2018年北航英语语言文学考研（050201）考试科目、招生人数、参考
书目、复习指导
一、招生信息
所属学院：外国语学院
招生人数：11
所属门类代码、名称：文学[05]
所属一级学科代码、名称：外国语言文学[0502]
二、研究方向：
01 英美文学
02 比较文学
三、初试考试科目：
①101思想政治理论
②202俄语或243日语二外或244德语二外或245法语二外
③721基础英语
④821英语语言文学
四、参考书目
《语言学教程》北京大学出版社（2006年第三版）胡壮麟
《高级英汉翻译理论与实践》清华大学出版社（2008年）叶子南
《英汉互译实用教程》武汉大学出版社（2003年）郭著章，李庆生
五、复习指导
1、参考书的阅读方法
（1）目录法：先通读各本参考书的目录，对于知识体系有着初步了解，了解书的内在逻辑结构，然后再去深入研读书的内容。
（2）体系法：为自己所学的知识建立起框架，否则知识内容浩繁，容易遗忘，最好能够闭上
眼睛的时候，眼前出现完整的知识体系。
（3）问题法：将自己所学的知识总结成问题写出来，每章的主标题和副标题都是很好的出题素材。尽可能把所有的知识要点都能够整理成问题。
2、学习笔记的整理方法
（1）第一遍学习教材的时候，做笔记主要是归纳主要内容，最好可以整理出知识框架记到笔记本上，同时记下重要知识点，如假设条件，公式，结论，缺陷等。记笔记的过程可以强迫自己对所学内容进行整理，并用自己的语言表达出来，有效地加深印象。第一遍学习记笔记的工作量较大可能影响复习进度，但是切记第一遍学习要夯实基础，不能一味地追求速度。第一遍要以稳、细为主，而记笔记能够帮助考生有效地达到以上两个要求。并且在后期逐步脱离教材以后，笔记是一个很方便携带的知识宝典，可以方便随时查阅相关的知识点。
（2）第一遍的学习笔记和书本知识比较相近，且以基本知识点为主。第二遍学习的时候可以结合第一遍的笔记查漏补缺，记下自己生疏的或者是任何觉得重要的知识点。再到后期做题的时候注意记下典型题目和错题。
（3）做笔记要注意分类和编排，便于查询。可以在不同的阶段使用大小合适的不同的笔记本。也可以使用统一的笔记本但是要注意各项内容不要混杂在以前，不利于以后的查阅。同时注意编好页码等序号。另外注意每隔一定时间对于在此期间自己所做的笔记进行相应的复印备份，以防原件丢失。统一的参考书书店可以买到，但是笔记是独一无二的，笔记是整个复习过程的心血所得，一定要好好保管。
2018年考研英语（一）参考答案【凯程首发】 刚刚考完，凯程的电话瞬间变成了热线，学员兴奋地汇报他们的考试情况，提到了英语考试，都是在集训营训练的过的内容。凯程近1-2天发布真题解析视频，凯程艾老师预祝同学们考试顺利。 1.选C，for a condition for表对象，意思是“是…的条件” 2.选A，faith faith此处同义替换trust 3.选D,price carry a high price表示可能会付出很大的代价，线索为wrong place 4．选B，then 承上启下句，“那么，为什么要去信任他人呢？” 5.选D，when 并无转折，是简单的时间状语从句 6.选B，produces 与后面的trigger同意替换，产生愉悦的感觉 7.选C，connect 人之间的关系、联系用connect, 8.选D，to to表方向，暴露在这种荷尔蒙（作用）下 9.选B,mood in a mood固定搭配，心情心境 10.选A，counterparts 物主代词＋counterpart固定的搭配，表示相对应的人或物 11.选B，Lucky 从a six sense for dishonesty逻辑知道，11空为褒义词，12空也是褒义词 12.选B，protect 同11，且与主题，信任相关 13.选A,between
differentiate between在两者间区分，用between 14.选C，introduced 从后文tester would ask知道tester是人，实验人员，所以选“介绍” 15.选D,inside 同意替换上文look into the container 16.选A,discovered 同意替换found 17.选C，fooled 语义上来看，既然作出惊喜表情，盒子里面却空无一物，显然是“欺骗，wrong错怪，mock取笑，betray背叛都不合文义。此外下一段t出现了trick,是fool的同意替换18.选B,willing 没有被欺骗，所以“愿意”合作；willing与hesitant是唯一一组正反选项 19选A,in contrast, 作者要证明连小孩子都会用第六感来保护自己，所以最后的这个例子一定是第二组被欺骗的小孩子们的反应，语意上看，应该选in contrast，对比逻辑 20.选C,unreliable 由于欺骗了他们，所以实验人员是”不可信的”，此外unreliable与原文焦点相关。 阅读 21.选D，middle-class workers 简单细节定位题，并无同义替换。第二段But many middle-class occupations-trucking, financial advice,software engineering—have aroused their interest,or soon will. 再次印证了but的重要性。 22.选C，Issues arising from automation need to be tackled 主旨题，文章以发现问题-解决问题的逻辑撰写，主旨在于应对人工智能带来的负面影响，让受影响的人做好充分准备。A，B，D中的groundless,little support和avoid都涉及极端表述，无依据。 23.选A，creative potential 简单定位题，第四段…focus less on memorizing facts and more on creativity and complex communication
2018年考研英语二真题及答案解析 Section I Use of English Directions： Read the following text. Choose the best word (s) for each numbered blank and mark A, B, C or D on the ANSWER SHEET. (10 points) why do people read negative Internet comments and do other things that will obviously be painful?Because humans have an inherent need to 1 uncertainty, according to a recent study in Psychological Science. The new research reveals that the need to know is so strong that people wiill 2 to satisfy their curiosity even when it is clear the answer will 3. In a series of four experiments, behavioral scientists at the University of Chicago and the Wisconsin School of Business tested students' willingness to 4 themselves to unpleasant stimuli in an effort to satisfy curiosity. For one 5 each participant was shown a pile of pens that the researcher claimed were from a previous experiment. The twist?Half of the pens would 6 an electric shock when clicked. Twenty-seven students were told which pens were electrified;another twe nty-seven were told only that some were electrified 7 left alone in the room, the students who did not know which ones would shock th em clicked more pens and incurred more shocks than the students who knew what would 8 .Subsequent experiments reproduced this effect wit h other stimuli, 9 the sound of fingernails on a chalkboard and pho tographs of disgusting insects. The drive to 10 is deeply rooted in humans,much the same as the ba sic drives for 11 or shelter,says Christopher Hsee of the University of Chicago. Curiosity is often considered a good instinct-it can 12 new scientific advances, for instance-but sometimes such 13 can back fire.The insight that curiosity can drive you to do 14 things is a profound one.Unhealthy curiosity is possible to 15 ,however. In a f inal experiment,participants who were encouraged to 16 how they would
2018年考研英语一真题及答案 的更新!2018考研英语翻译真题解析：19考生应关注3个语法点翻译部分较去 2017-12-24 的更新!2018考研英语翻译真题解析：19考生应关注3个语法点翻译部分较去 2017-12-24 的更新!2018考研英语翻译真题解析：19考生应关注3个语法点翻译部分较去 2017-12-24 的更新!2018考研英语翻译真题解析：19考生应关注3个语法点翻译部分较去 2017-12-24
的更新!2018考研英语翻译真题解析：19考生应关注3个语法点翻译部分较去 2017-12-24 译文】莎士比亚出生之时，欧洲宗教戏剧正在消逝，在古典悲剧和戏剧的推动下，很多新的戏剧形式应运而生。 (47) no boy who went to a grammar school could be ignorant that the drama was a form of literature which gave glory to Greece and Rome and might yet bring honor to England. 【题目考点】定语从句;宾语从句;并列结构 【句子结构】主句主干：no boy…could be ignorant that…。who引导的定语从句修饰boy，that引导为形容词ignorant的宾语从句，which引导的定语从句修饰a form of literature，gave…and might bring honor…为先行词a form of literature的并列谓语结构。 【重点词汇】grammar school 文法学校ignorant忽视literature文学glory 荣耀 【参考译文】任何文法学校的学生都知道戏剧是一种文学形式，它曾给希腊和罗马带来荣耀，也许同样会给英格兰带来殊荣。
2018年全国硕士研究生入学统一考试英语（二） 及答案 Section I Use of English Directions: Read the following text. Choose the best word(s) for each numbered blank and mark A, B, C or D on the ANSWER SHEET. (10 points) Why do people read negative Internet comments and do other things that will obviously be painful? Because humans have an inherent need to___1___ uncertainty, according to a recent study in Psychological Science. The new research reveals that the need to know is so strong that people will ___2_ _ to satisfy their curiosity even when it is clear the answer will ___3___. In a series of four experiments, behavioral scientists at the University of Chicago Booth School of Business and the Wisconsin School of Business tested students' willingness to ___4___ themselves to unpleasant stimuli in an effort to satisfy curiosity. For one ___5___, each participant was shown a pile of pens that the researcher claimed were from a previous experiment. The twist? Half of the pens would ___6___ an electric shock when clicked. Twenty-seven students were told which pens were rigged; another twenty-seven were told only that some were electrified. ___7___ left alone in the room, the students who did not know which ones would shock them clicked more pens and incurred more jolts than the students who knew what would ___8___. Subsequent experiments replicated this effect with other stimuli, ___9___ the sound of fingernails on a chalkboard and photographs of disgusting insects. The drive to ___10___ is deeply ingrained in humans, much the same as the basic drives ___11___ or shelter, says Christopher Hsee of the University of Chicago, a co-author of the paper. Curiosity is often considered a good instinct—it can ____12 ___ new scientific advances, for instance—but sometimes such __ 13____ can backfire. The insight that curiosity can drive you to do ____14____ things is a profound one.
2018 年全国硕士研究生入学统一考试英语（二）真题答案详解Section I Use of English 命题分析： 本文介绍了好奇心给人们带来的负面影响。文章难度不大，常考的总分结构、词汇与搭配辨析和逻辑关系（指代、并列、转折、列举等）再次成为考点。部分段落里的长难句也在提醒考生要有基本的语法功底。另外，本文多次出现语义的重复，对解题也有极大的帮助。 译文识词： 人们为什么浏览网络上的负面（negative）评论，并且做其他明显会痛苦的事情呢？根据《心理科学》上发表的一项最新研究可知，因为人们都有（1）解决不确定性的内在（inherent）需要。这项新研究揭示（reveal）：渴望了解的需求如此强烈以至于人们会（2）设法满足自己的好奇心（curiosity），即使答案很明显会（3）令人痛苦。 在一系列（series）（分四项）实验中，芝加哥大学和威斯康星商学院的行为科学家测试了学生们为了满足好奇心而让自己（4）接触令人不悦的刺激物的意愿。在一项（5）试验中，每位参与者都会看到一堆笔，研究人员声称（claim）它们来自以前的（previous）一项实验。出现的转变（twist）是？按下（click）时，有一半的笔会（6）给予一次电击。 27 名学生被告知哪些笔带电，另外27 名学生却被告知有些笔带电。被单独留在房间里（7）时，不知道哪些笔会使自己受到电击的学生会比知道会（8）发生何事的学生按下更多的笔并遭受（incur）更多的电击。随后的（subsequent）几次实验中，使用其他刺激物重现了（reproduce）该结果，（9）例如，指甲刮黑板的声音和令人厌恶的昆虫图片。 芝加哥大学的奚恺元，即这篇论文的合著者，表示（10）探索的动力在人类体内根深蒂固，与对（11）食物或住处（shelter）的基本动力几乎相同。好奇心经常被认为是一种好的本能（instinct）——例如，它能（12）带来新的科学进步——但有时候这种（13）探究可能会适得其反。好奇心会驱使你做（14）自我毁灭 的事情，这种洞察力（insight）是真知灼见（a profound one）。 然而，病态的好奇心是有可能（15）按耐住的。在最后一项实验中，有些参与者被鼓励去（16）预测自己浏览令人不悦的图片之后的感受，他们（17）选择观看此类图片的可能性（likely）较小。这些研究结果表明，依据好奇心提前（ahead of time）想象随后发生的（18）结果，有助于决定（determine）它（19）是否值得付出努力。奚恺元说道：“考虑长期（20）后果是减少好奇心可能带来的负面影响的关键。”换而言之 （in other words），不要浏览网络评论。 1、【答案】[B] 【解析】动词辨析题。空格前的句子提出问题“人们为什么浏览网络上的负面评论，并且做其他明显会痛苦的事情呢？”，而空格所在句给出原因“因为人们都有不确定性的内在需要”，因此，空格处所填动词应与名词uncertainty 搭配使用，且表示出这种内在需要能够促使人们做出前一句中提到的行为。备选项中只有resolve 和uncertainty 搭配才符合句意，即因为人们想要解决不确定性，所以这种好奇心会促使人们为了寻求答案而去浏览网络上的负面评论并做一些明显会痛苦的事情，故答案为B。 2、【答案】[D] 【解析】动词辨析题。空格为与so...that...引导的结果状语从句中，结合空格前后的内容可知，人们渴望了解的需求如此强烈，所导致的结果应该是人们要满足自己的好奇心，故空格处应填入表示“肯定”含义的单词。seek 表示“设法，试图”，最符合文意，故D 为答案。 3、【答案】[A] 【解析】动词辨析题。空格为于even when 引导的时间状语从句中，此处even 表示让步关系，强调即使答案很明显会，人们依旧会去满足自己的好奇心；结合第一句可知，空格处应填入一个与negative 和 painful 意思相近的单词。备选项中，只有hurt“令人痛苦，使人伤心”符合要求，故A 为答案。
析2017年考研英语考试已经结束!出国留学考研网在考后第一时间为大家提供2017年考研英语一翻译真题及答案解析，更多考研资讯请关注我们网站的更新! 2017年考研英语一翻译真题及答案解析 英语1文章明显偏学术，今年考察英语语言发展情况，文章选的英国文化教育协会，是雅思出题组织者。它的主席叫大卫格兰多的一本书，叫《英语下一步》，他讲到整本书意思是英语将走向何处。 很有意思的是主席曾经这本书里说到了中文将以后成为世界语言。 英语1考题作为序言部分作为考题。 今年英语1总体难度和去年相比，刚刚过去2016年考研题稳中有一点点上升，没有任何难句出现，只是长句。我认为稳中上升。 第一句话有一个单词难一点，(英文)，英语全球性主导地位。翻译里没有考过。(英文)主导地位考过，但是是阅读里经常出现，翻译都是可以的。这句话基本意思说到了，说英语的人进一步扩大，这是一个(英文)状语从句。后面跟着有迹象表明，是主句，表明的迹象是什么呢?从句，英语全球性主导地位在可预见地位将减弱。 fade(英文)略微有难度。我对考研阅读没有那么熟，但是2000年出现过。 如果按照新东方老师关注的精读方法来学习有很好的效果。 第二句话讲到了大卫这个人分析，会终结一些人的(英文)，他们或许会认为英语全球性地位是如此稳定。他们有一次词，是(英语)如此稳定，英国年轻一代不需要额外学习其他的语言能力。但是会终结年轻一代的能力。 但是组织的时候要注意一下，有些人认为英语语言地位如此稳定，英国年轻人没有必要学习什么，但是大卫的观点会终结这些人的想法。语序颠倒一下会更好。48题，正在引入英语，引入小学课程，有一个单词，(英语)，这个单
2018年研究生入学考试英语（二）试题 SectionⅠUse of English Directions: Read the following text. Choose the best word(s) for each numbered blank and mark [A],[B], [C] or [D] on the ANSWER SHEET. (10 points) Why do people read negative Internet comments and do other things that will obviously be painful? Because humans have an inherent need to 1 uncertainty, according to a recent study in Psychological Science. The new research reveals that the need to know is strong that people will 2 to satisfy their curiosity even when it is clear the answer will 3 . In a series of experiments, behavioral scientists at the University of Chicago and the Wisconsin school of Business tested students’willingness to 4 themselves to unpleasant stimuli in an effort to satisfy curiosity. For one 5 , each participant was shown a pile of pens that the researcher claimed were from a previous experiment. The twist? Half of the pens would 6 an electric shock when clicked. Twenty-seven students were told with pens were electrified; another twenty-seven were told only that some were electrified. 7 left alone in the room. The students who did not know which ones would shock them clicked more pens and incurred more shocks than the students who knew that would 8 . Subsequent experiments reproduced this effect with other stimuli, 9 the sound of fingernails on a chalkboard and photographs of disgusting insects. The drive to 10 is deeply rooted in humans, much the same as the basic drives for 11 or shelter, says Christopher Hsee of the University of Chicago. Curiosity is often considered a good instinct—it can 12 new scientific advances, for instance—but sometimes such 13 can backfire. The insight that curiosity can drive you to do 14 things is a profound one. Unhealthycuriosity is possible to 15 , however. In a final experiment, participants who were encouraged to 16 how they would feel after viewing an unpleasant picture were less likely to 17 to see such an image. These results suggest that imagining the 18 of following through on one’
2018年考研英语一真题（后附答案详解） Section I Use of English Directions： Read the following text. Choose the best word (s) for each numbered blank and mark A, B, C or D on the ANSWER SHEET. (10 points) Trust is a tricky business. On the one hand, it's a necessary condition _____(1) many worthwhile things: child care, friendships, etc. On the other hand, putting your _____(2)in the wrong place often carries a high _____(3). _____(4), why do we trust at all? Well, because it feels good. _____(5) people place their trust in an individual or an institution, their brains release oxytocin, a hormone that _____(6) pleasurable feelings and triggers the herding instruct that leads sheep to flock together for safety and prompts humans to _____(7) with one another. Swiss Scientists have found that exposure _____(8) this hormone puts us in a trusting _____(9): In a study, researchers sprayed oxytocin into the noses of half the subjects; those subjects were ready to lend significantly higher amounts of money to strangers than were their _____(10) who inhaled something else. _____(11) for us, we also have a sixth sense for dishonesty that may _____(12) us. A Canadian study found that children as young as 14 months can differentiate _____(13) a credible person and a dishonest one. Sixty toddlers were each _____(14) to an adult tester holding a plastic container. The tester would ask, ―What's in here?‖ before looking into the container, smiling, and exclaiming, ―Wow!‖ Each subject was then invited to look _____ (15). Half of them found a toy; the other half _____ (16)the container was empty-and realized the tester had _____(17) them. Among the children who had not been tricked, the majority were _____ (18) to cooperate with the tester in learning a new skill, demonstrating that they trusted his leadership. _____ (19), only five of the 30 children paired with the "_____(20)"tester participated in a follow-up activity. 1. A．on B．like C．for D．from 2. A．faith B．concern C．attention D．interest 3. A．benefit B．debt C．hope D．price 4. A．Therefore B．Then C．Instead D．Again 5. A．Until B．Unless C．Although D．When 6. A．selects B．produces C．applies D．maintains 7. A．consult B．compete C．connect D．compare 8. A．at B．by C．of D．to 9. A．context B．mood C．period D．circle 10. A．counterparts B．substitutes C．colleagues D．supporters 11. A．Funny B．Lucky C．Odd D．Ironic 12. A．monitor B．protect C．surprise D．delight 13. A．between B．within C．toward D．over 14. A．transferred B．added C．introduced D．entrusted 15. A．out B．back C．around D．inside 16. A．discovered B．proved C．insisted D．remembered
2018年考研英语二试题与答案解析（完整版） ——跨考教育英语教研室 Section I Use of English Directions： Read the following text.Choose the best word(s)for each numbered blank and mark A,B,C or D on the ANSWER SHEET.(10points) Why do people read negative Internet comments and do other things that will obviously be painful?Because humans have an inherent need to1uncertainty, according to a recent study in Psychological Science.The new research reveals that the need to know is so strong that people will2to satisfy their curiosity even when it is clear the answer will3. In a series of four experiments,behavioral scientists at the University of Chicago and the Wisconsin School of Business tested students'willingness to4themselves to unpleasant stimuli in an effort to satisfy curiosity.For one,5each participant was shown a pile of pens that the researcher claimed were from a previous experiment. The twist?Half of the pens would6an electric shock when clicked. Twenty-seven students were told which pens were electrified;another twenty-seve n were told only that some were electrified7left alone in the room,the students who did not know which ones would shock them clicked more pens and incurred more sho cks than the students who knew what would8.Subsequent experiments reproduced th is effect with other stimuli,9the sound of fingernails on a chalkboard and photograph s of disgusting insects. The drive to10is deeply rooted in humans,much the same as the basic drives for 11or shelter,says Christopher Hsee of the University of Chicago.Curiosity is often co nsidered a good instinct-it can12new scientific advances,for instance-but sometimes such13can backfire.The insight that curiosity can drive you to do14things is a prof ound one.Unhealthy curiosity is possible to15,however.In a final experiment,partici pants who were encouraged to16how they would feel after viewing an unpleasant pic
2018年考研英语一真题原文及答案解析完整版 2018年全国硕士研究生入学统一考试英语(一) Section I Use of English Directions: Read the following text. Choose the best word (s) for each numbered blank and mark A, B, C or D on the ANSWER SHEET. (10 points) Trust is a tricky business. On the one hand, it's a necessary condition 1 many worthwhile things: child care, friendships, etc. On the other hand, putting your 2, in the wrong place often carries a high 3. 4, why do we trust at all? Well, because it feels good. 5 people place their trust in an individual or an institution, their brains release oxytocin, a hormone that 6 pleasurable feelings and triggers the herding instruct that prompts humans to 7 with one another. Scientists have found that exposure 8 this hormone puts us in a trusting 9: In a Swiss study, researchers sprayed oxytocin into the noses of half the subjects; those subjects were ready to lend significantly higher amounts of money to strangers than were their 10 who inhaled something else. 11 for us, we also have a sixth sense for dishonesty that may 12 us. A Canadian study found that children as young as 14 months can differentiate 13 a credible person and a dishonest one. Sixty toddlers were each 14 to an adult tester holding a plastic c ontainer. The tester would ask, “What’s in here?” before looking into the container, smiling, and exclaiming, “Wow!” Each subject was then invited to look 15. Half of them found a toy; the other half 16 the container was empty-and realized the tester had 17 them. Among the children who had not been tricked, the majority were 18 to cooperate with the tester in learning a new skill, demonstrating that they trusted his leadership. 19, only five of the 30 children paired with the “20”tester participated in a follow-up activity.
绝密★启用前 2018年全国硕士研究生招生考试 英语（二） （科目代码：204） ☆考生注意事项☆ 1.答题前，考生须在试题册指定位置上填写考生编号和考生姓名；在答题卡 指定位置上填写报考单位、考生姓名和考生编号,并涂写考生编号信息点。 2.考生须把试题册上的“试卷条形码”粘贴条取下，粘贴在答题卡的“试卷 条形码粘贴位置”框中。不按规定粘贴条形码而影响评卷结果的，责任由考生自负。 3.选择题的答案必须涂写在答题卡相应题号的选项上，非选择题的答案必须 书写在答题卡指定位置的边框区域内。超出答题区域书写的答案无效；在草稿纸、试题册上答题无效。 4.填（书）写部分必须使用黑色字迹签字笔书写，字迹工整、笔迹清楚；涂 写部分必须使用2B铅笔填涂。 5.考试结束，将答题卡和试题册按规定交回。 （以下信息考生必须认真填写） 考生编号 考生姓名
SectionⅠUse of English Directions： Read the following text.Choose the best word(s)for each numbered blank and mark A,B,C or D on the ANSWER SHEET.(10points) Why do people read negative Internet comments and do other things that will obviously be painful?Because humans have an inherent need to1uncertainty, according to a recent study in Psychological Science.The new research reveals that the need to know is so strong that people will2to satisfy their curiosity even when it is clear the answer will3. In a series of four experiments,behavioral scientists at the University of Chicago and the Wisconsin School of Business tested students’willingness to4themselves to unpleasant stimuli in an effort to satisfy curiosity.For one5,each participant was shown a pile of pens that the researcher claimed were from a previous experiment.The twist?Half of the pens would6an electric shock when clicked. Twenty-seven students were told which pens were electrified;another twenty-seven were told only that some were electrified.7left alone in the room, the students who did not know which ones would shock them clicked more pens and incurred more shocks than the students who knew what would8.Subsequent experiments reproduced this effect with other stimuli,9the sound of fingernails on a chalkboard and photographs of disgusting insects. The drive to10is deeply rooted in humans,much the same as the basic drives for11or shelter,says Christopher Hsee of the University of Chicago. Curiosity is often considered a good instinct–it can12new scientific advances, for instance–but sometimes such13can backfire.The insight that curiosity can drive you to do14things is a profound one. Unhealthy curiosity is possible to15,however.In a final experiment, participants who were encouraged to16how they would feel after viewing an unpleasant picture were less likely to17to see such an image.These results suggest that imagining the18of following through on one’s curiosity ahead of time can help determine19it is worth the endeavor.“Thinking about long-term 20is key to reducing the possible negative effects of curiosity,”Hsee says.In other words,don’t read online comments.