Introduction: Rethinking Globalization, Education, and Citizenship
DAVID T. HANSEN
Teachers College, Columbia University
Background/ Context:This essay is a part of a special issue that emerges from a year-long faculty seminar at Teachers College, Columbia University. The seminar’s purpose has been to examine in fresh terms the nexus of globalization, education, and citizenship. Participants come from diverse fields of research and practice, among them art education, comparative education, curriculum and teaching, language studies, philosophy of educa-tion, social studies, and technology. They bring to the table different scholarly frameworks drawn from the social sciences and humanities. They accepted invitations to participate because of their respective research interests, all of which touch on education in a globalized world. They were also intrigued by an all-too-rare opportunity to study in seminar condi-tions with colleagues from different fields, with whom they might otherwise never interact given the harried conditions of university life today. Participants found the seminar gener-ative in terms of ideas about globalization, education, and citizenship. Participants also appreciated what, for them, became a novel and rich occasion for professional and personal growth.
Purpose/ Objective:The purpose of the present essay is to outline the aims and activities of the faculty seminar on globalization, education, and citizenship. I describe its origins, its composition, and the sequence of discussions, readings, and writings participants under-took. I discuss how the seminar adopted as its method of working the form of the spoken and written essay. “Essay” derives from the French essayer, denoting a trial of ideas in an attempt to understand. The introduction also anticipates the scope and style of the essays that com-prise this special issue of the journal.
Conclusions/ Recommendations:The final portion of this introduction raises questions for continued research and practical wisdom. Among them are questions about the nature and purposes of education in our time (with education treated as more than schooling); the meaning of unofficial as well as official notions of citizenship; the dynamics and problem-atic of “belonging” in a changing world; the meaning of learning as well as misuses of the Teachers College Record Volume 113, Number 6, June 2011, pp. 1135–1153
Copyright ? by Teachers College, Columbia University
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concept; the place of beauty in inquiry into globalization, education, and citizenship; how the essay form opens up a reconsideration of faculty support and assessment; the benefits and limitations of technology; and the meaning of respect as an orientation in research and practice in globalized conditions.
Globalization . . . . education . . . . citizenship. Are there three weightier terms in the lexicon of schools and universities today? The contributors to this special issue of Teachers College Record aspire to transform the bur-den of the terms by handling them lightly—though not lightheartedly. The hopes and fears that the terms evoke are much too important for frivolity. I mean “lightly” in Italo Calvino’s sense of the writer resisting the gravitational force of habit, expectation, and stereotype. This sprightly, beloved Italian writer of unusual novels, literary criticism, and much more sought a method that, as he put it, “involved the subtraction of weight. I have tried to remove weight, sometimes from people, sometimes from heavenly bodies, sometimes from cities; above all I have tried to remove weight from the structure of stories and from language” (1993, p.
3). Calvino refers to “the Ineluctable Weight of Living” (he dramatically capitalizes the terms), and tips his hat to writers such as Milan Kundera who have rendered this hard reality in prose. Calvino pictures his task as illuminating why it is that, in the absence of lightness, the choices and val-ues that people embrace can turn around and constrict them. His gentle handling of ungentle things in his Six Memos for the Next Millennium remains an offering to all in this millennium who care about the scope and quality of human communication.
The contributors to the issue presented here met as a faculty seminar during the academic year 2009–2010. Although we did not read Calvino’s book together, we did find ourselves reading the world in the spirit he evokes. In the sections that follow, I will describe the seminar in order to provide a context for the essays to come. I will conclude by sketching themes for future research and practice that appear across the essays. As readers will discover, the contributors do not presume to offer brand-new, unprecedented insights into how to address today’s globalized con-ditions. Instead, the contributors show why fusing a sense of wonder with a sense of concern can, at least at times, dissolve weight and allow human beings to move, breath, create, and dwell.
FORMING THE SEMINAR
“We can learn from each other’s stories only if we share both
human capacities and a single world: relativism about either is a
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reason not to converse but to fall silent.”
– Kwame Anthony Appiah (2005, p. 257)
Lightness: This image was not on our minds when as a group of faculty we convened on September 24, 2009, to begin an inquiry into the nexus in our era of globalization, education, and citizenship. For this initial meet-ing, we had not examined any prior reports or articles, and we had no set agenda of specific issues, questions, or themes. We gathered based on invitations from our college’s provost and dean of faculty, Thomas James. Provost James and Susan Fuhrman, president of the college, had orga-nized in the previous academic year a set of “domain dinners” pivoting around contemporary issues in research and practice. One such dinner, held on January 28, 2009, focused on global citizenship and education. The event featured a spirited discussion among the 39 college faculty, staff, and administrators in attendance. In the aftermath, Provost James invited me to imagine a faculty-centered activity that would build on the evident college-wide interest in the topic. The result was our seminar. Provost James and I framed its charge to faculty as follows: (a) to think through in our own terms the relation between globalization, education, and citizenship; (b) to prepare for publication an interdisciplinary set of writings that would bring together our learning; and (c) in conjunction with this publication to present to faculty and students in the college our learning and our suggestions for future research, for course and program enrichment, and for professional development.
An important task at the start was how to compose the group. In pon-dering its aims, I used the following criteria of selection, developed in consultation with Provost James:
? The faculty had to have a demonstrated interest in the theme—for example, 10 of the eventual participants attended the domain din-ner mentioned above.
? They had to be diverse—for example, pursuing a range of scholarly interests, coming from a variety of cultural backgrounds, and affili-ated with different academic programs in the College.
? They had to have the time and energy to commit to a year-long series of meetings as well as subsequent writing and presentations.? The seminar had to be small so that it could be genuinely interac-tive and build a sustained inquiry.
The upshot was that we formed a group of 13 colleagues drawn from eight academic programs in the College. Over the course of the year, 3 of our colleagues had to withdraw because of other priorities. The essays
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featured in this special issue have been prepared by those who stayed the course throughout.
In forming the seminar, I also had in mind what, in retrospect, could be called existential and ethical considerations. I mean “existential” in the sense of drawing together colleagues who appreciate (if not in so many words) what John Dewey called the aleatory nature of the human condition: its fundamental unpredictability and vulnerability, and yet also its invitational quality that beckons human creativity. Dewey turned to the poet John Keats for help in describing the ability to embrace this fusion of humble realism and imaginative action. Keats coined the term “nega-tive capability” to characterize a person, as he put it, “capable of being in uncertainties, mysteries, doubts, without any irritable reaching after fact and reason” (quoted in Dewey, 1989, p. 39). Keats added that such a per-son has the patience to dwell, at least for a time, with what he went on to call “half-knowledge” (p. 39). Our year-long seminar ended up drawing fully upon its participants’ capacity to wait for understanding, however incomplete, rather than to rush to conclusions, however comforting. By “ethical” considerations, I mean the ancient Mediterranean sense (Greek, Hellenistic, Roman) of being dedicated to self-cultivation in aes-thetic, moral, and intellectual terms. In a superb study of that era, Pierre Hadot (1995) described the emergence of “spiritual exercises” having to do not with religion per se but with the mindful and heartful develop-ment of a person’s sensibility, insight, and character. In a related study, Michel Foucault (2005) characterized these ancient practices as “the care of the self,” denoting not a narcissistic project but, again, the notion that to dwell justly with others and to realize one’s capabilities requires disci-plined self-cultivation. In this spirit, I judged it important to try to bring together colleagues in the seminar who would appreciate open-ended dialogue, have a feeling for the rhythms of listening and participating, and aspire to learn from others. These are the sort of capacities I take Kwame Anthony Appiah to have in mind in the epigram that heads this section. To speak, to listen, to tell and follow stories, to learn: these shared capacities help make scholarly community possible. They do not presume shared values (political, religious, economic, artistic, etc.), upon which faculty who participated in the seminar differ as much as any com-parable group would. Our purpose was not to arrive at the same values, at least not by design or method. It was to articulate questions, ideas, and practices that might be helpful to people interested in the nexus of glob-alization, education, and citizenship. To undertake this task, some of whose results comprise this special issue, necessitated being helpful to one another.
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Existential and ethical dimensions came to mind, if not in so many words, because I believed from the start that our approach should be inductive. Rather than take our point of departure from prior framings of the seminar theme, it seemed fitting given our varied backgrounds that we should build together our questions, our lines of inquiry, and our reading and use of other resources. Part of this orientation was selfish (hopefully not in a negative sense): to discover from colleagues in differ-ent fields how to reimagine central and truly global educational ques-tions for our time. In the event, it seems to me that all of us learned to learn with one another as much as from one another. The other rationale was philosophical. Given the enormous psychic and political weight of the core terms globalization, education, and citizenship (and yet given also their acknowledged importance), I felt it important to venture a fresh beginning, a possibility enhanced by the manifold diversity and extensive experience of the group.
ESSAYING TOGETHER: AN EVOLVING WAY OF WORKING
“‘Participation’ is a strange word. Its dialectic consists of the fact
that participation is not taking parts, but in a way taking the
whole. Everybody who participates in something does not take
something away, so that the others cannot have it. The opposite
is true: by sharing, by our participating in the things in which we
are participating, we enrich them; they do not become smaller,
but larger.”
– Hans-Georg Gadamer (1984, p. 323) The method we came to employ in the faculty seminar is that of the essay. The French root is essayer: to try, to experiment, to test out ideas. An essay is not a demonstration or a proof. It is not a report on work or on thinking that has been completed, although it can be retrospective. An essay constitutes a living, ongoing, enacted, and visible inquiry. In many instances, an essay embodies the attempt to start again, especially when the issue, event, or idea of concern has become confused, opaque, or indeed overwhelming in its apparent complexity. Readers will encounter these qualities in the essays that constitute this special issue of the journal. They are qualities we found ourselves practicing in our sem-inar discussions throughout the year (more on this below). To essay makes possible a spirit of movement that from the start marked our attempt at lightness.
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FALL SEMESTER, 2009
We did not begin our seminar in September 2009 with a review of the numerous definitions available of globalization, education, and citizen-ship, taken either individually as concepts or together as a dynamic nexus of various forces and aspirations. We began . . . simply. We began by spending time together. We began by talking and learning how to talk together. We began by recalling personal experience, a process that invariably led us to transform our views of ourselves and of the world. Our initial discussion took off from the following verbal prompt I put for-ward as facilitator:
Please think of an example of any cross-cultural, or trans-
national, encounter from any point in your life that you have
found engaging, memorable, and that sticks with you—but that
also remains perplexing, that you’re still not sure how to inter-
pret, or to account for why it stays with you. The example can be
from your childhood, days as a schoolteacher if applicable, or
from your most recent professional life. It can involve interaction
with a single person or with a group; it can address your response
to a work of art, a book, a poem, a film; it can refer to your con-
tinued work on a paper you wrote or are writing, to a course you
taught or to any kind of research project.
What follows is an attenuated summary of what colleagues said in this first face-to-face meeting.
Lalitha Vasudevan spoke of what she called identity work, her lifelong experience of adapting to the new that she characterized as, in part, a continuous coming-into-awareness of one’s expectations. Maria Torres-Guzman sketched what she saw as the challenges to self-determination, on the part of individuals and communities, under conditions of global-ization. Molly Quinn described scenes from a recent conference she attended in which she saw how participants embodied distinctive cultures and yet communicated substantively about issues of love and hate in a divisive world. Tom James recalled boyhood encounters with members of the Menominee, an Indian tribe in the region of Wisconsin in which he grew up, and how they showed him that meaningful peace can replace war. (Unfortunately, Provost James was unable to attend subsequent ses-sions because of his pressing schedule.) Olga Hubard described linkages she has long been drawing between image and identity, and expressed her continued wonder at how education “happens.” Bill Gaudelli remarked that his professional life has taught him, among other things,
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the value of keeping alive the “soul” of curriculum by continuing to ren-der dynamic the artfulness embedded within it. Michelle Knight-Diop recalled experiences illustrating the necessity of discomfort, conflict, and pain if genuine education is to ensue, all of which she pictured as the other side of the virtues of harmony and fellow-feeling. Regina Cortina commented on experiences of transnationality in which, like many peo-ple around the world, she found herself taking aboard new forms of iden-tity that had hitherto never occurred to her as possibilities. Graeme Sullivan characterized the phenomenon of “liquid structures” in our cur-rent moment of human space and time; the term, he explained, denotes processes of disruption and creativity through which settled understand-ings become undone and susceptible to fresh interpretation. Portia Williams referred to her dismay at hearing a professor in a theory course she took on English as a Second Language cast doubt on the efficacy of education, this in juxtaposition with her study at the time of Mary McLeod Bethune’s pioneering work. I touched on scenes in Alfonso Cuaron’s film version of P. D. James’s novel, Children of Men, that illumi-nate the human hunger for lives of purpose in the face of systems that starve people of meaning.
At our initial meeting, participants also wrote responses on a handout that posed the following prompt:
Please take a moment to comment on our three core terms
[globalization, education, citizenship] in the seminar. You are
welcome to touch on ideas, questions, and concerns the three
terms raise for you; to touch on affective resonances with the
terms as well as intellectual ones; and the like. The key thing is
to comment on where you are with the terms at this very moment.
In diverse ways throughout the ensuing year, participants referred back to their responses and to how they were evolving. For example, as recorded above, a number of colleagues deployed in September the familiar concept “identity” with its varied sociological and psychological connotations. By the end of our seminar, this concept had fallen out of use, as if, as one member hypothesized during an April meeting, the term required systematic rethinking if it was to heed the flexibility, openness, and responsiveness to social transformation that we were more and more seeking in our terms of analysis.
We devoted our remaining five sessions in that fall semester, each 2 hours in length, to reading, discussion, and faculty presentations. We began by studying Chapter 7 from John Dewey’s Democracy and Education—“The Democratic Conception in Education” —and Hannah
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Arendt’s essay “The Crisis in Education.” Although penned by philoso-phers, the texts belong to no fixed academic discipline or specialty. Both address their particular era; Dewey published his book during World War I, Arendt her essay in the late 1950s. However, both readings speak force-fully not just to their time but to our time and indeed to any imaginable human time to come. For this reason, I had recommended to colleagues, before the session, that they approach the texts as if they came from the future. We discussed how they raise inspiring, difficult, and universal questions about education and human aspirations for democracy, justice, and meaning in life. We noted that the authors differ markedly on how to respond to such questions. Dewey advocates intimate relations between the school and society; Arendt urges a fundamental distance between them.
We supplemented our reading of these texts with Philip W. Jackson’s essay “The Mimetic and the Transformative.” Jackson traces the historical trajectory of what he calls two traditions of teaching, the one focused on knowledge transfer (the mimetic), the other on personal metamorphosis in moral, aesthetic, and epistemic terms (the transformative). Faculty commented on the persistent tension between the traditions in formal education around the world. Several remarked on the play of metaphor in how one characterizes educational work in the first place. The very terms “transfer” and “transformative”—like the terms transcultural and transnational—evoke powerful images and trigger many kinds of emo-tional as well as intellectual responses. For the remainder of the seminar, we returned numerous times to the question of how the scholar describes ideas, experiences, and practices. We judged this matter to be especially pressing given the pace of global change in our time, and given the ever-present challenge of trying to render adequately the nature and conse-quences of such change.
The final three sessions of the fall semester featured presentations from faculty participants. Their charge was to sketch what they had been thinking about and learning through the course of our work together. The presentations took the form, in figurative terms, of spoken essays: they were experimental, tentative, and yet as imaginative and committed as the participants could make them. These presentations contained the seeds of the essays organized in this special issue.
Each colleague put forward in advance selected background readings and in some cases also posted an outline of the presentations (we made use of an in-house website). Their work pivoted around questions such as the following:
? How might we reenvision the relationship between nation-based
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education and the evident need to foster broader human under-standings in the world?
? How might we reenvision education so that it addresses both local and global concerns and aspirations?
? How might we reconsider citizenship so that it would encompass social contributions that often go unrecognized when citizenship is viewed strictly through a state-based, legalistic lens?
? If globalization is something that “happens” to people everywhere—
i.e., if it is an unstoppable process of change—what educational
approaches can help people respond creatively to such “happen-ings”?
? How might we better grasp—indeed, how might we imagine—the social, cultural, and political pressures individuals and communities feel today, as well as their modes of response to these pressures?? How might we human beings transform pressures into possibilities?
How might we learn to handle constructively, rather than violently or indifferently, the tensions that accompany dwelling in the world as we now find it?
During the course of these sessions, we read together a rich array of articles, essays, and book chapters by authors such as Sonia Alvarez, Gloria Anzaldúa, James Baldwin, Jacques Derrida, Ann Marie Fleming, Michael Giardina, Gloria Ladson-Billings, Heidi Safira Mirza, James Rolling, Zadie Smith, and Aihwa Ong (for citations, see the Bibliography at the end of this introduction).
Throughout these unpredictable encounters, we essayed interpreta-tions of the claims and conjectures, on the part of participants and of the authors we read, about the nexus of globalization, education, and citizen-ship. The sessions were replete with theoretical ideas, on-the-ground observations, and an uncontainable array of personal experiences and perspectives. This face-to-face work drew out participants’ shared capaci-ties for listening, speaking, reading, thinking, wondering, and learning. SPRING SEMESTER, 2010
We agreed to the following two-part proposal for the second semester of the seminar: (a) to read and discuss a range of well-wrought essays in order to study the art of writing and (b) to hold a second round of fac-ulty presentations, this time based on drafts or outlines of our projected essays which now comprise this special issue.
We devoted three sessions to examining the craft of essay-writing. We studied essays composed by Michel de Montaigne (the 16th-century
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French writer credited with inventing this written form), Anne Carson, A. O. Hirschman, Nikos Papastergiadis, Henri Poincare, and Amelie Oksenberg Rorty (see the Bibliography for complete references). As touched on above, we took it as paradigmatic that an essay constitutes a trial of ideas, an experiment, an attempt. An essay is an opening, a cross-ing of a threshold, rather than a closing. An essay can create a space for thinking, for wondering, for questioning, rather than picturing the task of writing as filling in space. An essay seeks to show rather than (merely) to tell. It heeds Ralph Waldo Emerson’s dictum that “Truly speaking, it is not instruction, but provocation, that I can receive from another soul”(1983, p. 79). An essay is an activity. It often incorporates elements from numerous genres: reports, arguments, explanations, prayers, theses, dialectics, epistles, memoirs, parables, and autobiographical narratives. An essay is not a diary entry, nor is it journalistic.
In studying the essays, we addressed a wide array of stylistic and techni-cal aspects of composition:
? The decisions the writer makes about what to include and what not to include.
? The use of quotes, citations, and other sources.
? How does the writer begin? Why begin in this particular way?
? Put another way, how does the writer prepare or ready the reader for what is to come?
? What sort of ending does the writer choose? And why?
? How much and to what degree does the writer refer directly to her-self or himself? Each essay we read, it seemed to us, mirrored the writer’s sensibility and outlook on the world, even though none were in any formal sense autobiographical.
In our discussions, we considered what it means to fuse style and sub-stance. We questioned how each of us might find language for our dis-tinctive point of view, while at the same time showing what that viewpoint allows others to see.
We also appreciated why writing an essay presents as demanding an intellectual challenge as does preparing a traditional research article. Calvino illuminated the task in his claim that lightness “goes with preci-sion and determination, not with vagueness and the haphazard” (1993, p. 16). Analogously, an essay is not a casual or capricious undertaking. To address responsibly its compositional demands requires artistry, disci-pline, and a healthy dose of Keats’s negative capability. An essay obliges the writer to be sensitive to the fact that the standards of assessing an essay are necessarily dynamic, given the reality that every essay integrates
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in a unique way diverse genres of arguing, narrating, demonstrating, showing, and so forth. Moreover, the writer needs to keep in mind the reader’s experience, which invariably must include an openness to sur-prise, the unexpected, and the tension-laden. One might say the writer has a pedagogical duty to facilitate rather than to frustrate reading (which is not the same thing as making it “easy”). In these and other ways, an essay calls upon the maturity of the writer, whatever her or his age, background, and preparation. Such insights were as unsettling to semi-nar participants as they were invitational. Some had never published an essay before. All felt the challenge of addressing in essay form the nexus of globalization, education, and citizenship.
In the final four sessions of the term, we work-shopped our emerging essays. Participants presented drafts or outlines for discussion. We raised compositional questions such as those posed above as well as numerous substantive questions about a particular contributor’s theme. Throughout these weeks, participants attested to how unique and valu-able it was to receive criticism from colleagues who not only came, as we did, from many academic fields as well as personal and professional back-grounds but who also came prepared to criticize in “a new key” thanks to our collective inquiry into the seminar theme and the arts of essay-writ-ing. The criticism people put forward was frank and irenic, offered in a spirit of generosity rather than of one-upmanship. Participants sought to discern what their colleagues were trying to accomplish, rather than what we or others might expect them to do. There was unguarded laughter and a spirit of trust in the air: an earned trust built slowly through the vicissitudes of our many group and individual interactions up to that phase of the seminar. In a remark that crystallized this outcome, one col-league found herself exclaiming in the midst of our discussion of her draft: “I want to take you all home! This is so helpful!”
AN OVERVIEW OF THE ESSAYS
“Whenever humanity seems condemned to heaviness, I think I
should fly like Perseus into a different space. I don’t mean escap-
ing into dreams or into the irrational. I mean that I have to
change my approach, look at the world from a different perspec-
tive, with a different logic and with fresh methods of cognition
and verification.”
– Italo Calvino (1993, p. 7)
As emphasized above, an essay differs from a report with its polished, terminal conclusions, and from a traditional research article with its
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t heoretical apparatus and findings. What an essayist “finds,” if he or she is persistent and fortunate, is a new angle for framing a familiar problem or issue. If the essayist can express that angle adequately in prose, it becomes a new angle for others, too. Thus it can become educative, per-haps even edifying.
These terms express our hope for the essays in this special issue. We do not expect to provide long-awaited answers to, much less solutions for, the human predicaments engendered by rapid globalization in our time. We do aspire to provide viewpoints that can assist readers to dislodge and reexamine their own core conceptions of globalization, education, and citizenship. We believe the essays can, in their own modest way, assist readers in rendering that much wiser their notions of education (and perhaps of life) as they engage in their own projects to meet contempo-rary challenges. While there may be no way of slowing down the pace of change in our time, which some scholars have referred to as the acceler-ation of history (Halevy, 1948; Piel, 1972; Scheuerman, 2004), there are better and worse ways of addressing it. As we hope to show, education can assist people in handling constructively the many tensions that accom-pany life today. These tensions are not all negative. Some are positive and generative, mirroring the narrative tension built by a fine novel or piece of music that draws people in and fuels their sensibilities. Some of the tensions in our world trigger highly imaginative responses in the form of new programs, policies, institutions, and practices.
Each essay that follows provides a distinctive perspective on the nexus of globalization, education, and citizenship. Each adds color and texture to this nexus. We treated this nexus as a dynamic crossroads of connected experiences, many of which are unanticipated and unplanned, and many of which go unnoticed and unexamined when the focus of research is on structures rather than on people’s responses to their world. It is true that every person’s formal education reflects political and policy decisions made near or far, as well as economic processes—all subject today to glob-alized forces—that influence the availability of educational resources. However, in our seminar we regarded education as comprising all the for-mative agencies and institutions at work in a given locality, which includes individuals’ out-of-school attempts to inform and learn from one another (cf. Cremin, 1970; Varenne, 2007).
The set as a whole presents an interdisciplinary lens on this nexus. One lesson we learned during our intensive seminar is that while scholars quite properly have their distinctive specializations, there is special value today in learning to translate them into modes of broad communication. We gained insight into the meaning of not just tolerating but learning from differences in belief, value, commitment, and orientation. We expe-
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rienced how the method of the essay, employed in dialogue and in writ-ing, compels a kind of answerability to the world not called for by many other forms of faculty interaction and publication. This responsiveness is the mirror twin of lightness.
PRESENT AND FUTURE QUESTIONS
“The most urgent requirements of humanity are, as they always
have been, that we should assemble as many resources as we can
to help us to respect it.”
– Bernard Williams (1985, p. 119)
Readers will discover themes that run across the essays. Each in its own way constitutes a terrain for continued research and practical wisdom. I will take some of them up by way of conclusion.
A common refrain across the essays is that education broadly construed always outruns the reach of formal institutions, whether they are support-ive or hostile in intent. Nothing, it seems, can smother the human impulse to make and exchange meaning; and no institution, however imaginative, can ever contain the scope and depth of meaning-making. While research and policy at the nexus of globalization, education, and citizenship must necessarily address institution-building, this same body of inquiry and practice would benefit from a permanent, acute attentive-ness to human experience on the ground. Again and again in our seminar, and now in the essays presented here, we found ourselves compelled by the moral and political tasks of learning with people as well as from peo-ple. The philosopher Bernard Williams called this orientation respect, a point to which I will return.
The contributors highlight why education, understood as encompass-ing schooling but not reducible to it, is often tension-laden and unset-tling. Education must be so, or it is not education but stasis. Unless elders try to cocoon the young completely, the sheer act of reading books from other lands, surfing the Internet, or walking down the street of almost any town on the planet will put in mind the fact that a culture’s mores do not descend from the heavens but reflect countless decisions, experi-ences, and evolving values. This remark does not mean a culture’s mores are arbitrary, capricious, or whimsical. Quite on the contrary. They mir-ror a long, often difficult, and perilous process of trying to find a way to live together in an unpredictable environment. Thus, questions can be posed to cultural revolutionaries who want to do away with customs overnight, so to speak. To be sure, there are customs everywhere that
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should change, and for sound reasons, some of which the contributors point out. However, before tossing them out—the proverbial baby with the bathwater—it is well to think about what is replacing them. Without sound and appealing replacements, whatever they may be, much cultural confusion and suffering can ensue. One of many charges that all who educate seem to face—whether they be teachers, parents, friends, neigh-bors, or strangers—is how to equip people intellectually, morally, and a esthetically to manage change, which is inevitable no matter what p eople do, in ways that provide continuity rather than stark ruptures in experience.
Throughout the essays, readers will meet the authorial “I.” They will find that this “I” is neither self-referential nor individualistic as such but . . . what? Perhaps the “I” is more like “Eye,” the particular way of seeing of the writer. Or perhaps the “I” embodies an ongoing question all of us felt in one manner or another: how shall we describe the self who is in motion under conditions of globalization with their associated pressures and promise? How or in what ways can persons sustain continuity—not to be confused with fixity, which seems impossible especially today—in their sense of being and belonging? What of communities with their traditions, some stretching far back into the past? What would it mean to vindicate traditions as these continuously evolve—ideally not in the direction of drying cement that walls people in and out (a process better described as “traditionalism”) but rather in the direction of an ever-permeable, ever-porous membrane that retains bodily integrity even while undergoing transformation?
Another recurring motif in the essays is beauty: the beauty in everyday life as people make their way creatively in the world, and the beauty in the astonishingly diverse ways of knowing self, other, and the world around the globe. Several contributors imply that this aesthetic insight fuses with moral perceptivity: the beauty and goodness seen, in one and the same moment, in human expressions of thoughtfulness, generosity, patience, and kindness. What would it mean for research and policy, the essayists imagine, to pay full attention to and learn from such expressions?
An additional shared topic is “belonging” with its associated tropes of home-making and home-seeking in a social world ever in motion. Several contributors reveal their sense of feeling unmoored from the familiar, the comforting, and the consoling—and yet feeling unafraid of this con-dition, as if finding, through the experience of it, that they are not as unrooted as it might appear. Rather, they are beginning to see, in a novel way, the roots and traditions that have provided them the very resources for their research, teaching, and living. We have much to learn, still, about the ways in which people near and far are able to experience life
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educationally: that is, to find life a scene of learning rather than solely of existing, producing, and consuming. Our discussions returned again and again to the fact that such learning depends not on the number of acad-emic degrees one possesses but rather on the degree of awareness, responsiveness, and connectedness that animates one’s dealings with self and o thers.
A related common theme has to do with reconceiving citizenship. New ways of speaking, of conducting oneself, and of being public all have con-sequences for others. They show others ways of being and of acting; they give others faith that such ways are indeed possible. The contributors illu-minate how it is that people fuel, in countless ways, an unlicensed and unofficial sense of belonging together. In figurative terms, people say: We are citizens of the human relationships we have come to form from within and across our differences. In time, such bottom-up initiatives can come to influence official modes of citizenship, just as lived experiences of education can come to penetrate formal schooling, as indeed they do in every instance where a teacher or student acts upon his or her “out-side” knowledge.
Virtually all the contributors attest to the tensions, positive and nega-tive, of trying to dwell in a fast-paced, fast-changing globalized environ-ment. One element of this accelerated ethos has to do with communications technology. Some contributors document creative uses of this technology in which it serves distinctively human ends rather than ends thrown on the table by the technology itself. Technology served us well in the seminar and does so now in this special issue. Other contrib-utors issue a cautionary note about the limitations of not being face-to-face. They emphasize there can never be an adequate substitute for the fully human experience of being face-to-face. The familiar cliché, Stay in touch, literally happens only in physical proximity with all the aesthetic, affective, cultural, intellectual, and moral aspects of presence.
In the epigram to the first section of this introduction, Appiah refers to shared human capacities. One of these is the capacity to learn, and the question “what is learning?” appears both explicitly and tacitly through-out the essays. The contributors spotlight how, in popular institutional concepts such as “the learning imperative” and “the learning society,” the very concept learning often becomes unrecognizable. It does so because the experience of learning is drained of its spontaneous, creative, respon-sive, and ever-indescribable dimensions. A scene of and for learning can-not emerge, save nominally, when the process has been prefigured, predetermined and preset. This concern is not a tired call for the tired concept child-centered education, which is merely another prefabricated way to approach the scene of learning. It is an appeal, instead, to the
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v alues of curiosity, uncertainty, experience (including knowledge), and the unforeseen in learning. We found ourselves in seminar, and now in these writings, remembering that scholars must be learners rather than just producers. They need unpredictable, uncontrolled opportunities for learning if they are to generate new ideas and possibilities, and they need time for these fruits to grow. Scholars need supportive institutions and assessment practices if they are to risk what learning truly implies: the potential transformation of one’s questions, interpretive frameworks, modes of inquiry, and fundamental outlook on education’s relation with life.
Talk of revitalized forms of scholarly learning and collegiality calls to mind another underlying theme in the essays that follow. That theme is the essay itself as a metaphor and method for interacting, for shared research, and for writing. Long ago, in Plato’s Phaedrus, Socrates regret-ted the use of writing when it came to philosophy and inquiry. He felt the written word was morally as well as epistemically inferior. It reifies and then freezes words, he complained, because it cannot respond. Analogously, we found ourselves in seminar echoing long-standing con-cerns about the trajectory of theoretical concepts and frameworks. At times, it seems, these things can harden with use rather than become more supple, responsive, and adaptable to an evolving social reality. My sense is that participants believe as strongly in the values of theory now as they did when we began our work. However, the essay as both spoken and written mode does allow for a certain kind of movement, openness, and flexibility. The essay does not replace or substitute for the formal research article, or for the theory-driven seminar. Perhaps a complemen-tary relation can be worked out between the genres, precisely for the sake of describing adequately the problems as well as possibilities at the nexus of globalization, education, and citizenship. Together, the genres can assist scholars in wending their way toward one of the ancient and ever-timely meanings of curiosity: a condition of knowing and not-knowing, of advances in insight accompanied by awareness of ignorance, guided by the aim of contributing however infinitesimally to public good.
A final theme, echoed in the epigram that heads this section, is respect. Immanuel Kant, in his systematic philosophy, and in his unsystematic essays, conjured a beautiful image of respect. He argued that because human beings are capable of reason and moral agency, they must be treated as creative rather than merely as created entities. They are not things with a merely economic or cultural value, but are beings with dig-nity. They are ends in themselves rather than mere means to others’ ends (Kant, 1990, pp. 51–52 [434–435 KW]). This inspiring outlook led Kant,
Introduction1151 in contrast to some of his 18th-century confreres, to condemn war, slav-ery, and imperialism (Kant, 1963; for excellent discussion, see Muthu, 2003). Kant eclipsed his own cultural biases in showing that respect—deriving from the German achtung, which can also be rendered as “rever-ence”—translates into the duty to make possible for all people an education that positions them to influence the course of their lives.
To me, the theme of respect—what it looks like, and how to realize it and support it—hovers in the ethos of this special issue just as it did in our seminar. Respect for persons, first and last, and respect for the values of unfettered inquiry and open-ended education. The essays that follow gesture toward points of arrival and departure in the ongoing quest to enact respect.
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DAVID T. HANSEN is professor and director of the Program in Philosophy and Education at Teachers College. He has written on con-ceptions of teaching and of teacher education, including in works such as The Call to Teach(1995) and Exploring the Moral Heart of Teaching(2001). In recent years, he has been studying questions about the relation between cosmopolitanism and education in our time.
A NSWER KEY Part One: Essay Writing 1 An Introduction to Writing Activity (Point and Support in a Paragraph), pages 5–6 Point:There are drawbacks to moviegoing. Support: 1. Inconvenience b. Long time to find parking spot and long walk to theater d. Sticky floor 3. Other moviegoers a. Running kids b. Laughing, shouting teenagers Activity (Introductory Paragraph), 8 1. c 2. b 3. a 4. a. Inconvenience of going out b. Temptations of the theater c. Behavior of some patrons Activity (Body: Supporting Paragraphs), 9–10 1. To begin with, I just don’t enjoy the general hassle of the evening. 2. b. Parking lot is always jammed d. Tickets may sell out, and theater is crowded e. Tickets cost up to $8 each 3. Second, the theater offers tempting snacks that I really don’t need. 4. b. 2) chocolate bars 3) Milk Duds 5. Many of the other patrons are even more of a problem than the concession stand. 6. a. Little kids race up and down the aisles b. Teenagers talk back to the screen, whistle, make funny noises Activity (Concluding Paragraph), 10 1. a 2. c Review Activities, 18–20 Answers will vary. 2 The Writing Process Activities (Freewriting, Questioning, Making a List, Clustering, Scratch Outline), 25–31 Answers will vary.
英文论文Introduction的写作技巧 —as a "hook" to attract the readers 学术论文中的引言(Introduction)是对全文内容和结构的总体勾画（The purpose of the Introduction is to stimulate the reader’s interest and to provide pertinent background information necessary to understand the rest of the paper.Without an introduction it is sometimes very difficult for your audience to figure out what you are trying to say. There needs to be a thread of an idea that they will follow through your paper）。The introduction section shows the questions that shoul d be answered for the readers once they finish reading the “Introduction”. 1 引言的内容与结构布局 引言的主要任务是向读者勾勒出全文的基本内容和轮廓。它可以包括以下五项内容中的全部或其中几项： 1）介绍某研究领域的背景、意义、发展状况、目前的水平等； 2）对相关领域的文献进行回顾和综述，包括前人的研究成果，已经解决的问题，并适当加以评价或比较； 3）指出前人尚未解决的问题，留下的技术空白，也可以提出新问题、解决这些新问题的新方法、新思路，从而引出自己研究课题的动机与意义； 4）说明自己研究课题的目的； 5）概括论文的主要内容，或勾勒其大体轮廓。 如何合理安排以上这些内容，将它们有条有理地给读者描绘清楚，并非容易之事。经验告诉我们，引言其实是全文最难写的—部分。这是因为作者对有关学科领域的熟悉程度，作者的知识是渊博、还是贫乏，研究的意义何在、价值如何等问题，都在引言的字里行间得以充分体现。 我们可以将引言的内容分为三到四个层次来安排。第一层由研究背景、意义、发展状况等内容组成，其中还包括某一研究领域的文献综述；第二层提出目前尚未解决的问题或急需解决的问题，从而引出自己的研究动机与意义；第三层说明自己研究的具体目的与内容；最后是引言的结尾，可以介绍一下论文的组成部分。 第一层：1) Introducing the general research area including its background, importance, and p resent level of development……2) Reviewing previous researc h in this area……… 第二层：Indicating the problem that has not been solved by previous research, raising a relevant
《大学英语预备级1》课程开篇导学 Introduction of College English (Foundation) 一. 课程简介：General Introduction of this Course 1课程名称：大学英语精读课 Intensive Reading 2授课教材：《大学英语》（综合教程预备级）(上海外语教育出版社, 2003) College English -Integrated Course (foundation) 二. 课程任务：Content of Class 2.1 阅读：Reading Unit 1, Reading: A School with No Rules This unit discusses different ideas about discipline in schools by looking at the context of the “free” school of Summerhill where the students make the rules. This unit relates discipline to learning and motivation Unit 2, Reading: Fear of the Unknown, Not the known This unit has a mystery poem and a mystery story.
Unit 3, Reading: Reporting the News This unit looks at the job of newspaper reporting and the role of the international news agencies. Unit 4, Reading: Living in Virtual Reality This unit looks at the world of virtual reality: special helmets and clothing and computers. Unit 5, Reading: The Richest Man in the World This unit looks at the stories of how some of the richest people became rich. Unit 6, Reading: Practical Jokes This unit takes up the topic of practical jokes and reports on some tricks which have been played by the media. Unit 7, Reading: Life is Just a Dream In this unit there is an interview with a doctor who explains why we dream and what
大多数英文科技学术论文都可以使用一种所谓Introduction-Methods-Results and Discussion (IMRAD) 的形式，如下图的沙漏所示，先由普遍到具体问题，再由具体到普遍结论。 这里先总结Introduction的写法和注意事项。 与中文论文“简短”的“概述”(或“前言”)不一样，英文的Introduction内容通常较长。好的论文在Introduction部分很见功底，文献的阅读量、信息综合能力，可以给读者很多的信息量，因此写好它容不得半点马虎。 Introduction(说明综述)部分的内容通常用来为作者创造一个研究空间。先介绍目前的研究现状，然后指出存在的不足或尚没有解决的问题，最后再介绍“存在的问题”是“如何”被作者的研究所解决。因此，Introduction可以由这“三波”或者说“三部分”来组成。 具体而言，这“三波”如此展开： 第一波：提出研究现状和此研究的重要性 先通过陈述表明所要研究问题的重要性——当然这部分内容不是必须，并介绍此领域的研究现状，具体可参考文献综述引用。 研究问题要与自己的研究内容高度相关，时态一般可用一般现在时，并通过很确定的语气和具体的形容词来强调研究的重要生。
The flow of foams is seen in many process, and its use in major industries means that an understanding of foam rheology is of paramount importance. 第二波：强调有必要解决存在的问题 指出该研究目前存在的问题，可以通过提问的方式或者通过某种方式扩展此领域已有知识和结论。 这一波非常重要，只有指出存在的问题或尚待解决的问题，才能突显出自己的研究价值。在这一部分的写作时，一般通过转折词来表示过渡，并在指出问题时使用负面的词汇。 … ; however, the relationship between emergence and soil temperature has not been investigated previously… In contrast to the extensive literature describing ….., little attention has been paid to…第三波：介绍作者自己的研究内容 介绍作者的研究目的和大致的研究内容。也可以在此部分表明自己的研究假设前提，宣布自己的主要研究发现、它们的价值，如有需要，也可以介绍论文的框架结构——方便读者了解复杂的文章结构。 这部分的内容主要用来介绍作者如何“填补”提出的“问题”或“不足”。 This paper presents the results of an extensive experimental program… 关于此处的时态，比如是presents还是presented? 即是一般过去时还是一般现在时？一般而言： ?如果主语是paper, article, thesis, report等指代文章本身的抽象词汇，使用一般现在时； ?如果主语是实验调查本身，比如study, experiment, investigation等具体词汇，使用一般过去时或一般现在时都可以。 万能法则：此处的时态如果拿不准，一直使用一般现在时。
Introduction to Academic Writing 1.Purposes of Academic Writing 1)To advance knowledge in a research field with evidence 2)To explain new ideas and make them accessible to others 3)To solve practical problems 2.Genres of Academic Writing Research papers Research reports Theses/dissertations Short communications Review articles Oral presentations/posters 3.Features of Academic Writing 1)Formality:Academic writing is formal. 2)Objectivity:Academic writing sets a high value on objectivity.
3)Accuracy:Academic writing uses vocabulary accurately.
4)Complexity:Academic writing involves a highly specialized vocabulary and rigorous sentence structures 5)Hedging:An important feature of academic writing is the use of cautious language.
Because of its rich and strange imagination, Ancient Greek mythology has become the source of Western literature. Many Western literatures have learned nutrition from it. As a very important part of the Greek myth, those vivid female figures have do a lot to Western Literary works. Several initial studies insist that there is no doubt that the Ancient Greek mythology is the source of female figures in Western Literary works. At the same time, it is generally recognized that the transition of Greek goodness has great influence on female roles in western literary works. According to the results of present study, those goodness can be categorized into the following three different types: the historical symbol, Helen; “the familial angel”, Parnearopa; “the shrew”, Medea. And it can be also found that how the figure in Ancient Greek mythology influent female roles in Western Literary works. But the specific and comprehensive relationship between them hasn’t been studied deeply. This review will firstly analyze those female images’characteristics in Greek mythology and Western Literary works respectively. Further, it will compare those figures and try to find the differences and connections. More important, in the end of this paper, it will draw a conclusion of the influence of female goodness in Ancient Greek mythology on Western Literary works.
英文论文引言的写作技巧Introduction 学术论文中的引言(Introduction)是对全文内容和结构的总体勾画。引言尽管不像摘要那样有一定的篇幅限制和相对固定的格式，但在内容和结构模式上也有需要遵循的规律。本章首先介绍这些规律，然后探讨需要掌握的语言技巧。 引言的内容与结构布局 引言的主要任务是向读者勾勒出全文的基本内容和轮廓。它可以包括以下五项内容中的全部或其中几项： 介绍某研究领域的背景、意义、发展状况、目前的水平等; 对相关领域的文献进行回顾和综述，包括前人的研究成果，已经解决的问题，并适当加以评价或比较； 指出前人尚未解决的问题，留下的技术空白，也可以提出新问题、解决这些新问题的新方法、新思路，从而引出自己研究课题的动机与意义； 说明自己研究课题的目的； 概括论文的主要内容，或勾勒其大体轮廓。 如何合理安排以上这些内容，将它们有条有理地给读者描绘清楚，并非容易之事。经验告诉我们，引言其实是全文最难写的—部分。这是因为作者对有关学科领域的熟悉程度，作者的知识是渊博、还是贫乏，研究的意义何在、价值如何等问题，都在引言的字里行间得以充分体现。 我们可以将引言的内容分为三到四个层次来安排(如图8.1所示)。第一层由研究背景、意义、发展状况等内容组成，其中还包括某一研究领域的文献综述；第二层提出目前尚未解决的问题或急需解决的问题，从而引出自己的研究动机与意义；第三层说明自己研究的具体目的与内容；最后是引言的结尾，可以介绍一下论文的组成部分。 第一层： 1) Introducing the general research area including its background, importance, and present level of development…………………………………………………………… 2) Reviewing previous research in this area…………………………………………………… 第二层：Indicating the problem that has not been solved by previous research, raising a relevant question …………………………………………………………………………………第三层：Specifying the purpose of your research………………………………… 第四层： 1) Announcing your major findings ……………………………………… 2) Outlining the contents of your paper ……………………………………
重庆科技学院学术英语文献综述 Introduction on The technology of Measurement and Control and Instrumentation 学生姓名百里潇湘指导教师严丽二级学院信息工程学院专业名称 班级学号
Introduction on The technology of Measurement and Control and Instrumentation From ancient times to the present，the measurement and control technology is an important part of human life and production. People try the initial measurement and control is comes from the need of production and life, the time of measurement and control requirements, the invention of sundials, use it to measure time; For measurement and control requirements of the space, humans create related theory of point, line and plane, use it to describe space. In today's society, of course, to the requirement of measurement and control technology not only stay in the primary stage, with the development of science and technology changes with each passing day, measurement and control technology has entered a new era. The modern measurement and control technology is the source of information science and technology, optical, precision machinery, electronics, computer science and information technology permeate each other and form a new and high technology intensive and comprehensive technology. It involved areas is extremely broad, small to manufacturing plant inspection, big to satellite rocket monitoring, and closely related to the measurement and control technology. Measurement and control technology is directly applied to the production and life of the application technology, its application covers the "farming weight, land, sea and air, food and clothing" in various fields of social life. Technology of instrument and meter is the national economy of the "multiplier", the forerunner of scientific research, military combat "and the rule of law and regulations in the" judge ". Computer measurement and control technology and intelligent to precision measurement and control instruments and systems is important symbol and means of modern chemical agriculture production, science and technology research, management, and inspection and monitoring field, is playing a more and more important role. Measurement and control technology and instrument professional involved in instrument, electronics, optics, precision machinery, computer, information technology and control technology, etc, these technologies involving multiple disciplines. Professional class belongs to the instrument of measure and control technology and instrument of undergraduate education levels, belong to the category of engineering in the instrumentation engineering. Measurement and control technology and instrument specialty of the main subject is: instrument science and technology, electronic information engineering disciplines, optical engineering, mechanical engineering, computer science and technology disciplines. Measurement and control technology related disciplines: control science and engineering, information and communication engineering disciplines. Measurement and control technology and instrument is one of the typical technologies of multidisciplinary cross fusion. Information theory, cybernetics and system theory is the theory of the measurement and control professional basis,
A Brief Introduction to the University Distinguished guests, Welcome to our university. Before you start to look around, allow me to give you a brief account of the school. Founded in 1927, our university is one of this city’s earliest un iversities of liberal arts. It is staffed with an excellent faculty, and has a total enrollment of over 10,000 students. In the past years, it has turned out numerous well-qualified students and found its graduates active in professions of all walks of life. Since its establishment, the university has always steered itself toward the objective that its students have an overall healthy development. Not only does it provide the students with basic academic courses, but it manages to expose them to the up-to-date knowledge. Besides, students are free to participate in colorful campus activities and social practice, which are intended for broadening their mind and developing their potential talent(https://www.doczj.com/doc/e117144910.html,). Currently, both our faculty and students are making every effort to improve the quality of our education in the direction of a first-rate university. Thank you. 点评：近几年，随着我国顺利加入世贸组织以及经济全球化步伐的加快，许多国内高校纷纷与国外大学合作办学，教育走向国际化成为人们关注的热点，也是大学生门比较关心的热点问题。本预测题为热议校园生活话题，与2004年旅游景点介绍2006年考查的名校校园开放如出一辙。 尊敬的各位嘉宾： 欢迎来到我们这所大学，在你开始游览这所大学之前，请允许我简单介绍一下这所学校。 我所在的这所大学成立于1927年，它是本市最早成立的文科大学之一，配备了优秀的师资队伍，招生总人数达10000余人。在过去的数年间，这所大学培养了大批优秀学子，其毕业生活跃于各个专业领域(四级作文)。 自本校成立以来，我们一直以全面发展学生的身心健康为目标，我们不但为学生提供基础的学习课程，而且还教授学生最新的知识。此外，学生们还可以自由地参加各种各样的校园活动和社会实践，这有助于他们开拓思维、开发他们的潜在能力。 目前，我们学校的师生正在为提高我校的教学质量、为把我校打造成为一流大学而奋斗。谢谢大家。
Introduction I. Teaching Objectives 1.To understand the definition of globalization and its origin, modern concept as well as contributing elements. 2.To understand the trend of culture merge and the reality of culture diversity. 3.To understand the disadvantages of culture diversity and strategies for overcoming them. II. Leading in III. Teaching Procedures Step 1 Have the students listen to the lead-in case The Word Car. Ask the students warming-up questions: ●What is Mondeo? (A brand of Ford car company.) ●Why does Ford source globally? (To reduce the costs by means of specialization so as to be more competitive an intense international competition.) ●Can you describe the phenomenon by one word? (Globalization) ●What competence is needed in successfully doing business internationally? (Effective intercultural communication competence)
自我介绍Self-introduction 大学英语作文 Good morning, myadmirable professors and my dear fellows. It’s my great honor to be here tointroduce myself to all of you. My name is Xing Heng and I’m in my eighteenyears old. I come fromXiamen,which is a famous and beautiful city. I strongly suggest you visiting there andI can be your guide if it’s convenient. After three years’hard work, I am soexcited that I am finally enrolled by my dreaming school,SichuanUniversityand be one of you. I am outgoing and I have many interests, such as playing basketball,football, and swimming, but I am only good at basketball. I hope we can always playtogether in the next four years. Computer Science and Technology is my favoritesubject and I am sure that it’s also a promising area in the future, with thegreat development of computer science and our society. I am glad to be aclassmate of you and I hope we can study and make progress together in thefuture. I greatly expect my life to be with you in the coming four years. 亲爱的教授以及同学们，大家早上好！很荣幸能够站在这里向大
Introduction 203 -208页 In recent years there has been considerable interest in exploring the nature of expert performa nce across domains ( e.g.,Ericsson,Hoffman,Charness,&Feltovich.2006;Ericsson & Williams, 2007).For example,scientists with an interest in sports have analyzed the perceptual cognitive skills underpinning anticipation in this domain and identified how these processes are acquired through prolonged engagement in practice (for reviews, see Hodges, Huys, &Starkes, 2O07: Williams Ford. 2008 : Wi lliams Ward, 2007 ).The scientific study of skill acquisition has a long history in experimental psychology,dating back to the early studies of Bryan and Harter (1899) .In more recent times, Poulton (1957) was the first to systematically discriminate between different types of anticipation judgements using experimetal methods common to this discipline. The scientific study of anticipation as a field of inquiry in its own right in sport psychologyhas a much shorter history, emerging primarily in 1970s ( far a hist orical overview, see Williams. Davids. & Williams, 1999).The majority of sport psychologists wor k in multi_disciplinary departments where research in traditional discipline areas,such as physiolog y. psychology. and biomechanics, often develops somewhat independently of academic endeavour within the main disciplines themselves. The empirical findings that have been reported on anticipation in the field of sport psychology could therefore contribute to the generation of new knowledge on this topic in th e parent discipline area, and particularly in applied cognitive psychology. 近年来，在探索专家性能的跨域的性质得到了相当大的兴趣（例如，爱立信，霍夫曼，& feltovich查尼斯，2006；爱立信&威廉姆斯，2007）。例如，对体育感兴趣的科学家分析了感性认知技能支撑预期在本域和确定这些过程是如何在实践中通过长期参与收购的（评论，见霍奇，huys，& Starkes，2o07：威廉姆斯福特，2008：威廉姆斯福特，2007）。技能习得科学研究实验心理学历史悠久，可以追溯到布莱恩和哈特的早期研究（1899）。在更近的时候，波尔顿（1957）第一次系统区分不同类型的预期判断的实验方法普遍对这门学科之间的影响。期待一场体育中自己的权利探究心理更短的科学史研究，主要出现在上世纪70年代（历史回顾，见威廉姆斯，戴维斯，&威廉姆斯，1999）。在研究传统多种学科范围的学科领域中的大多数运动心理学家的工作，如生理学，心理学，和生物力学，往往在发展主要的学科本身的独立的方面作出学术努力。已经报道了在运动心理学领域的实证研究结果的预期，可能因此有助于母体地区对这一课题的新知识的产生，特别是在应用认知心理学。 Sport offers a relatively unique environment where the limits of human achievement are ch allenged continually. This environment provides a fertile context to identify the essential skills and attributes for performance as well as the underlying processes that discriminat e individuals with varying levels of performance.Such knowledge provides a basis for determining what types of practice activities are likely to lead to the acquisition of skill across domains and, potentially， why some individuals improve at different rates to others or achieve much higher performance levels (Ericsson. 2006). This information may subsequently be used to e valuate the applicability of general theories of expertise and skill acquisition,to design appropriate interventions for performance enhancement, and to identify factors that contribute to enhancing the processes of talent search and talent development across different fields of human endeavor (Ericsson Ward. 2007: Williams Ericsson, 2005, Williams, Ericsson. Ward &Eccles. 2008). 运动提供了一个相对独特的环境的人类成就极限挑战不断。这个环境提供了一个丰富的上下文识别性能的基本技能和属性以及基本过程，区分个人不同程度的表现。这样的知识提