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资本结构决定因素以中国企业为案例【外文翻译】

资本结构决定因素以中国企业为案例【外文翻译】
资本结构决定因素以中国企业为案例【外文翻译】

本科毕业论文(设计)

外文翻译

原文:

The Determinants of Capital Structure:Evidence from Chinese Listed

Companies

One early extension was to allow for the incidence of taxation and ?nancial distress. Since the late 1970s, there have been two new strands of research which originate more from the theory of the ?rm: the …pecking order?theory and the …trade-o?? theory. The pecking order theory argues that ?rms have a preference of issuing ?nancing instruments due to adverse selection problems (Myers and Majluf, 1984). T he theory suggests that the ?nancial manager tends to use internal capital as the ?rst choice, then issue debt, and equity will only be considered as the last resort as issuance of equity can be perceived by the market as a signal of a poor future for the investment. In contrast, the trade-o?theory emphasizes that an optimal capital structure can be achieved by the trade-o?of the various bene?ts of debt and equity.

2.1. The pecking order theory

The pecking order theory is based on the information asymmetries between the ?rm?s managers and the outside investors. Ross (1977) was the ?rst to address the function of debt as a signalling mechanism when there are information asymmetries between the ?rm?s management and its investors.He argued that management has better knowledge of the ?rm than the investors, and that management will try to avoid debt when the ?rm is performing poorly for fear that any debt default due to poor cash ?ow will result in their job loss. The information asymmetry may also explain why existing investors may not favor new equity ?nancing, as new investors may require higher returns to compensate for the risks of their investment thus diluting the returns to existing investors. Myers and Majluf (1984) later developed their so-called pecking

order theory of ?nancing: i.e.that capital structure will be driven by ?rms? desire to ?nance new investments preferably through the use of internal funds, then with low-risk debt, and with new equity only as a last resort. In their theory, there is no optimal capital structure that maximiz es the ?rm value. The ?nancial managers issue debt or equity purely according to the costs of capital. Subsequent empirical studies provide mixed evidence. Helwege and Liang (1996) found no empirical evidence for such a pecking order. Booth et al. (2001) found evidence supporting the theory in their 10-country empirical study. Frank and Goyal (2003) tested the pecking order theory on a broad cross-section of publicly traded American ?rms for 1971 to 1998, and concluded that the theory was not supported by the evidence. Whilst large ?rms exhibited some aspects of pecking order behavior, the evidence was not robust to the inclusion of conventional leverage factors, nor to the analysis of evidence from the 1990s.

2.2. The trade-off theory

The trade-o?theory argues that there is an optimal capital structure that maximiz es the ?rm value, but the trade-o? comes in various forms.

2.2.1. TaxShield Bene?ts and the Financial Distress Cost of Debt

One of the crucial assumptions of the MM (1958) model was that there is no taxation. Later work by Modigliani and Miller (1963), and Miller (1977) add tax e?ects into the original framework. An implication of this newer work was that ?rms should ?nance their projects completely through d ebt in order to maximize corporate value. Clearly this contradicts reality in that debt constitutes only a fraction of ?rms? total capital. Subsequent theoretical work seeks an optimal capital structure which results from a trade-o?between the bene?ts of tax shield of debt and the costs of ?nancial distress of debt.According to this line of theory, the bene?ts of debt arise from its tax exemption, which implies that a higher debt ratio will increase the ?rm?s value. But the bene?ts can be o?set by costs o f ?nancial distress, which may destroy the value of the ?rm. Thus the optimal capital structure is determined by the trade-o?

between the tax-free bene?ts of debt and the distress costs of debt - see Figure 1. De Angelo and Masulis (1980), Ross (1985) and Leland (1994) have shown that, in the presence of taxation, it is advantageous for a ?rm with safe, tangible assets and plenty of taxable income to take a high debt-equity ratio to avoid high tax payments. For a ?rm with poorer performance and more intangi ble assets, it is better to rely on equity ?nancing.

One problem with the theories based on consideration of the tax-shield bene?ts is that they cannot explain why capital structures vary across ?rms that are subject to the same taxation rates. Empirical evidence from the United States (Copeland and Weston, 1992) shows that the capital structure of corporations did not change much after corporate income tax came into existence. In Australia, where there is no dual income taxation at all, capital structure is roughly the same as in other economies (Rajan and Zingales, 1995). Booth et al. (2001) found that the tax bene?ts vary in developing countries and play no role in the determination of capital structure choice.

2.2.2. Agency Theory and Capital Structure

Even if markets are perfect and there is no tax impact, agency theory suggests that the appropriate mix of debt and equity is still an important matter for corporate governance. In general, debt claims provide the holders with a ?xed repayment schedule but little in the way of rights to control the company, as long as the repayment schedule (and sometimes certain other terms) is met. However, creditors can have a strong in?uence over a company if it gets in ?nancial distress but, even if a company is ?nancia lly sound, creditors can in?uence whether it can obtain additional funding for proposed new projects. For example, a bank that has loaned a company the money for factory expansion can make it easy or hard for the company to borrow more money for a new o?ce building.

Conversely, equity claims – in particular, common stock – give shareholders the right to vote for Boards of Directors and on other important corporate issues such as major mergers or plans that would dispose of substantial portions of the compan y?s assets. Shareholders are also entitled to receive dividends or other distributions

whenever the company pays them or, if the company is liquidated, to receive the net assets of the company after paying all debts and any securities, such as preferred stock, that rank ahead of common shares. These two features, the right to vote and the right to receive dividends and other distributions, are the de?ning characteristics of common shares.

Jensen and Meckling (1976) identify two potential sources of con?ict.On the one hand, con?icts between debt-holders and equity-holders arise because the debt contract gives equity-holders an incentive to invest sub-optimally. More speci?cally the debt contract provides that, if an investment yields large returns well above the face value of the debt, equity-holders will capture most of the gain. If, however, the investment fails, debt-holders bear the consequences because of limited liability. As a result, equity-holders may bene?t from …going for broke?; i.e. investing in very risky projects, even if they are value-decreasing. Such investments result in a decrease in the value of the debt. The loss in value of the equity from the poor investment can be more than o?set by the gain in equity value captured at the expense of debt-holders. Equity-holders correctly anticipate equity-holders? future behavior. In this case, the debt-holders receive less for the debt than they otherwise would. Thus, the cost of the incentive to invest in value-decreasing projects created by debt is borne by the equity-holders who issue the debt. This e?ect, generally called the asset substitution e?ect, is the agency cost of debt ?nancing.

On the other hand, con?icts between shareholders and managers arise because managers hold less than 100% of the residual claim. Consequently, they do not bear the entire cost of these activities. Managers may thus invest less effort in managing the ?rm?s resources, and may be able to transfer ?rm resources to their own personal bene?t, for example through …empire-building? or by consuming …perquisites? such as corporate jets, luxurious offices etc.

The manager bears the entire cost of refraining from these activities, but captures only a fraction of the gain. As a result, managers overindulge in these pursuits relative to the level that wou ld maximize ?rm value. This in effciency is reduced the larger is

the fraction of the ?rm?s equity owned by the manager. Holding constant the manager?s absolute investment in the ?rm, an increase in the debt ratio of the ?rm increases the manager?s share of the equity and mitigates the loss from the con?ict between the manager and shareholders. Moreover, as pointed out by Jensen (1986), since debt commits the ?rm to pay out cash, it reduces the amount of …free? cash available to managers to engage in the types of pursuits mentioned above. This mitigation of the con?icts between managers and equity-holders constitutes a bene?t of debt ?nancing.

A number of implications follow from this analysis. First, one wouldexpect bond contracts to include features that attempt to prevent asset substitution, such as interest coverage requirements, prohibitions against investments in new unrelated lines of business, etc. Second, industries in which the opportunities for asset substitution are more limited will have higher debt levels ceteris paribus. Thus, for example, the theory predicts that regulated public utilities, banks, and ?rms in mature industries with few growth opportunities will be more highly leveraged. Third, it is optimal for ?rms with slow or even negative growth, and that have large free cash in ?ows from operations, to have more debt. Large free cash ?ows without good investment prospects create the resources to consume perquisites, build empires, overpay subordinates etc. Increasing debt reduces the amount of …free cash? and increases the manager?s fractional ownership of the residual claim. According to Jensen (1986) industries with these characteristics include steel, chemicals, brewing, tobacco, television and radio broadcasting, and wood and paper products. The theory predicts that these industries should be characterized by high leverage ratios.

2.2.

3. Corporate Control

One limitation of agency theory is that it assumes the agency problem can be mitigated, or eliminated, by a comprehensive contract which postulates all the future contingencies and states the circumstances in which the manager should take what action, as criticised by Hart (1995a, 1995b). But such a comprehensive contract would be very costly to design and/or execute(Williamson, 1988). It may well be optimal to leave the contract incomplete, and to assign the equity-holders the residual control

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