是认真思考了。
你好厉害！敢于向书本提出问题，你的勇气令人羡慕！你虽然没有完整地回答问题，但你能大胆发言就是好样的！你的声音真好听，你能再大声的读一遍吗？
这个问题提出得真好，谁愿意帮助他解决？
七、高效课堂参考评价标准（附表）
1. Transcendentalism The origin of it is a philosophical and literary movement centered in Concord and Boston, which marks the summit of American Transcendentalism. 19th-century movement of writers and philosophers in New England who were loosely bound together by adherence to an idealistic system of thought based on a belief in the essential unity of all creation, the innate goodness of man, and the supremacy of insight over logic and experience for the revelation of the deepest truths. The major features of American Transcendentalism are:It emphasis on spirit, or the Oversoul, as the most important thing in the universe. It stressed the importance of the individual. To them the individual was the most important element of society. It offered a fresh perception of nature as symbolic of the Spirit or God. 2.Romanticism The Romanticism period stretches from the end of the 18th century through the outbreak of the Civil War. It is a term associate with imagination boundlessness, and in critical usage is contrasted with classicism which is commonly associated with reason and restriction. The features of Romanticism are: American Romanticism was in a way derivative: American romantic writing was some of them modeled on English and European works. American romanticism was in essence the expression of "a real new experience "and contained"an alien quality".Representatives:William Cullen Bryant; Henry Longfellow and James Cooper, Washington Irving. 3.Realism: In American literature, the Civil War brought the Romantic Period to an end. The Age of Realism came into existence. It came as a reaction against the lie of romanticism and sentimentalism. Realism turned from an emphasis on the strange toward a faithful rendering of the ordinary, a slice of life as it is really lived. It expresses the concern for commonplace and the low, and it offers an objective rather than an idealistic view of human nature and human experience.The representatives are Howells, James, and Mark Twain. 4. Naturalism American naturalism was a new and harsher realism, it had come from Europe. Naturalism was an outgrowth of realism that responded to theories in science, psychology, human behavior and social thought current in the late nineteenth century. The background of naturalism are: In the last decade of the nineteenth century, with the development of industry and modern science, intelligent minds began to see that man was no longer a free ethical being in a cold, indifferent and essentially Godless universe. In this chance world he was both helpless and hopeless.Major Features of it are:Humans are controlled by laws of heredity and environment.The universe is cold, godless, indifferent and hostile to human desires.Representatives of it such as Stephen Crane, Frank Norris and Theodore Dreiser. 5.New Criticism The New Criticism as a school of poetry and criticism established itself in the 1940s as an academic orthodoxy in the United States. The school has its beginning in the 1920s. It focus on the analysis of the text rather paying attention to external elements such as its social background, its author's intention and political attitude, and its impact on society. Then it explores the artistic structure of the work rather than its author's frame of mind or its reader's responses. It also see a literary work as an organic entity, the unity of content and form, and places emphasis on the close reading of the text. These New Critics included T.S. Eliot,I.A.Richards,John Crowe Ransom, Allen Tate and some other critics. The New Criticism has tended to divorce criticism from social and moral concerns, which was to become one salient feature of the movement. 6.Imagism: Between 1912 and 1922 there came a great poetry boom in which about 1000 poets published over 1000 volumes of poetry. Indeed ,to express the modern spirit, the sense of fragmentization and dislocation, was in large measure the aim of quite a few modern literary movements, of which Imagism was one.The first Imagist theorist, the English writer T.E.Hulme. Hulme suggests that modern art deals with expression and communication of momentary phases in the poet's mind. The most effective means to express these momentary impressions is through the use of dominant image.It is a literary movement launched American poets early in the 20th century that advocated the use of free verse, common speech patterns, and clear concrete images as a reaction to Victorian sentimentalism. The representatives are Ezra pound, William Carlos Williams and some other poets.
名词解释 1.国际法：国际法是在国际交往中形成的，主要用以调整国家间关系的，具有 法律约束力的各种原则、规则和制度的总称。 2.国际法的渊源国际法的原则和规则第一次出现的地方和使国际法的规范具有合法性的 法律形式。它的渊源有国际条约、国际习惯、一般法律原则以及国际组织的决定和决议。其中国际条约和国际习惯是国际法的主要渊源，一般法律原则是补充渊源。还有司法判例、权威公法学家的学说是辅助性资料。国际组织的决定和决议是重要渊源。3.国际法的编纂是指国际法的法典化，即把国际法的规则以类似法典的形式使之明确化 和系统化。严格来说，是指对现有的国际法原则、规则和制度的明确化和系统化；广义上说，还包括对正在形成中的国际法原则、规则和制度的明确化和系统化，即国际法的逐渐发展。 4.国际法的主体：即国际法律关系的主体，一般指能独立参加国际法律关系并依国际法直 接享受国际法上的权利和承担义务的行为者 5.国际法基本原则国际社会公认，具有普遍意义，适用于国际法各个领域的并构成国际 法的基础的法律原则。 6.国际法基本原则：国际社会公认，具有普遍意义，适用于国际法各个领域并构成国际法 基础的法律原则。 7.和平共处五项原则互相尊重主权和领土完整、互不侵犯、互不干涉内政、平等互利、 和平共处，这是现在国际法的基本原则 8.独立权：是指国家可以按照自己的意志外理本国事务而不受外来控制和干涉的权利。 9.平等权：国家在国际法上的地位平等，而不问其大小强弱，也不问其社会制度的性质和 发展水平如何 10.自卫权：是指国家以武力反击外来武力攻击的权利。 11.管辖权：是指国家国家依据国家，对其领域内一切人、物和所发生的事件，以及对其在 领域外的本国人行使管辖权的权利。 12.单一国：又称单一制国家，是指具有统一主权的国家。单一国拥有统一代表国家处理 对内对外事务的中央机关和在该中央机关领导下行使地方性职权的地方机关。在单一制形式下，国家只有一部宪法，公民有统一的国籍，它在国际交往中是单一的主体。国家整体和部分的关系表现为中央和地方的关系。 13.联邦是由两个以上的成员邦（国或州）组成的国家，即联邦国 14.国家承认：是指一个既存国家确认特定领土范围内居民已组成一个国家并具有国际法上 的人格，同时表示愿意与其交往。 15.国家豁免：又称国家主权豁免、国家管辖豁免或国家司法豁免，通常指国家及其财产不 受他国管辖的特权。 16.国家继承：是指一国丧失其国际法律资格或者丧失一部分领土时，它在国际法上的权利 和义务转移给他国（一国或数国）的情况。 17.政府继承：是指因革命或者政导致政权更迭，旧政府在国际法上的权利、义务由新政 府取代。与国家继承政府承认：只是对既存国家内部通过政变或革命所产生的新政府的承认。 18.对交战团体的承认：是指其他国家将一国内战中反抗政府的一方承认为享有 国际法上交战者资格的叛乱团体的行为。 19.对叛乱团体的承认：是指其他国家将一国内反抗政府的叛乱者承认为叛乱团 体的行为。 20.明示承认：是一种直接的、明文表示的承认。
1. Transcendentalism—it is a philosophic and literary movement that flourish in New England, as a reaction against rationalism and Calvinism. It stressed intuitive understanding of god without the help of the church, and advocated independence of the mind. 超验主义，它是一个蓬勃发展的新英格兰的哲学和文学运动，反对理性主义和加尔文主义的反应。它强调直观地了解上帝没有教会的帮助下，主张心灵的独立性。 2. Romanticism had appeared in England in the last years of the eighteenth century. It spread to conti nental Europe and then came to America early in the nineteenth century. It came into being as a re action against the prevailing neoclassical spirit and rationalism during the Age of Reason. 浪漫主义曾经出现在英国，在过去几年的十八世纪。它蔓延到欧洲大陆，然后来到美国在十九世纪初。它应运而生作为理性的时代中针对当时新古典主义精神和理性的反应。 3. Puritanism—it is the religious belief of the Puritans, who had intended to purify and simplify the religious ritual of the Church of England. 清教主义，它是清教徒，谁曾打算净化和简化英国教会的宗教礼仪的宗教信仰。 4. Imagism is to present an intellectual and emotional complex in an instant of time. An imagistic poem must present the object exactly the way the thing is seen. And the reader can form the image of the object through the process of reading the abstract and concrete words. Imagism 意象派：is a poetic movement of England and the United States, flourished from 1909-1917. Its credo, expressed in Some Imagist Poets, included the use of the language of common speech, project matter, the evocation of images in hard, clear poetry, and concentration. 英国是与美国的诗意动作，从1909-1917蓬勃发展。它的信条，在表达意象的一些诗人，包括使用共同的讲话，不管项目，图像的硬盘，明确诗歌和浓度唤起的语言。 5、Realism：（现实主义）appeared in the United States in the literature of local color, an amalgam of romantic plots and realistic descriptions of things was immediately observable. the dialects, customs, sights.现实主义有浓厚的美国本土特色，是浪漫主义故事情节和现实主义描写相结合的产物：美国风味的方言、风俗、各种观点 6.Naturalism：自然主义 a new and harsher realism, 新型的更为冷峻的现实主义，产生悲观的流派，产生于the end of the century 十九世纪末，因为Perception of society’s disorders 对社会无序的感知。Presenting characters of low social and economic classes who were dominated by their environment and heredity. 设法尽力客观真实地展现出受环境与出身局限的下层人民和各种经济阶层人物的真正生活。The naturalists emphasized that the world was amoral, that men and women had no free will, that their lives were controlled by heredity and the environment, the religious “truths” were illusory, that the destiny of humanity was misery in life and oblivion in death. 强调世界的非道德性，人们没有意志的自由，宗教上的真理是虚幻的，现实生活是痛苦的。Deterministic 决定论，宿命的， 代表作家：Stephen Crane 史蒂芬.克莱恩, Frank Norris 弗朗克.诺里斯, Jack London 杰克.伦敦, Theodore Dreiser 西奥多.德莱塞. 6. The naturalists tend to depict the dark side of the socity, and always take the low classes as their heros or heroes. Compare to the realism and romanticism, they have a more pessimistic view toward the society, the life. Take Theodore Dreiser for example, his Sister Carrie or American Tragedy reveal that man can not control themselves, and is at the mercy of the nature, the heredity, the society and instinct.博物学家倾向于描绘社会的阴暗面,总是以低类为他们的英雄和英雄。比较现实主义和浪漫主义,他们对社会有更悲观的观点,生活。以西奥多·德莱塞为例,他的嘉莉妹妹还是美国的悲剧表明,男人不能控制自己,自然的摆布,遗传,社会和本能。
Allegory is a narrative that serves as an extended metaphor. Allegories are written in the form of fables, parables, poems, stories, and almost any other style or genre. The main purpose of an allegory is to tell a story that has characters, a setting, as well as other types of symbols, that have both literal and figurative meanings. One well-known example of an allegory is Dante’s The Divine Comedy.In Inferno, Dante is on a pilgrimage to try to understand his own life, but his character also represents every man who is in search of his purpose in the world. Alliteration is a pattern of sound that includes the repetition of consonant sounds. The repetition can be located at the beginning of successive words or inside the words. Poets often use alliteration to audibly represent the action that is taking place. Aside is an actor’s speech, directed to the audience, that is not supposed to be heard by other actors on stage. An aside is usually used to let the audience know what a character is about to do or what he or she is thinking. Asides are important because they increase an audience's involvement in a play by giving them vital information pertaining what is happening, both inside of a character's mind and in the plot of the play. Gothic is a literary style popular during the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th. This style usually portrayed fantastic tales dealing with horror, despair, the grotesque and other “dark” subjects. Gothic literature was named for the apparent influence of the dark gothic architecture of the period on the genre. Also, many of these Gothic tales took places in such “gothic” surroundings. Other times, this story of darkness may occur in a more everyday setting, such as the quaint house where the man goes mad fro m the "beating" of his guilt in Edgar Allan Poe's “The Tell-Tale Heart.”In essence, these stories were romances, largely due to their love of the imaginary over the logical, and were told from many different points of view. CATHARSIS is an emotional discharge that brings about a moral or spiritual renewal or welcome relief from tension and anxiety. According to Aristotle, catharsis is the marking feature and ultimate end of any tragic artistic work. IMAGERY: A common term of variable meaning, imagery includes the "mental pictures" that readers experience with a passage of literature. It signifies all the sensory perceptions referred to in a poem, whether by literal description, allusion, simile, or metaphor. Surrealism is an artistic movement doing away with the restrictions of realism and verisimilitude that might be imposed on an artist. In this movement, the artist sought to do away with conscious control and instead respond to the irrational urges of the subconscious mind. From this results the hallucinatory, bizarre, often nightmarish quality of surrealistic paintings and writings. Sample surrealist writers include Frank O'Hara, John Ashberry, and Franz Kafka.
第一章导论 ★1、国际法：是与国内法相对应的法律体系，主要高速国家间关系的有拘束力的原则、规则和规章、制度的总体。 ★2、国际习惯：国家在国际交往中的实践逐渐形成惯例，惯例经过一段时期的前后一致的反复实践，被各国认为具有拘束力，即成为国际习惯。 6、一般法制原则：指各个法律体系所共同采用的原则。如时效、善意等。 ★10、国际法的效力根据：国际法的效力根据应是国家之间的协议。 ★11、契约性条约：专为缔约国规定权利和义务的条约。 ★12、造法性条约：专为确立或修改国际法原则、规则和规章制度的条约。 第二章国际法的基本原则 ★1、国际法的基本原则：是指那些各国公认的，具有普遍意义，适用于国际法的一切效力范围，构成国际法基础并具有强行法性质的法律原则。 ★2、和平共处五项原则：即互相尊重主权和领土完整，互不侵犯、互不干涉内政、平等互利，各平共处。是中国与印度、缅甸共同倡导的。 ★3、国家主权：是国家最重要的属性。也是国家本身所固有的属性。具有神圣不可侵犯的性质，是不可侵害的、不可让与的，是国家统治的权力，它具体体现为国家对内的最高权和对外的独立权 ★4、不得使用威胁或武力侵害任何国家原则 ★5、和平解决国际争端原则 ★6、不干涉内政原则 ★7、国际合作原则 ★8、民族自决原则 ★9、善意履行国际义务原则 第三章国际法的主体 ★1、国际法主体：指具有享受国际法上的权利和承担国际法上的义务能力的国际法律关系的参加者。 2、国家：是国际法的基本主体，是指国家在国际法律关系中处于一种主要的基本的地位。 ★12、国家的独立权 ★13、国家的平等权 ★14、国家的自卫权 ★15、管辖权 ★16、领域管辖：又称属地管辖，指国家对其领域内的一切人、物和所发生的事件有权行使管辖。 ★17、国籍管辖：又称属人优越权，指国家对一切在国内和国外的本国人，有行使管辖的权利。 ★18、保护性管辖：指国家对于外国人在该国领域之外，侵害该国的国家和公民的重大利益的犯罪行为，有行使管辖的权利。 ★19、普遍管辖：指根据国际法的规定，对普遍地危害国际和平与安全，以及人类的利益的某些特定的国际犯罪行为，各国均有权实行管辖。如贩毒、奴隶贩买等。 ★20、承认：是指既存国家以一定的方式对新的国家或政策出现这一事实的确认，并表明愿意与之建立正式的外交关系的国家行为。 21、承认的宣告说：认为承认只是对新国家这一既成事实的宣告，并不具有创设国际不主体的作用。该说现已获普遍支持，其代表人物有里维尔、布赖尔利等。 22、承认的构成说：认为新国家只有经过承认，才能成为国际法的主体。此说盛行于19世纪的欧洲，代表人物有奥本海，斯特鲁普等。 ★23、国家承认，是对新国家的承认，分为四种，即合并、分离、分立、独立 ★25、政府承认：指对新政府的承认，即承认新政府为国家的正式代表，并表明愿意同它发生或继续保护正常关系。 ★26、有效统治原则：指新政府必须能在其控制下的领土上有效地行使权力的条件下，各国才能予以承认。★28、法律上的承认：又称正式承认，指承认国给予新国家或新政府以一种完全的、永久的正式承认。这种承认表示承认者愿意与被承认者建立全面的正式关系，而且是永久的、不可撤销的。 ★29、国际法上的继承：指国际法上的权利和义务由一个承受者转移到另一个承爱者所发生的法律关系。★30、国家继承：指由于领土变更的事实而引起一国的权利和义务转移给另一国家的法律关系。 ★36、政府继承：指由于革命或政变而引起的政权更迭，旧政权的权利和义务为新政权所取代。 第四章国际法上的居民
American Dream: American dream means the belief that everyone can succeed as long as he/she works hard enough. It usually implies a successful and satisfying life. It usually framed in terms of American capitalism（资本主义）, its associated purported meritocracy,（知识界精华）and the freedoms guaranteed by the U.S. Bill of Rights. American Puritanism清教主义: Puritanism is the practices and beliefs of the puritans. The Puritans were originally members of a division of the protestant church who wanted to purify their religious beliefs and practices. They accepted the doctrines of predestination, original sin and total depravity, and limited atonement through a special infusion of grace from God. American literature in the 17th century mostly consisted of Puritan literature. Puritanism had an enduring influence on American literature. It had become, to some extent, so much a state of mind, so much a part of national cultural atmosphere, rather than a set of tenets. Transcendentalism 超验主义: Transcendentalism was a group of new ideas in literature, religion, culture and philosophy that emerged in New England in the early to middle 19th century. Transcendentalists spoke for cultural rejuvenation and against the materialism of American society. It placed emphasis on spirit, or the Over soul, as the most important thing in the world. It stressed the importance of individual and offered a fresh perception nature ad symbolic of the spirit of God. Prominent transcendentalists included Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thorough. American Naturalism自然主义: American naturalism was a new and harsher realism. The naturalists attempt to achieve extreme objectivity and frankness, presenting characters of low social and economic classes who were determined by environment and heredity. It emphasized that the world was amoral, the men and women had no free will, that lives were controlled by heredity and environment, that the destiny of humanity was misery in life and oblivion in death. The pessimism and deterministic ideas naturalism pervaded the works of such American writers as Stephen Crane and Theodore Dreiser. American Naturalism(美国自然主义文学)：The American naturalists accepted the more negative interpretation of Darwin’s evolutionary theory and used it to account for t he behavior of those characters in literary works who were regarded as more or less complex combinations of inherited attributes, their habits conditioned by social and economic forces.2) naturalism is evolved from realism when the author’s tone in writing becomes less serious and less sympathetic but more ironic and more pessimistic. It is no more than a gloomy philosophical approach to reality, or to human existence.3>Dreiser is a leading figure of his school. The Gilded Age镀金时代:the Gilded Age refers to the era of rapid economic and population growth in the United States during the post-Civil War and post-Reconstruction eras of the late 19th century. The term "Gilded Age" was coined by Mark Twain and Charles Dudley Warner in their 1873 book, The Gilded Age: A Tale of Today.The Gilded Age is most famous for the creation of a modern industrial economy. The end of the Gilded Age coincided with the Panic of 1893, a deep depression. The depression lasted until 1897 and marked a major political realignment in the election of 1896. After that came the Progressive Era. The Lost Generation: The Lost Generation is a group of expatriate American writers residing primarily in Paris during the 1920s and 1930s. The group was given its name by the American writer Gertrude Stein, who used “a lost generation” to refer to expatriate Americans bitter about their World War I experiences and disillusioned with American
国际法名词解释汇总 一、国际公法名词解释 1.Archipelagic sea lane passage群岛海道通过 baseline直线基线 economic zone专署经济区 clause 5.jus cogens强行法 7.neutralized states中立国 p.77/ sector principle扇形原则 9.attaches附属国/添附 10.natural prolongation principles自然延长原则 11.pacta sunt servanda约定必须遵守批 of effectiveness有效原则 13.par in parem non habet jurisdictionem平等者之间无管辖权 14.accretion添附 sanguinis血统主义 sic stantibus 17.retortion报复 18.extra territorial asylum领事庇护、域外庇护 19.a delict jure genetium 20.treaty-contracts 21.international comity国际法院 22.Drago Doctrine 23.trust territories 24.cession割让 26.signature ad referendum暂签 shelf大陆架 Congress维斯特法利亚国会/立法会 29.Diplomatic Corps外交团 legation premises使馆（外交人员的经营场所） 31.nuncios 32.the peaceful co-existence principle和平共处原则 34.Full Power全权证书 35.change's daffaires 36.exequatur 37.letter of Credence国书 ;LiHaopei;ShiJiuyong;He Qizhi;Zhaolihai 39.Caonnally https://www.doczj.com/doc/f218978805.html,w-making contract造法性条约 41.Super-national Law超国法 42.the right of collective self-defence集体自卫权 43.jus non scriptum 44.the nation's penal obligation国家刑事责任 Usage/ International Custom国际习惯/国际惯例 46.Instant International Customary Law
1 Naturalism: Naturalism is a movement in theater, film, and literature that seeks to replicate a believable everyday reality. Natural istic writers were influenced by the evolution theory of Charles Darwin. (3′)They believed that one's heredity and surroundings decide one's character. ( 2′) 2.The Local Colorism: Hamlin Garland defined local colorism as having quality of texture and background that it could not have been written in any other place or by anyone else than a native.( 3′) Texture refers to the elements which character a local culture, elements such as speech, customs and mores peculiar to one particular place. ( 2′) 3. American Realism: American Realism came in the latter half of the nineteenth century(1′) as a reaction against “the lie” of romanticism and sentimentalism. (1′) It expressed the concern for the world of experience, of the commonplace, and for the familiar and the low. (3′) 4. Hemingway Hero: The Hemingway hero is an average man of decidedly masculine tastes, sensitive and intelligent, a man of action, and one of few words. ( 2′) That is an individualist keeping emotions under control, stoic and self-disciplined in a dreadful place. These people are usually spiritual strong, people of certain skills, and most of them encounter death many times. ( 3′) 5. Harlem Renaissance: Black literature flourished in the 1920s in the Northeast part of New York City called Harlem. ( 2′)Black literature developed into a upsurge which has come to be known as the Harlem Renaissance, which reflects the feelings, the experience, the history and the ambition of the Black people. ( 3′) 6. Puritanism is code of values, the philosophy of life and a point of view. Puritans take religion as the most important thing, (2′)living for glorying God, believing predestination, origin sin, limited atonement, total depravity. They live a frugal , diligent life. ( 2′) 7. Image: An image is defined by Pound as that which presents an intellectual and emotional complex (1′)in an instant of time, “a vortex or cluster of fused ideas” “endowed with energy”. (1) The exact word must bring the effect of the object before the reader as it had presented itself to the poet’s mind at the time of writing. (1)