Chapter 10 Language Acquisition
一、定义
1.语言习得Language acquisition
Language acquisition refers to the development of the Child’s acquisition of his mother tongue or first language, i.e, how he comes to understand and to speak the language of his community.
2.输入Input
It refers to the language which a learner bears or receives and from which he or she can learn.
3.行为主义学习理论Behaviourist learning theory
It’s a theory of Psychology suggests that the learner’s verbal behaviour is conditioned or reinforced through association between a stimulus and response when applied to first language acquisition.
源自心理学的理论—行为主义,它认为儿童的语言行为是与他们所受刺激和随之的反应成相互条件的。
4.独词句One word holophrase / holophrase
It refers to a single word that appears in children’s early speech and functions as
a complex idea or sentence.
5.电报式言语Telegraphic speech 属于early multiword 阶段
It refers to the early speech of children. it’s so called because it lacks the same sorts of words which adults typically leave out of telegrams(such as non-substantive words and inflectional morphemes).
也可以说成缺少inflectional morphemes and most minor lexical categories.
6.转移Language transfer
It refers to the learners will subconsciously use their knowledge in learning a second language. Transfer can be either positive or negative.
7.对比分析Contrastive Analysis
It refers to a comparative procedure used to establish linguistic differences between two languages so as to predict learning difficulties caused by interference from the learner’s first language and prepare the type of teaching materials that will reduce the effects of interference.
补充establish linguistic differences between native and target language systems.
8.错误分析Error Analysis
An approach to the study and analysis of the errors made by the second language learners which suggest s that many learner errors are not due to the learner’ s mother tongue interference but reflect universal learning strategies such as over-generalization and simplification of rules.
一种研究和分析第二语言学习者所犯错误的方法.它指出语言学习者所犯的许多错误不是母语干扰所致而是体现了一些普遍的学习策略.如概括过度和规则简化。
9.语际语Interlanguage
The approximate language system that a second language learner constructs which represents his or her transitional competence in the target language.
第二语言学习这在学习过程中所构建的近乎目标语的语言体系，它体现了学习者在目标学习的过渡性语言能力。
10.语言僵化Fossilization
A process that sometimes occurs in second language learning in which incorrect linguistic features (such as the accent of a grammatical pattern) become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes in the target language.
11.工具性学习动机Instrumental motivation
The learner’s desire to learn a second language because its useful for some functional, ‘’instrumental’ goals, such as getting a job, passing an examination, or reading for information.
12.介入性学习动机Integrative motivation
The learner’s desire to learn a secon d language in order to communicate with native speakers of the target language.为了与人交流。
13.语言文化移入Acculturation
A process of adapting to the culture and value system of the second language community.
14.幼儿保育员言语Caretaker speech
Simple, modified speech used by parents, baby-sitter, ect. When they talk to young children who are acquiring their native language.
15.干扰Interference
The effect of one’s first language knowledge on the learning of a second language.
16.国际语法Universal Grammar
The different languages have a similar level of complexity and detail, and reflect general abstract properties of the common linguistic system is called..
17.第一语言的习得the 1st language acquisition
The development of a first or native language is called the 1st language acquisition.
18.It’s normally assumed that, by the age of five, with an opening vocabulary of more than 2.000 words, children have completed the greater part of the language acquisition process.
19.语法系统发展
语音Phonology
句法Syntax
形态Morphology
词汇和语义Vocabulary and semantics
20.判断题Children first acquire the sounds found in all languages of the world, no matter what language they are exposed to, and in later stages acquire the ‘more difficult’ sounds.
21.The emergency of articulatory skills begins around the age when children start to produce babbling sounds.
22.Researchers are particularly interested in the increasing complexity of negative sentences in child language development. they have found that correction and reinforcement are not key factors in child language development.
23.判断题SLA is primarily the study of how learners acquires or learn an additional language after they have acquired their first language.(L1)
24.美国的Stephenson Krashen区分了Acquisition和Learning
He said Acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.
Learning, it is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings.
25.判断题The learner’s t ransitional competence moving along a learning continuum stretching from one’s L1competence to the target language competence.
26.About the interlanguage, specifically, it consists of a series of interlocking and approximate linguistic systems in-between a nd yet distinct from the learner’s native and target languages. It’s a product of L2learning, mother tongue interference, overgeneralization of the target language rules, and learning and communicative strategies of the learner.
语际语包含一系列与本族语和目的语的相关并相似的语言体系，既介于本族语和目的语之间，又不同于他们的语言体系。语际语是第二语言训练、母语干扰、对目的语语言规则概括以及学习者的学习和交际策略的综合产物。
27.判断题although its found that formal instruction hardly affects the natural route of SLA, it does provide opportunities to receive comprehensible input, and in so doing enables the classroom learner to perform a wider range of linguistic tasks than the naturalistic learner and thereby accelerates the rate of acquisition.
尽管正规教学几乎不能影响第二语言习得的自然轨道，但却能为学习者提供接受可理解的输入信息的机会，这样做是课堂学习者比自然学习者所进行的第二语言学习得面要广一些，从而加速其习得过程。
28.学习者的个人因素Individual Learner Factors
最佳学习年龄The optimum age for 2nd language acquisition:
动机Motivation
语言文化移入Acculturation
学习者的个性Personality
三、问答题
1. what are the major individual factors for SLA?
The acquisition of a second language is dependent on a combination of factors.the rate and ultimate success in SLA are also affected by individual learner factors.
(1)The early years of one’s life before puberty;
(2)They must have strong motivation, instrumental or integrative;
(3)The extent to which learners differ in the process of adapting to the new culture of the L2 community, that is , acculturation.
(4)Learner’s personality.
2.Different theories of child language acquisition have been advanced, discuss two contrasting views with reference to the behaviorist learning model and the nativist biological model.
论述行为主义学习理论和生物先天论这两种相对立的观点。
The Behaviourist view:
language acquisition is a process of habit formation. Language is learned through stimulus and response. Reinforcement of selected responses is the key to understanding language development.
Children learn to produce correct sentences because they are positively reinforced when they say something right and negatively reinforced when they say something wrong.
语言习得是一个习惯培养的过程。语言是通过刺激与反应学习的。对有选择的反应的强化是理解语言发展的关键。儿童学会正确的使用语言，是因为他们正确的言语是得到积极强化而错误的言语得到消极强化。
The Nativist view:
language acquisition is the species---specific property of human beings, children are born with an innate ability to acquire language ,they are predisposed to develop their native language along a universal, predetermined route through similar stages. They go about acquiring the grammar of their native language using principles unique to language acquisition.
语言习得是人类特有的特性。儿童生来就具有天生的学习语言的能力，他们生来就具有习得本族语的能力，其习得过程沿着一条普遍、自然的轨道，并经历相似的阶段。他们使用语言习得的特有天赋习得本族语的语法。
3.Discuss one major factor which contributes to the difficulties most second language learners encounter.
论述导致大多数第二语言学习者学习困难的一个主要因素。
It has been suggested by some SLA scholars that learning difficulties confronting adultL2 learners arise from the fact that for most people a second language is learned in a formal setting, rather han acquired in a natural environment . Language acquisition is contrasted with language learning on the ground that
acquisition is subconscious, focusing on meaning, which learning is conscious, focusing on form. Its argued that conscious knowledge of linguistic forms does not ensure acquisition of the rules, that is , does not ensure an immediate guidance for actual performance.
习得是无意识的，注重的是意义；学习是由意识的，注重的是形式。
4.Enumerate some causes that lead to the systematic occurrence of errors in second language acquisition.列举第二语言习得中出现系统性错误的一些原因Some major causes that lead to the systematic occurrence of errors in second language acquisition include
(1)Interference from the mother tongue;母语干扰
(2)Interlingual interference within the target language;目标语的语际语干扰
(3)overgeneralization.过度概括
具体分析
Interference from the mother tongue:
Mother tongue interference is found at the level of pronunciation, morphology, syntax, vocabulary and meaning, and can be predicated by contrasting the grammatical or other systems of the native and target languages.
Interlingual interference:
Interlingual interference，or cross-association, occurs when the learner mixes rules and patterns of the target language and produce hybrid structures.
Overgeneralization：
The use of previously available strategies in new situations, i.e. the application of a particular pattern or rule of the target language in many other linguistic situations
课本外练习资料中的考点内容
一、定义
1.tone
Tone are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Tone is a suprasegmental feature.
2.Negative transfer
Negative transfer occurs when the frist language pattern is different from the counterpart pattern o f the target language. it’s commonly known as interference because it would lead to difficulties or errors in second language learning.
3.hapology
It refers to the loss of one of two phonetically similar syllables in sequence,
For example, the old English word ”engla-land”(the land of Angles)came to be pronounced “England” through the assimilation of ”la-la” sounds.
4.relational opposites
Pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items are called relational opposites.
5.语言判定Linguistic determinism
It refers to the fact that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on langauge, to put it more bluntly, language determines thought.
6.语调intonation
When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the wordin isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.
There are 4 types of intonation:
The falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone and the rise-fall tone.
7.深层结构Deep structure
It’s an abstract level representing the basis for the meaning of a sentence. it consists of a structure generated by phrase structure rules and contains lexical items from the lexcion, but no transformations have yet applied to it.
8.连字符Diacritics
Diacritics are a set of symbols that added to the letter symbols to make finer
distinctions than the letters alone make possible. Diacritics are only used in narrow transcription.
For example, in broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sound[l ]in words like leaf [li;f],feel[fi;l].
9.历史和比较语言学Historical and comparative linguistics
It’s a study of ongoing changes that languages have undergone.
It’s historical because it deals with the historical development of individual languages.
It’s comparative in the sense that it aims at developing and elucidating the genetic relationships that exist between and among languages, classifying related languages into language families and reconstructing their ancestral languages. 10.正向转移Positive transfer
Transfer can be positive or negative,. Presumably, positive transfer occurs when a first language pattern is identical with, or similar to, a target language.
例如,French people find no difficulty in learning the English word ”table”cos it has the same meaning as the Fr ench word” table”.
11.反向转移Negative transfer
Negative transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is different from the counterpart pattern of the target language.反向转移即人们常说的干扰
干扰Interference
The effect of one’s first language knowledge on the learning of a second la nguage.
12.人际交流Intrapersonal communication
It refers to one of the two major functions that language serves. as a means of intrapersonal communication, language facilitates thinking, speech behavior and action for the individual.
二、问答题
1.why is the word order in Modern English more rigid than that in Old English?
Because in Modern English there are no longer the elaborate morphological system used in Old English, such as the case marking system, to help to indicate grammatical relations. therefore, it is no longer possible to identify the functional roles of nouns by their inflectional endings.
The functional notions of subject and object have to be indicated largely by the syntactic position of nouns in a linear order, resulting in a system with stricter constraints on word order.
2.what features of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?
Language is a rule-governed system.
Language is basically vocal.
Language is arbitrary.
Language is used for human communication.
3.what’sBroca’s area and what will happen if any damage is inflicted upon it?
⑴In 1861, a French surgeon and anatomist Paul Broca discovered that somewhere in the frontal lobe in the left cerebral hemisphere had something to do with speech difficulty. this place is known as Broca’s area.
⑵Any damage to sites in the left cerebral hemisphere will result in a patient’s language disorder, whereas destruction of corresponding sites in the right hemisphere leave linguistic capacities intact.
⑶Therefore if any damage is inflicted upon this area, it will result in word finding difficulties and problems with syntax.
4.sate briefly your understanding of the differences between the term acquisition and the term learning in language acquisition study?
⑴The distinction between acquisition and learning was proposed by the American SLA scholar Stephen Krashen on the assumption that they are different processes.
⑵Acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.
⑶Learning is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings.
⑷It’s recognized that children acquired their native language without explicit learning, which a second language is more commonly learned but to some degree may also be acquired, depending on the environmental setting and the input received by the L2learner.
⑸A rule can be learned before it is internalized(i.e. acquired),but having learned
a rule does not necessarily preclude having to acquire it later.
5.suprasegmental features? how does it function in conveying meaning?
⑴the phonological features that occur above the sound segmental level are called suprasegmental features.
⑵the major suprasegmental features of English includes word stress, sentence stress and intonation.
⑶The suprasegmental features distinguish meaning.
超切分特征是在语音切分成分层面之上的音系特征。
主要包括单词重音、语句重音和语调。
超切分特征区分意义。
6.what is the nature of language change in historical linguistics?
语言的本质在历史语言学中的含义？
⑴language change is inevitable.
⑵as a general rule, language change is universal, continuous,to a considerable degree, regular and systematic.
⑶language change is extensive, taking place in virtually all aspects of the grammar—in phonology, morphology, syntax, lexicon and semantics.
⑷when language change is in progress, phonemes, morphemes, words, and grammatical rules may be borrowed, added, lost, or altered, and meanwhile, the meaning of individual lexical items or strings of words may expand ,narrow,or shift.
7.What’s the difference between the instrumental motivation and the integrative motivation of the learner’s?工具性与介入性学习动机的不同点？
⑴usually, adults are motivated to learn a second language because of a communicative need, they may learn a second language in order to use it functionally when they intend to use it as an instrument for the purpose.
⑵in certain situations an integrative motivation may be more powerful in facilitations may count for more.
⑶when the target language functions as a foreign language ,the learner is likely to benefit from an integrative motivation;
⑷but when the target language functions as a second language, an instrumental motivation is more effective.
8.词素的类别和使用How many morphemes are there in the English language? state what they are and illustrate how they work?
⑴there are two: free and bound morphemes.
⑵free morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves.
⑶bound morphemes are those that cant be used independently but have to combined with other morphemes.
⑷either free or bound, to form a word, it includes 2types:
A root is often seen as part of a word,it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning, it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.
⑸Affixes are morphemes that are added to an already existing morpheme to form a new word while changing its meaning and grammatical relations. it consists of both inflectional and derivational affixes,
9.语言的两种功能two functions of language?
Two major functions are interpersonal and intrapersonal communication.
人际交流和自我交流
⑴language functions as a means of interpersonal communication when language users use it to convey information, thoughts and feelings from one person to another or to control each other’s behavior.
⑵it functions as a means of intrapersonal communication when it is used as a means of facilitate thinking, speech behavior and action for the individual.
10.为什么说结构树形图比线形图可更好的说明句子的层次性？why do we say tree diagrams are more advantageous and informative than linear structure in analyzing the constituent relationship among linguistic elements?
⑴in addition to revealing a linear order, a constituent structure tree has a hierarchical structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic category of each structural constituent, and consequently is believed to most truthfully illustrate the constituent relationship among linguistic elements.
线形结构无法解释或说明有歧义的句子。
⑵for example, the phrase ”the old men and women” may have two interpretation. The adject ”old” may modify the noun ”men ”,or the “women”. or both. linear order analysis cannot tell this differe nce, so it’s ambiguous. the constituent of tree diagrams analysis can make this difference clear.
11.音素、音位、音位变体的定义及关系Explain with examples 3notions of phone, phoneme and allophone, how they are related.
⑴A phone is a speech sound, it is a phonetic unit. any sound we hear in the course of communication is a phone, such as [ u:],[ l ];
⑵A phoneme is a phonological unit, it’s not a concrete sound but an abstract notion, it’s a collection of features. it can be realized as different phones in different phonetic contexts. Such as ,the phoneme[ l ] can be realized as a clear[ l ] or a dark [ l ],depending on where it occurs in a sound combination.
⑶The actually phonetic realization of a phoneme are called its allophones,
allophones are the actual phones we hear in linguistic communication.
Chapter one Introduction 1.1什么是语言学 1.1.1定义 语言学Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 1.1.2The scope of linguistics语言学分支必考P2 普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics.（语音学） The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音位学） The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. （形态学） The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax（句法学） The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学） The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （语用学） 1.1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics 成对的概念辨析差异必考P3 （1）Prescriptive and descriptive 规定与描写 If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive. Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language
语言学概论复习重点与难点
<语言学概论>复习重点与难点 指导老师陈蓉 1.1语义就是语言的意义，是语言形式表达的内容。语义包含两个方面的内容，一是思想，也就是所谓的“理性意义”，一是情感，也就是所谓的“非理性意义”。理性意义也叫做逻辑意义或指称意义，是对主客观世界的认识。理性意义是语义的基本要素。非理性意义是说话人的主观情感、态度以及语体风格等方面的内容，它一般总是附着在特定的理性意义之上的。 语义是同语言形式结合在一起的意义，同语言形式的结合是语义的基本特征。 语言形式粗略的说，包括“语汇形式”和“语法形式”两类。语汇形式就是一种语言里所有的实词和固定短语，语法形式包括语序、虚词、形态、重音、语调等形式。由语汇形式表达的语义通常叫“词汇意义”，由语法形式表达的语义叫“语法意义”。
在语言里，语素、词、词组、句子等各级单位都有意义，它们的意义都是语义。其中句子的意义和词的意义具有突出的地位。 语言形式所表达的意义有一般与个别、稳定与临时的分别。在通常情况下都能够存在的意义是一般的、稳定的，在特定睥上下文、特定的交际场合中或特定的知识背景下才能出现的意义是人别的临时的。前者叫“语言意义”即语义，后者叫“语境意义”。 1.2 语义的概括性 概括性是语义的重要属性，无论是词义还是句义都是概括的。 1.3 语义的模糊性 所谓的模糊性是指词义所反映的对象只有一个大致的范围，而没有明确的界限。但也不是所有的词语都如此。不少词语的词义是精确的。 1.4 语义的民族性
语义的民族特点比较突出地体现在词义上。语义的民族特点也体现在词语的非理性意义方面。 2.1 词义的构成 词义是指词的语音形式所表达的内容。词的意义包括词汇意义和语法意义两部分。词义可以说是由理性意义和非理性意义两部分构成的。 词的理性意义是通过人的抽象思维对物质世界和精神世界的各种对象的概括的反映而形成的。 词的理性意义由于概括深度上的差异而分为两种类型：一种是人们对事物所具有的一组非本质特征的反映，这种词的理性意义可以称之为“通俗意义”；另一种是人们对事物的本质特征的反映，这种词的理性意义可以称为“科学意义”。 词的理性意义是词义的基本的和核心的部分。 词的非理性意义是附着在词的理性意义之上的，因而又叫做词义的附加色彩。
名词解释 1、词汇 是一种语言中所有的词和成语等固定用语的总汇 2、音位的自由变体 有些音位在同一语言环境中，可以自由替换，而又不能区别词义，不受前面其他音位的影响，没有任何条件的限制 3，语言 语言是社会现象，是社会交际工具。同时是心里现象，是人类思维的工具 4，自源文字 是在某种语言的基础上自发产生并逐步完善的文字 5，同化和异化 同化现象是指，一个音位受相邻音位的影响儿而又在某个区别特征或音位整体上的趋同现象；异化现象，是指两个本来相同或相近的音位，如果连着发音有困难，则其中一个发生变化，变得跟邻近的音不同或不相近 6，黏着语 没有词的内部屈折，每一个语法范畴义都有一个粘附语素来表示，而一个粘附语素也只表示一种语法范畴义的语言类型 7，语音 即语言的声音，是语言符号系统的载体，人的发音器官发出，负载着一定的语言定义。语言依靠语音实现他的社会功能 8音质音位 以因素为材料，从音质的角度分析音位 9形态 同一个词与不同的词组合就有不同的变化。这些不同的变化形成一个聚合，叫做词形变化，或者叫做形态 10仿意词 是分别将外语中的构词材料按外语中的次序译成本民族语，使构词成分的选择和构词结构的选择与外语一一对应 12区别特征 具有区别音位的语音特征叫区别特征，也叫区别性特征 13符号 社会全体成员共同约定，用来表示某种意义的记号、标记、它包括形式和内容两个方面。它的作用是指称社会现实现象 14，小学 中国传统文学又称小学，包括分析字形的文字学，研究字音的音韵学，解释字义的训诂学，它们是围绕解释和解读先秦典籍展开研究的，因此又被称为经学的附庸 15，言内意外 用语言表达思想时留下的一些意义空白或将真实意义隐含在另一种说法中，或用一种意义采用不同说法以获取不同的效果 16文字 有两个意思，一个是指一个一个的字，一是指语言的视觉符号体系 17国际音标 是国际语音协会于1888年制定并开始使用的，不带民族特色。它的制定原则是：
《英语语言学概论》课程教学大纲 一、课程说明: 《语言学概论》课程是英语专业本科阶段的一门必修课。 《语言学概论》研究始于20 世纪初，其目的是揭示人类深层结构，对语言和语言交际作出客观、科学描述。现已形成了语音学、音系学、形态学、句法学、语义学、语用学等一系分支学科。语言学研究社会学等人文学科的结合逐步形成了社会语言学这样的交叉学科。 对于主修语言学的学生来说，了解语言学的知识和语言理论是完全必要和有益的。 本课程的对象是英语专业高年级学生，在本科阶段第6学期和第7 学期开设。其中第一、二、三、四、五、七、八、十一章为必修，其余章节为选修。 二、教学目的及要求: 本课程的具体要求是：比较全面，系统地了解《语言学概论》这一领域的研究成果，以及一些最主要、最有影响的语言理论和原则，从而加深对人类语言这一人类社会普遍现象的理性认识，并具备一定的运用语言学理论解释语言现象、解决具体语言问题的能力。 本课程是一门知识性比较强的课程。在教学过程中，应重点讲授主要理论、原则、和研究方法，使学生着重掌握基本概念和基本理论，在理解消化的基础上记忆。 本课程的对象是英语专业学生，在讲解过程中原则上采用英语范例，但不排除一些有助于学习者理解的、针对性强的汉语例子。应鼓 励学生结合自己的语言实践提供更多的例子来解释相关理论，以达到理论和实践相结合的目的。
三、教学重点与难点: 本课程的教学重点是语言学的基本知识和基本理论，语音学、词汇学、句法学、语义学和语用学这些语言学的核心内容。 本课程的教学难点是音韵学理论、句法结构和各个语言学流派的理论观点及其局限性。 四、与其它课程的关系: 本课程是一门主干性课程。与其相关的课程，如语法学、词汇学和语体学等都是语言学的分支，属于选修课程。 五、学时与学分: 学时：72学时 学分：4学分 六、教学内容： 第一章绪论 本章主要教学内容: 1．语言学习的意义 2．语言的定义。 3．语言的定义特征 4．语言的起源。 5．语言的功能。 6．语言学的定义。 7．语言学的核心内容。 8．宏观语言学的定义及分支。
英语语言学 一、名词解释 第一课 l.Synchronic 共时性：Said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “poinL in timeA A kind of description which takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind? 2>Langue 语言：The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community? 3>Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for human communication. ^Arbitrariness 任意性：One design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. 第二课 1.Phoneme 音位：Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning? The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. 2
引言、第一章语言的本质学习要点 1.古代语文研究主要有哪三个国家地区？它们各有怎样的成果（著作、人物、时间）和擅长？中国古代语文研究的三个分支是什么？代表性著作（《尔雅》《方言》《切韵》《广韵》《说文解字》）、人物、年代？ 2.历史语言学的主要研究方法和成果是什么？代表性人物？“语文学”和“语言学”区别是什么？ 3.现代语言学的代表人物（索绪尔、布龙菲尔德、乔姆斯基）、著作、时间、流派？ 4.解释并举例说明：语言/言语、组合关系/聚合关系、共时语言学/历时语言学 5.为什么说语言具有符号属性？语言符号由哪两个要素组成？试证明语言符号的任意性、线条性、稳定性。 6.语言的要素有哪些？如何理解？ 7.为什么说语言是最重要的交际工具？ 8.为什么说语言具有社会属性（生理、心理、个人）？怎样理解语言是全民的交际工具？ 9.语言的定义是怎样界定语言的？ 第二章语音和音位学： 1.复述语音的四个物理要素，举例说明其辨义作用。 2.画出舌面元音舌位图，标出8个正则元音。 3.元音和辅音的区别在哪里？能够描写8个正则元音及普通话中的元音辅音，能够用宽式国际音标记录普通话。 4.复述并举例说明：音素、音节、复元音、复辅音、开音节、闭音节；音节和音素的关系。 5.举例说明语流音变：同化、异化、弱化、脱落、增音。 6.复述并举例说明：音位和音位变体、分布、对立、自由、互补、宽式记音与严式记音、音位系统。 7.举例说明如何归并音位，说明音素和音位的关系。了解普通话的声韵配合。 8.什么是非音质音位？举例说明调位和重位。 9.什么是音位的区别性特征？举例说明。 10.现代汉语语音有哪些特点？ 第三章语义复习 1.语义单位有哪些？ 2.举例说明义素（语义特征）分析的过程。 3.语言中为什么存在大量同音词？汉语同音词主要有哪些来源？多义词和同音词有怎样的异同？ 4.什么是语义场？上下位词、义类词指什么？语义场对语言研究有怎样的价值？ 第四章复习 1.举例说明概念：词法、句法、语法、语素、词、词组、句子、单纯词、合成词、复合词、派生词、词根、词缀、词干、词尾、形态、句法结构、语法形式、语法意义、语法手段、语法范畴。 2.构词法和构形法各有哪几种？构词与构形有何不同？举例说明。 3.句法结构的构成方式有几种？举例说明。 4.词类划分的依据有哪些？举例说明。 5.能够切分语素、区分构词与构形、分析词的构造方式、分析句法结构的构造方式、划分词
一、课程性质及其设置目的与要求 （一）课程性质和特点 《英语语言学概论》课程是我省高等教育自学考试英语专业（本科段）的一门重要的专业理论课程，其任务是培养应考者系统地学习英语语言学的基本知识，掌握语言系统内部语言学各分支之间的关系和各分支的重要概念和基本理论，了解语言学在其它学科领域的应用，熟悉现代语言学重要的流派及其代表人物；通过该课程的学习，考生可以从不同的角度了解语言（的性质），了解语言学习和语言教学，为日后进一步学习语言学、从事语言教学实践和语言学研究打下扎实基础。本课程的特点是：专业术语多，概念多，内容抽象，所以，考生最好在学习本课程之前先学习提高语言读写能力的课程，如高级英语、泛读（三）、写作等，这样可以减少语言障碍，有利于学好语言学的理论知识。 （二）本课程的基本要求 本课程共分为本书共分四编，计十三章。第一编（一至二章）介绍了语言和语言学；第二编（三至八章）介绍了语言学的主要分支—语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学；第三编（九至十二章）为跨学科领域与应用—话语分析、社会语言学、心理语言学，以及语言学理论与外语教学；第四编（十三章）介绍了现代语言学流派。通过对本书的学习，要求应考者对英语语言学有一个全面和正确的了解。具体应达到以下要求： 1、掌握语言的性质、功能，以及语言学的研究范围、语言学的分支和重要的语言学概念； 2、掌握语言系统内部语言学各分支之间的关系和各分支的重要概念和基本理论； 3、了解语言学在其它学科领域的应用； 4、熟悉现代语言学重要的流派及其代表人物。 （三）本课程与相关课程的联系 英语语言学概论是一门基础理论课程，其含盖范围很广，既涉及语言系统内部的语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学，又涉及许多交叉学科，如话语分析、社会语言学、心理语言学、应用语用学（包括语言学理论与外语教学），以及本教程未涉及的神经认知语言学、计算机语言学、人工智能与机器翻译等。语言学的进一步研究甚至会涉及到哲学、逻辑学等领域。 在自考课程中，词汇学与语言学关系最为密切，词汇学的许多概念、理论和研究方法都来源于语言学。高级英语、泛读（三）、写作、翻译等课程则是学好语言学的基础。文学与语言学并非对立的关系，这两个领域的研究方法可以互相补充、互相借鉴，日后无论从事语言学还是文学研究，这两个领域都必须同时涉猎。 二、课程内容与考核目标
英语语言学期末考试试卷 第一部分选择题 I.Directions: Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter A, B, C or D in the brackets. (2%X10=20%) 1. Saussure’s distinction and Chomsky’s are very similar, but they differ in that ____________. A. Saussure took a sociological view of language while Chomsky took a psychological point of view B. Saussure took a psychological view of language while Chomsky took a sociological point of view C. Saussure took a pragmatic view of language while Chomsky took a semantic point of view D. Saussure took a structural view of language while Chomsky took a pragmatic point of view 2. Language is a system of ____________ vocal symbols used for human communication. A. unnatural B. artificial C. superficial D. arbitrary 3. We are born with the ability to acquire language, _______________. A. and the details of any language system are genetically transmitted B. therefore, we needn’t learn the details of our mother tongue C. but the details of language have to be learnt.
社会语言学的研究对象 （一）定义和解释 社会语言学（sociolinguistics）是联系社会各种因素对语言进行的研究，探讨语言在社会环境中的变化、功能及其使用的一般规律。 概括来说对语言的研究大致有四个角度：部研究、外部研究、比较研究、应用研究。 社会语言学属于对语言的外部研究，但并不是纯粹的外部研究。 （二）研究对象的不同界定 1.布莱特（美国）1964 （1）说话人的身份； （2）听话人的身份； （3）言语事件的社会环境； （4）社会方言的分析； （5）言语行为的社会评价； （6）语言变异的程度； （7）社会语言学的实际应用。 2.礼德（英国） （1）语言宏观社会学、语言人口统计学； （2）双语、多语、多方言研究； （3）语言规、语言发展和规化； （4）语言混合； （5）社会方言； （6）社会语言学和教学； （7）言语的人种史、语言环境； （8）语域和言语能力； （9）语言变化的社会因素； （10）语言和社会化及其传播； （11）社会语言学的方法； （12）语言体系的功能理论； （13）语言相对性； （14）话语理论； （15）人种方法论的语言学。 3.祝畹瑾《社会语言学概论》（1992） 总的来说，社会语言学研究的对象主要包括五个方面： （1）一个国家或地区的语言状况如双语、多语或多方言状况，以及各类言语共同体使用语言的状况和特征； （2）各类语言变体的构造特点及其社会功能； （3）社会以及不同集团对各种语言或语言变体的评价和态度以及由此产生的社会效应；（4）由于社会、文化、经济、政治等原因以及语言接触所引起的语言变化的方式和规律；（5）交际情景与选择语码之间的关系以及语码选择与人际关系的相互作用。 4.戴庆厦《社会语言学概论》（2004） （1）社会因素（阶级、阶层、职业等）对语言结构的影响； （2）个人因素（年龄、性别、性格等）对语言的影响； （3）语言政策、双语等； （4）社会因素引起的语言关系，如语言接触、语言融合；
英语语言文学专业基础 本科目包括英语语言学基础、英美文学基础知识、英语国家概况、英汉互译四部分内容，总分150分，其中英语语言学基础15分，英美文学基础知识70分，英语国家概况15分，英汉互译50分。 I、英语语言学基础（15分） 一、考试要求和内容 该部分主要考查普通语言学的基本概念和基本理论。 二、考试题型 填空题、选择题、判断题、名词解释题。 三、参考书 《新编简明英语语言学教程》，戴炜栋、何兆熊主编，上海外语教育出版社，2002。 II、英美文学基础知识（70分） 一、考试要求 本部分考试旨在考查考生对有关英美文学的基本概念、主要流派、基础知识的理解和掌握情况，以及运用所学的基础理论知识分析、评论简单的文学文本。 二、考试内容 1、英国文学部分 1）古英语诗歌的形成、发展及主要文本。 2）英国中世纪文学的形成和发展、主要诗人及其作品。 3）英国文艺复兴时期的文学：“文艺复兴”产生的历史背景、定义及其主要特征、对英国文学的影响、主要作家及其作品。 4）新古典主义时期（十八世纪）英国文学：启蒙运动形成的原因、启蒙运动的定义、特征及其对英国文学的影响、这一时期主要的作家及其作品。 5）浪漫主义时期（十九世纪早期）英国文学：英国浪漫主义文学形成的历史背景、浪漫主义诗歌的主要作家及其作品、浪漫主义小说的主要作家及其作家品、浪漫主义散文的主要作家及其作品。 6）维多利亚时期（十九世纪中后期）英国文学：英国现实主义文学形成发展的历史背景、这一时期主要的作家及其作品。 7）现代时期（二十世纪）英国文学：英国现代主义文学形成的历史背景、现代主义文学的主要流派、这一时期主要作家及其作品。 2、美国文学部分 1）早期的美国文学：清教主义文学形成与发展、早期美国文学的主要作家及其作品。 2）浪漫主义时期的美国文学：早期浪漫主义文学的主要作家及作品、超验主义时期的主要作家几作品、后期浪漫主义文学的主要作家及作品。 3）现实主义时期的美国文学：美国现实主义文学的形成与发展及主要流派、美国现实主义文学与自然主义文学的异同、这一时期主要的作家及作品。 4）现代时期的美国文学：美国现代主义文学的形成与发展及主要流派、战后美国文学的形成与发展、现代时期美国文学的主要作家及作品。 三、考试题型 填空题、单项选择题、匹配题、名词解释题、文本分析题。 四、参考书 《英国文学简史》（新增订本），刘炳善，河南人民出版社，2007； 《美国文学简史》（第2版），常耀信，南开大学出版社，2003 III、英语国家概况（15分） 一、考试要求 本部分考试旨在考查考生对英美国家的地理、历史、政治、文化、社会习俗、宗教群体、价值观念以及该国人民的思想态度和生活方式的掌握情况。 二、考试题型 填空题、判断题、名词解释题。 三、参考书 《英美概况》（上、下册），张奎武主编，吉林科学技术出版社，2003 IV、英汉互译（50分）
英语语言学复习重点1 Chapter one Introduction 一、定义 1.语言学Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。 4.识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。Arbitrariness任意性 Productivity多产性 Duality双重性 Displacement移位性 Cultural transmission文化传递 ⑴arbitrariness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.
P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions ⑵Productivity Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send. ⑶Duality Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels. ⑷Displacement Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. ⑸Cultural transmission Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species. 5.语言能力Competence Competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. 6.语言运用performance Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。 7.历时语言学Diachronic linguistics The study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time. 8.共时语言学Synchronical linguistics The study of a given language at a given time. 9.语言langue The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community. 10.言语parole The realization of langue in actual use. 11.规定性Prescriptive It ai ms to lay down rules for ”correct” behavior, to tell people what they should say and what should not say. 12.描述性Descriptive A linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use. 二、知识点 https://www.doczj.com/doc/f15181841.html,nguage is not an isolated phenomenon, it’s a s ocial activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings. 语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。 2.几种观点和现象的提出者： ⑴瑞士语言学家F.de Saussure F.de Saussure:Langue和parole的区别 ⑵U.S.A linguist N.Chomsky美国语言学家N.Chomsky in1950针对Saussure’s langue&parole提出Competence和performance ⑶曾经对语言概念下过定义的语言学家
语言学概要重点名词概念：语言学、普通语言学、专语语言学、共时语言学、历时语言学 一、语言学、语言学的对象和任务 二、语言学在科学体系中的地位 三、语言学的基本类别 根据研究的对象的不同，语言学分为共时语言学和历时语言学、专语语言学和普通语言学。 四、语言学流派 各个语言学流派的观点、代表人物有所了解即可，注意布拉格学派、哥本哈根学派以及美国结构语言学派（也称美国描写语言学）都属于结构主义学派，是这一学派的三个分支。关于语言学流派的具体内容阐述，不作考试要求。 第一章言语的社会功能 本章须明确两个大的要点：语言的社会功能，即交际工具和思维工具；语言是一种社会现象。 主要名词概念：语言、社会、社会现象 第一节语言是人类最重要的交际工具 一、语言是人类社会的交际工具 1．语言的交际功能：语言是人类区别于其它动物的一个重要标志。语言是联系社会成员的桥梁和纽带，是社会成员互相之间交际和交流思想的工具，也是协调社会成员行动一致的工具。 2．语言是一种社会现象：语言是一种社会现象，和人类社会有
着十分紧密的联系，没有人类社会，就没有语言，人类社会以外的社会无所谓语言。所谓社会现象是指那些与人类共同体的产生、存在和发展等活动密切联系的现象。不同的民族有不同的语言，不同的地域有不同的语言，同时社会的变化也给语言以极大的影响，而离开了人类社会，就无所谓语言可言了。总之，语言就是一种社会现象，同社会的关系非常密切，其产生、发展等都要受到社会的影响。 语言不是自然现象，一方面，语言同社会有着十分紧密的联系，社会的发展变化直接影响着语言的发展变化，也就是说，语言的发展变化是受制于社会的；另一方面，从语言的音义联系看语言不是自然现象，而是社会约定俗成的，没有必然的本质的联系，如果语言是自然现象，世界上的语言应该一样的，没有区别的，而实际上世界上的语言多种多样，而且许多语言中还有方言，这说明语言决不是自然现象。 3．语言是一种特殊的社会现象：语言不但是社会现象，而且是一种特殊的社会现象。语言作为社会现象的特殊性主要表现在，社会现象可分为经济基础和上层建筑两大类，任何一种社会现象，要么属于经济基础，要么属于上层建筑，而语言既不属于经济基础，也不属于上层建筑，这两者的变化都不会从本质上影响语言。所以，从本质上看，语言是人类共同的交际工具，不分阶级、阶层，一视同仁地为全社会的成员服务，没有阶级性，具有全民性特点。 4．语言没有阶级性：可从这样几个方面思考，首先是看语言工具的服务对象，是为特定的阶级服务还是为大众服务。其次是结合语
语言学概论复习资料 1. 为什么语言和种族没有必然联系 答：语言能力和生理因素、心理因素有关，但语言不是一种生理现象，也不是一种心理现象，不是遗传的，而是一种社会现象。语言完全是在一种语言环境中后天获得的，所以语言和种族没有必然联系。 2. 简答语言符号的特点。 答：（1）符号和语言，“能指”和“所指”。能指是能够指称某种意义的成分，所指是给符号所指的意义内容创制了一个专门术语。（2）语言符号的“任意性”。符号的物质实体和表示的意义之间没有必然的理据关系，语言符号的物质实体和表示的意义之间也没有必然的理据关系，完全是任意的，约定俗成的。（3）语言符号的强制性和可变性。在同一社会、同一时代，对使用同一种语言的每一个社会成员来说是强制性的，而语言又是发展变化着的。（4）语言符号的离散特性和线性特性。话只能一个字一个字，一句话一句话地说，因此语言符号是离散的，而且在时间这根轴上是成线性排列的。 3. 组合关系和聚合关系的关系。 答：组合关系体现在一个语言单位和前一个语言单位或后一个语言单位，或和前后两个语言单位之间的关系，是横向关系。聚合关系是在组合的某一个位置上能够相互替换，有共同的特点，故能聚合归类。组合是横向的结构关系，聚合是归类规则，有了组合、聚合关系，便展现出了整个语言平面，聚合关系是组合关系中体现出来的，或者说是从组合关系中分析出来的，而组合关系又表现为聚合类的线性序列。所以组合关系和聚合关系是有机地统一，不可分割。 4. 解释“符号” 答：符号指根据社会的约定俗成使用某种特定的物质实体来表示某种特定的意义而形成的实体和意义的结合体。 5. 解释“语言” 答：语言是言语活动中同一社会群体共同掌握的，有规律可循而又成系统的那一部分，语言是均质的，是言语活动中的社会部分。语言作为一种社会现象具有鲜明的地区性、民族性和历史性。 6. 口语和书面语的关系。 答：语言的客观存在形式首先是口语，第二种客观存在形式，是书面语。书面语是在口语的基础上产生的，口语是第一性的，书面语是第二性的。书面语是经过加工、提炼和发展了的口语的书面形式。口语和书面语中基本的语言成分也就是基本的语汇和语法结构在大多数情况下是基本一致的。 7. 语言与言语的区别。 答：语言是言语活动中同一社会群体共同掌握的、有规律可循而又成系统的那一部分；而含有个人要素或个人杂质的说话行为和说出来的话只能属于言语。8. 解释“普通语言学”。 答：语言学界把研究人类社会的语言这种社会现象的一般理论称为普通语言学。它以一般语言学为研究对象，探索各种语言所共有的特性、共同的规律、结构上的共同特点和一般原理。 9. 解释“应用语言学”。 答：把语言学的理论和具体成果用来为社会实际生活中的某个领域服务，这是广义的应用语言学；狭义的应用语言学指专门研究语言教学中的理论和方法。10. 解释“传统语言学”。
英语语言学基础知识 一、绪论语言学的定义语言的定义语言学的研究范畴语言的甄别特征 几对基本概念 (2) a large amount of communication is carried out in speech than in writing What is linguistics? 什么是语言学？ (3) speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language Language and parole 语言与言语 Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general. 语言学是对语言科学地进行研究的学科。语言学所要 研究的不是某一种特定的语言，Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. 而是人类所有语言的特性。 Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use The scope of linguistics 语言学研究的范畴 Competence and performance 能力与运用 Phonetics语音学\Phonology音系学\Morphology形态学\Syntax句法学\Semantics语义学\Pragmatics语用学Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users’ knowledge of the rules of his language \Sociolinguistics社会语言学\Psycholinguistics心理语言学\Applied linguistics应用语言学 Performance: The actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Prescriptive vs. descriptive 规定性与描述性 What is language? 什么是 语言？ Descriptive：A linguistic study describes and analyzes the
英语语言学复习资料 一：名词解释 1. Language (语言) is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 2. Linguistics(语言学) is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 3. General linguistics(普通/一般语言学) The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. 4. Phonetics(语音学) the study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of phonetics. 5. Phonology(语音体系) how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication. 6. Morphology(形态学) these symbols are arranged and combined to form words has constituted the branch of study called morphology. 7. Syntax(句法学) then the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages is governed by rules. The study of these rules constitutes a major branch of linguistic studies called syntax. 8. Semantics(语意学) the study of meaning is known as semantics. 9. Pragmatics(语用学) when the study of meaning is conducted, not in isolation, but in the context of language use, it becomes another branch of linguistic study called pragmatics.