跨文化交际 第八、九章word整理版本

跨⽂化交际考试⼤纲跨⽂化交际考试⼤纲跨⽂化交际考试⼤纲课程编码：跨⽂化交际课程性质：专业必修课时：36 学分：2开课学期：第6学期先修课程：英语国家概况，语⾔学，英美⽂学适⽤专业：商务英语专业⼀、考试⽬的本课程的考试⽬的主要考核学⽣对理论知识的掌握与联系实际情况，即对课内教材和教师的授课内容的掌握与联系实际情况等。

⼆、考试的内容及要求（⼀）绪论考试内容：1. 跨⽂化交际的概念、意义。

2. 跨⽂化交际学的学科性质和发展历史。

要求：掌握跨⽂化交际的概念，了解跨⽂化交际的意义、历史、学科发展史。

（⼆）第⼀章交际与⽂化考试内容：1. 交际的概念和特性。

2. ⽂化的定义与特征。

3. ⽂化与交际的关系。

要求：掌握⽂化与交际的概念，了解交际的特性、⽂化的特征，理解⽂化与交际之间的关系。

（三）第⼆章⽂化的影响考试内容：1. ⽂化的多样性2?⽂化的深层结构要求：掌握⽂化模式的概念，了解交际的多样性, 理解⽂化的深层结构。

（四）第三章语⾔与⽂化考试内容：1. 语⾔与交际的关系，其中包括语⾳、语义、句法、语⽤与跨⽂化交际的关系。

2. 语⾔的翻译。

要求：通过各种实例、练习了解语⾳、语义、句法、语⽤与跨⽂化交际的关系。

（五）第四章⾮⾔语交际考试内容：1. ⾮⾔语交际的概念、功能、特征。

2. ⾮⾔语的词义和语⽤。

3. ⼈体语、时间语、空间语4. 其他⾮⾔语信息。

要求：了解⾮⾔语交际的研究概况、功能、特征, 了解并学会恰当使⽤⼀批常⽤的⾮⾔语，掌握⼀些常见的不同⽂化背景下的体态语。

（六）第五章⽂化对商业语境的影响考试内容：1. ⽂化与商业语境2. 国际商业语境3. 国内商业语境要求：了解⽂化价值观对商业语境的影响，并通过与中国传统交易⽅式的对⽐，掌握经济全球化形势下如何进⾏有效沟通，成功进⾏国际竞争的原则和技巧。

（七）第六章⽂化对教育语境的影响考试内容：1. 教育体制差异性2. 多元⽂化教育背景3?多元⽂化背景下的教学⽅式要求：通过学习中外教育体制，了解不同⽂化中教育理念的差异，以及课堂中师⽣⾓⾊的期待差异所导致的不同课堂风格和教学⽅法。

《跨文化交际》第一部分—第三部分学习内容及重点提示《跨文化交际》教材共分8个单元，第二、四、五单元在内容上互相呼应，可以看作一个整体的两大部分：中西方交际方式的主要差异，和由于不同的价值观引起的中西方在处理主要社会关系方面的差异。

第八单元主要对人类交际历史作了简单的回顾，并对其未来进行了展望。

所以，本课程涉及的主要内容其实为六个方面。

一、文化、语言与交际的关系二、中西方交际方式的主要差异三、中西方在处理主要社会关系上的差异四、汉英姓名和称谓的异同比较五、中西方非言语交际的主要差异六、汉英中常见的成语、谚语、俚语、委婉语及禁忌语的对比第一部分：文化、语言与交际的关系语言既是交际的工具，也是文化的载体。

交际不仅是一种语言的交流，更是一种思想和文化的交流。

如果交际双方不能真正了解彼此的文化背景，达成共识，互相理解，那么仅凭单纯的语言技能，这样的交流往往会产生误解，导致失败。

不能脱离或者说割裂语言所承载的文化单纯地去学英语。

这就是为什么我们要学《跨文化交际》这门课程。

为了能进行成功的跨文化交际，我们不但要学会使用英语这种语言，而且还要培养我们的文化素质，也就是说，我们不仅要了解英语国家的文化，而且还要反观我们自己国家的文化，并对两者进行客观地比较。

交际需要语言来传递信息，词语在语言表达方面起着很重要的作用。

如果脱离语境，孤立地看词语，那么它本身并没有什么意思，它只不过是一种特定的符号，传递了某一个社团的人们对某一种物体或思想的共同释义即共同认识。

词语的常规含义分为两种，一种是概念含义Concept meaning，另外一种是联想含义Associative meaning。

概念含义，一般不太会引起歧义，但不同的文化背景就有不同的联想含义。

所以在跨文化交际中，由于不同的联想含义，交际双方经常会无法理解彼此的所指，结果很容易引起误解。

如何正确诠释或理解交际中各方的“含意”是交际成功的关键。

一般来说，有这么三种含意，即话语本身的意思，说者的意思和听者的意思（utterance meaning; speaker’s meaning and hearer’s meaning）。

跨文化交际课程期末考试复习资料I. Give a brief definitions of the following terms(名词解释)1. Non-verbal communicationIt refers to communication through a whole variety of different types f signal come into play, including the way we more, the gestures we employ, the posture we adopt, the facial expression we wear, the direction of our gaze, to the extent to which we touch and the distance we stand from each other.2. privacyprivacy: It could be understood as the right of an individual to self-determination as to the degree to which the individual is willing to share with others information about himself that may be compromised by unauthorized exchange of such information among other individuals or organizations.3. slangWords and expressions which are regarded as very informal and so are not considered suitable for formal social situations or serious writing.4. collectivist cultureCollectivist cultures place little value on individual identity and great value on group identity. They have been labeled as “we” culture s because basic unit is thein-group or collective.5. culture shockculture shock：It is a psychological phenomenon that is experienced most often by those who, whether voluntarily or involuntarily, in the process of adjusting themselves to a new culture.6. proverbProverbs are those popular short sayings containing words of advice or warning—are an important part of the language and culture of a society.7. intercultural communication.8. Individual CultureIndividuals tend to define themselves by the extent to which they are different from, rather than similar to other. People are encouraged to display self-confidence and assertiveness, disclosure of personal thoughts and feelings.9. CultureCulture means:(a) The arts, customs, and habits that characterize a particular society or nation.(b).The beliefs, values, behavior and material objects that constitute a people's way of life.10. ProxemicsProxemics refers to the study of spatial relations. The study of proxemics includes three aspects of space: (a) fixed features of space. (b) semifixed features of space, and(c) personal space11. NormsNorms refer to rules for appropriate behavior, which provide the expectations people have of one another and of others. Norms are the outward manifestations of beliefs and values.12. IndividualismIndividualism refers to the doctrine that the interests of the individual are or ought to be paramount, and that all values, right, and duties originate in individuals. It emphasizes individual initiative, independence，individual expression, and even privacy.13. ParalanguageThe set of nonphonemic properties of speech, such as speaking tempo, vocal pitch, and intonational contours, that can be used to communicate attitudes or other shades of meaning.14.Low-context cultureCultures in which little of the meaning is determined by the message is encoded in the explicit code are labeled low-context.II. Answer the following questions(简答题)1.Give some basic rules of boys or girls interaction2. Describe the different ways in showing hospitality between Chinese culture and western cultureChinese guests always refuse offer of drinks or food to demonstrate politeness in seeming not to wish to put their host to any trouble.Sometimes an offer is not a real offer but a polite remark. After we say 'no', we usually wait for the second and third offer. If the host just brings the food or drink and ignores 'no', we ill accept it. Chinese like to press their guests to drink or eat to show their hospitality. While westerners always accept or refuse offer of drinks or food very genuinely.Their refusal is accepted as genuine.Westerners don’t to press. To press people to have food or drink after they have refused is frowned upon and can cause embarrassments.3. What are the differences on receiving gifts between Chinese and westerner?In the West, it is regarded as polite to open gifts as soon as they are given to express appreciation. In China, the situation is quite the reverse. Normally we Chinese feel that if you open the gift as soon as it is given, you might embarrass the person who gives the gift and you might be thought greedy. Therefore, Chinese people tend to open the gifts after the visitors have left.In China, many people send gifts without wrapping them, and if they wrap them, they usually tell the receiver what is inside, and the receiver will thank the sender and put the gift aside without unwrapping them since they already know what is inside. English receivers open the gifts in front of the senders of the gifts.4. Explain the term “intercultural communication competence” and its three components.The intercultural competence refers to the ability to understand and adapt the target culture. Intercultural communicative competence involves cognitive, affective and operational aspects, which are inseparable in reality. The interrelatedness of cognitive, affective, and operational components is very important in the improvement of the communicator’s intercultural communication competence. There are also three aspects in terms of affective components: adaptation motivation, Identity flexibility and esthetic co-orientation, The cognitive aspects of intercultural communication competence are the mental capacities of comprehension and ability to understand the meanings of various verbal and nonverbal codes. Operational components are that Individuals’ capacity to express cognitive and affective experiences outwardly is shown through specific behaviors.1. The obstacles of studying Intercultural communication2. Why do many Chinese people tend to ask about age, martial status, and even salary when first meeting one another?To them, these are open conversational topics. Knowing a person’s age helps them use appropriate terms of address. And Chinese people pay a lot of attention to family life, so naturally talk of family members features as a common topic. As to salary, since there is a national system of salarie s, people usually don’t consider it a secret and they talk about it openly.3 . Analyze the cultural variations in selecting negotiators in America and Japan4. What would you do if a stranger pronounced your name incorrectly?5. What are the five basic themes in individualist culture?1) There is a tendency for foreigners to treat strangers as equals, seen in the politeness with which foreigners treat out-group members and their willingness to follow public rules and laws that guarantee the rights of all. 2) There is a desire for independence and separateness, found in foreigners' needs for their own privacy and autonomy and in the freedom they give to children. 3) There is a lack of inhibition on the part of foreigners in terms of expressive behaviors, seen in their lack of concern about drawing attention to themselves and their willingness to disclose feelings and emotions. 4) There is a lack of understanding if the reciprocal bonds and duties that regulate in-group members, found in foreigners' casual attitudes towards hospitality. 5) There is a lack of concern at public displays of physical or sexual intimacy.6. Analyze the characteristics in Masculine communication culture7. What are the differences between Chinese and English Kin Terms?In Chinese culture, people refer to people strictly according to the kin terms. It is completely unacceptable to refer to one's parents by using the names. When children address relatives, Chinese kin terms tell whether they are older or younger than their father or mother. Chinese kin terms tell whether the relatives are from the mother' or father's side and whether one's brother, sister or cousin is older or younger than he/she. Chinese kin terms are also to other people who are not one's relatives; kin terms are widely used to address known or unknown peopleWhile in English culture, in some families in Western countries, some childrenaddress their parents directly by their first names. In Britain, children are expected to address the parents' brother and sisters with the title of Uncle or Aunt plus their names and sometimes simply address them by first name without a title. English kin terms don’t tell whether the relatives are from the mother' or father's side ,and there are not distinct kin terms for elder brother or younger brother. Kin terms are not as frequently used as in Chinese. In all kinds of social situations, either formally or informally, people won't use kin terms to address each other if they are not relatives.8. State six principles for effective cross-gender communication.9. What is the significance of Nonverbal Communication?Nonverbal behavior is a significant area of communication study for at least three reasons.Nonverbal behavior accounts for much of the meaning we get from conversations.Nonverbal behavior spontaneously reflects the subconsciousness.We cannot avoid communicating through nonverbal signals.Besides, nonverbal behavior is significant because nonverbal communication can be open to many interpretations.10.Describe the U.S. cultural patterns with the five value orientation categories.People in the United States generally believe in a supreme God or universal spirit and believe that they can control nature. They have a lot of faith in science and technology and are materialistic. They get a sense of identity from work and generally separate work from play. People, in the United States are efficient, practical, and see progress and change as a good thing. They place a high value on time and have a future time orientation, although they often divide it into short-term goals.People in the United States do not agree about whether humans are naturally good, bad, or a mixture of both. However, two beliefs related to human nature—rationality and mutability--- are still believed by many in the United States. One of the most fundamental beliefs of people is individualism. Associated with this belief are the ideas of self-motivation, competition, and responsibility for one’s own actions. People in the United States also have an unshakable belief in equality. They do not believe that everyone is the same, but they do believe that everyone does or should have the same opportunities as everyone else. Last, people in the United States are conformist—it is important to stay in touch with the latest fashion in hair, clothing, and so forth.11. What does "gilding the lily" mean?12.What are the communication differences between high-and low-context cultures?13.What are the social functions of compliments14. List some study area in nonverbal communication.15. What would you do if someone asks you a question that you feel too personal?16. Explain high-context culture and low-context culture.Cultures in which little of the meaning is determined by the message is encoded in the explicit code are labeled low-context. Cultures in which less has to be said or written because more of the meaning is in the physical environment or already shared by people are labeled high context .17. Explain the definition of “collect ivist culture”a. Collectivist cultures place little value on individual identity and great value on group identity. They have been labeled as “we” cultures because basic unit is thein-group or collective.b. kindness to visitors: friendly, welcoming, and generous treatment offered to guests or strangersc. Individualism is the moral stance, political philosophy, ideology, or social outlook that stresses "the moral worth of the individual". Individualists promote the exercise of one's goals and desires and so independence and self-reliance while opposing most external interference upon one's own interests, whether by society, or any other group or institution.18. How do people from different cultures understand “silence”?The use of silence in communication is different from culture to culture. Silence can communicate agreement, apathy, awe, confusion, contemplation, disagreement, embarrassment, obligation, regret, repressed hostility, respect, sadness, thoughtfulness, or any number of meanings. In eastern cultures, silence has long been regarded as a virtue. While in western cultures, silence has generally been considered socially disagreeable. To most people in the United States, silence means lack of attention and lack of initiative. To the Chinese, silence means agreement.19. Analyze the characteristics in Feminine communication culture20. Why do we need to study intercultural communication?(1). Technological developmentThe development of new transportation and information technologies has connected all nations in ways that were possible before this century only in the imagination.(2). Widespread population Migrations(3). The changes in the international business community have compelled China to reexamine her business.(4). Development of Multiculturalism. Cultural diversity or multiculturalism will become the norm; not the exception. The public must acknowledge and adjust to difference but build on commonality.21. What are the characteristics in naming Chinese Given Names?There have existed differences in naming given names to male and female throughout the Chinese history. If we get down to the classifications of the Given Names according to the different sexes, it is not difficult to see that the differences may lie in two categories, that is, in meanings and forms. Traditionally, male given names usually suggest steel and great strength, showing great concerns about the fate and future of the nation, while female given names impress people on their beauty, elegance, fragrance, loveliness, and gentleness. Shown in the following are the ten classifications of both the sexes showing different characteristics in given names:22. State two typical situations to send flowers in business and social situationsThere are two typical situations in which flowers can be useful to businesspeople. One is to help establish a good relationship with a secretary. The other is when anexecutive is invited to someone's house. It is still more customary - all over the world - to give flowers to women rather than men, who in most cultures only receive flowers when ill. Here are some flower-giving guidelines which should keep you from falling foul of local taboos.Part III Case Analysis (You are required to state cultural phenomenon in each case)(3*20’)Case 1Xiao LI and Xiao Wang were colleagues. Xiao LI gave a lot of help to Xiao Wang financially and socially. Recently Xiao LI would get married. But he forgot inviting Xiao Wang attend his wedding. Later Xiao Wang got information about Xiao LI’ wedding and sent RMB 500 Yuan to Xiao LI.Question: What cultural phenomenon can be reflected? Why?In Chinese culture influenced by Confucianism, if someone does a favor for you, you should return the favor to them. This is very common for Chinese people..In the philosophy of Confucianism Reciprocity are the base of relationships. Gratitude and indebtedness are important parts of Chinese culture. If a person feels uneasy to be indebted of someone, payback is necessary to achieve balance in the relationshi p.Case 2An English guest: Each time a new dish arrived his parents would lean over and load my plate with tasty morsels. As they had taken all the trouble to cook it I just had to polish it off. As soon as my plate was empty they would put more on. Of course, I felt duty-bound to eat that too.A Chinese guest: Can you imagine how many dishes I had? Only one -- a stew with meat and vegetables. The meat was over done and too hard to eat; green vegetables were no longer green. They never put food on your plate but just ask you to help yourself. If you, as a guest, are shy or modest, waiting for the food to be put on your plate, you will remain half-starved.Question: Are there any differences in hospitality between a Chinese and English? What are the reasons?Yes. The Chinese student felt disappointed at British hospitality because she used the Chinese way of showing hospitality to judge the British one. In the story taking place in China, the westerner couldn't imagine that there should be sixteen dishes prepared for her. When she ate from the eight cold dishes, she couldn't eat anymore. It is because a Western meal normally severs one main course plus a starter and sweets or desserts. The fact is that different people in the world show their differenthospitality in different ways.Case 3Li Lan had an American friend Susan. They usually had lunch together and Li Lan often asked Susan for advice on problems she faced adjusting to American society. Susan gave Li Lan a lot of advice and helped her to improve her English. Once Li Lan needed urgently a big sum of money to pay her tuition fee. Since she has no other friends in the States, she turned to Susan for help and promised that she would return the money soon.To Li Lan’s great disappointment, this time Susan didn’t seem happy to lend the money to her. Though Li Lan returned the money as she promi sed, they didn’t get along well from then on.Question: Why did Li Lan feel unpleasant?Li Lan asked to borrow money from her American friend Susan, which is rarely part of Western friendship. Li Lan and Susan have different expectations of friendship.In the West, people prefer to be independent and equal rather than dependent, so they don't feel comfortable in a relationship in which one person gives more and the other person is dependent on what is given. Among friends they mostly provide emotional support to each other and spend time together, so they rarely borrow or lend money to each other. They would ask for a loan from the bank rather than from their friends.While in China, people expect their friends to be loyal to each other, and they even take risks for their friends. So they would give not only emotional support to each other but also concrete help to each other, such as helping to find a job, solving a problem, or even giving money to help one out over a long period of time. So when a friend is in need, the first person he or she wants to ask for help is naturally his/her friend.Case 4In 1997, a Danish woman from Copenhagen left her 14-month-old baby girl in a stroller outside a Manhattan restaurant while she was inside. Other diners at the restaurant became concerned and called New York City Police. The woman was charged with endangering a child and was jailed for two nights. Her child was placed in foster care. The woman and the Danish consulate explained that leaving children unattended outside cafes is common in Denmark. Pictures were wired to the police showing numerous strollers parked outside cafes while parents were eating inside. Question: What cultural phenomenon can be reflected?This case reflects one of the barriers to the effective intercultural communication----assuming similarity instead of difference. In American culture, it isillegal for parents to leave their baby alone. Whereas it is commonplace for parents to leave their baby alone in Danish culture.The Danish woman had assumed that Copenhagen is similar to New York, that what is commonly done in Copenhagen is also commonly done in New York.Case 5Describing the differences of verbal communication Styles between Chinese people and American people. Take examples to explain it.The Chinese shout be loud when talking about everything. Direct eye-contact is rare when speaking person to person. Counting on your fingers is different. Instead of just holding out the number of fingers on two hands as in America, the Chinese have specific finger signs for numbers one to ten.To indicate yourself, Americans tend to use their thumb or forefinger and point at or touch their chest. Chinese people usually point at their nose with their index finger to do so. Chinese people feel no compunction against staring at other people for long periods of time. Young people, both boys and girls up to the age of 21, engages in all manner of rough-housing, often hitting each other. Women often walk arm and arm down the streets. Men and men hold hands or embrace shoulders as they walk outside. Nothing is wrong with that if they are friends.Case 6Xie Li and Tom have been working on a scientific experiment at a British university for some months. It has not been totally successful. They are discussing the situation in the laboratory.Xie Li: I don’t know where it went wrong!Tom: Don’t feel so bad. Cheer up; you’ve done your job.Xie Li: But our experiment has turned out to be a failure.Tom: Relax for a couple of days. I’ll face the music.Xie Li: Tom, we are not playing children’s games here. This is a scientific experiment. Tom: I’ve never taken the experiment as child’s play and I’m playing the game.Xie Li: You say you’re playing the game! It’s a rather important experiment!Xie Li walks out of the laboratory angrily. Tom is puzzled.Question: What’s the problem in this case?Idiomatic phrases are often misinterpreted.In English, face the music means: face reality and take the consequence and play the game means: abide competition rules. Here Xie Li misinterpreted two idiomatic phrases Tom used. First he thought that Tom didn’t take the failure of the experiment seriously and wanted to escape from it, because he would “face the music”; secondly, he misinterpreted Tom’s “playing the game” as that he hadn’t done the experiment seriously, which might lead to its failure.A young Chinese officer, together with his wife, was meeting an American consultant at an airport. After phatic communication, the consultant complimented him on his wife out of politeness, “Your wife is beautiful!”The officer felt embarrassed and said, “Where! Where!”（哪里！哪里！）“Where! Where!”the consultant was puzzled and had to say,“From head to foot.”Question: What went wrong in the case and Why?In this case, the words of the Chinese conveyed a message quite different from what was intended. The Chinese officer would be suspected of “fishing for compliments”even though the remarks might have been quite sincere because the consultant was almost forced to say “Your wife is beautiful from head to foot.” Forced compliments like this can leave a bad taste in the mouth.Because as far as the responses to praise and compliments is concerned, there are great difference between Chinese people and native English speakers. Native English speakers, especially Americans tend to verbalize their compliments and accept them, whereas the Chinese tend to efface themselves to show modest. In contrast, native English speakers, in the same situation, will say Thank you or Thank you for saying so or Thanks a lot, etc. to acknowledge and accept the thanks as a kind of recognition of their individual efforts. Case 8A young Chinese woman in U.S was complimented by an American woman for the lovely dress she was wearing: "It's exquisite. The colors are so beautiful!" she was pleased but somewhat embarrassed. In typical Chinese fashion, she replied, "Oh, it's just an ordinary dress I bought in China."Question: What went wrong in the case and Why?Case 9A married couple are going to visit a friend. They have been driving around for some time looking for the street.B is angry because A refuses to stop and ask direction of someone.Question: What cultural phenomenon can be reflected?This case reflects the masculine emphasis on maintaining autonomy and not appearing weak or incompetent. Men are less likely than women to seek directions from others. Part of the reason for this may well lie in sensitivity of men to issues of status. From the perspective to ask for information and help from others implies that the person asking is inferior. From a woman's point of view, however, sharing information is a way of cementing bonds.Dedrick and Melita have been dating for two years and are very serious. To celebrate their anniversary Melita wants to spend a quiet evening in her apartment where they can talk about the relationship and be alone with each other. When Dedrick arrives, he's planned to dine out and go to a concert. Melita feels hurt that he doesn't want to talk and spend the evening alone with her.Question: could you explain the differences in communication between men and women?Case 11A Filipino couple was vacationing in England. While they were strolling along one of the main streets of London with a British acquaintance, they met another Filipino who had been residing there for some time. He was a good friend from the past, who has not seen for several years. They greeted each other warmly and continued their conversation in a loud and animated fashion using their native language. After a while the British became noticeably agitated, and turned his head away and sighed. TheFilipinos noticed the reaction, and then resumed their conversation but in a quieter tone.Question: Why did the British become agitated?Case 12An American went to Chinese home. He was offered some tea. Just when the first cup was about to finish, more tea was added. The visitor drank the second cup. Then the cup was filled the third time. Then he drank it, then…until the visitor was quite full.Question: Why did the American get quite full?The culture for treating visitors varys from country to country.In China, the Chinese host often constantly puts foot on the visitors' plate, which is an expression of hospitality. The visitors refusals are usually ignored. Westerners, on the other hand, usually leave the guest to help himself/herself and do not keep urging him/her to eat more. in China it is acceptable to leave unwanted food on the plate, whereas according to Western custom, it is impolite to do so. As result, misunderstandings occur. In this case, the American kept finishing all the tea in his cup to show his politeness. Therefore, the American got quite full.Case 13An American tourist and a Chinese couple met for the first time. They are introducing themselves like this:American tourist: It was so nice to meet you both here. I'm Lucy Webster. Thank you very much.Chinese woman: It's a pleasure. I'm Li Hong, and this is my husband. Welcome to China, Miss Lucy.American tourist: Thank you, Mr. and Mrs. Li. Would both of you like a cup of coffee?Chinese couple: No, thanks.Question: What went wrong in the case and Why?1)The American tourist thinks that Li Hongs surname is her husband's surname, because she is unaware of the fact that in China women still use their own surnames after marriage.2) Li thinks that "Miss" is a respectful term of address for any female English speaker, but unaware of the fact that in America it is not used before someone's first name. She also mistakes the given name "Lucy' for the surname.Case 14Lee, an overseas student from China, once had a talk with his American classmate Tom.Lee: It really puzzles me that you Americans thank people all day long: When the teacher answers your questions, when your mother buys you a book that you need, when a wife brings her husband a cup of coffee and so on.Tom: Well, when I finished my tour in China, I said "thank you" to the interpreter who accompanied me during the tour. The interpreter replied, "It's my duty to do so."I can't help thinking what he means, "I had no choice but to do it, because it is my duty. Otherwise I would not have done so."Questions: What makes Lee puzzled and why? Is the interpreter's reply appropriate in the English context?1) A Chinese student would always thank his/her teacher for the latter's help, but would seldom do so to his/her parents because Chinese people don't usually say "Thank you" to those who are very close. They would rather choose some implicit ways to show their gratitude and concern, such as saying something like "leile ba?"(累了吧) "Xingku le."( 辛苦了) "kuai xiexie ba," (快歇歇吧)etc. But one traditional Chinese concept holds that it is the duty of the young and the junior to do something for the elderly and the senior, and so the latter don't have to say thanks.2) Saying "Thank you" is very common in America, even between parents and children, husband and wife for very small and ordinary things. So they thank all day long. They use words like "Please", "Excuse me", "Thank you" in daily conversation, whether between intimates or between strangers.。

Unit 1 introduction一．文化文化是冻结了的人际交流，而交流是流动着的文化----W.B. Pearce, 1994.背景：长期以来，文化被认为是无处不在，无所不包的人类知识和行为的总体。

被笼统地当作“生活方式”，社会生活的一切方面，积淀物，价值观念体系，众多规范，乃至艺术，政治，经济，教育，修养，文学，语言，思维的总和。

概括地讲，文化即是人们所思，所言，所为，所觉的总和。

在不同的生态或自然环境下，不同的民族创造了自己特有的文化，也被自己的文化所塑造。

It is said that there are at least 150 definitions about culture.“Culture may be defined as what a society does and thinks”(Sapir, 1921) “Culture is man’s medium, there is not one aspect of human life that is not touched and altered by culture. This means personality, how people express themselves, including shows of emotion, the way they think, how they move, how problems are solved, how their cities are planned and laid out, how transportation systems function and are organized, as well as how economic and government systems are put together and fuction.” (E.T. Hall,1959)“A culture is a collection of beliefs, habits, living patterns, and behaviors which are held more or less in common by people who occupy particular geographic areas” (D.Brown, 1978)文化的特性：1). 文化是由人们的内隐和外显行为组成的。

跨文化交际技巧参考答案定义题1、Intercultural communication跨文化交际P3There are three kinds of things you need to learn if you want to be able to communicate effectively with Westerners. First, you need to learn a foreign language, usually English. Second, you should learn as much as possible about Western cultures. However, studying English language and Western culture is not enough. You should also learn something about what happens when people from different cultures try to communicate with each other —in other words, "intercultural communication."2、Individualist个人主义Individualist culture is one in which people tend to view themselves as individuals and emphasize the needs of individuals. In general, Western culture tends to be individualist. They view themselves as independent of collectives; are primarily motivated by their own preferences, needs, rights, and the contacts they have established with others; give priority to their personal goals over the goals of others; and emphasize rational analyses of the advantages and disadvantages to associating with others.3、Collectivist集体主义Collectivist culture is one in which people tend to view themselves as members of groups (families, work units, tribes, nations), and usually consider the needs of the group to be more important than the needs of individuals. Most Asian cultures, including China's, tend to be collectivist. People see themselves as parts of one or more collectives; are primarily motivated by the norms of, and duties imposed by, those collectives; are willing to give priority to the goals of these collectives over their own personal goals; and emphasize their connectedness to members of these cultures.4、public behavior /private behaviorPublic behavior is the behavior in public settings, such as in work places, shops and so on. Private behavior is the behavior in private life, such as when you are at home or with your family and so on. Both individualist and collectivist cultures make a distinction between public life and private life. However, individualist Western cultures tend to make an especially clear and firm distinction between the public and private, and generally feel that these two aspects of life should be kept separate from each other. In other words, Westerners tend to believe that having a personal relationship with someone should not affect how you treat that person in public, work-related situations.5、Generalizations文化的笼统性P26It‟s a neutral word which is a general conclusion drawing from particular examples or evidence.( In any culture group there will be many different beliefs represented, but most of the members of the group will tend in a certain direction. It is this "preponderance of belief," — not uniform acceptance of a given belief — that gives a culture its nature and is the legitimate subject of generalization. People in the same culture share many things in common, such as shared knowledge, shared values, shared perspectives, shared beliefs, shared behavior.)6、Stereotypes老套思路P26It is a derogatory word. It means that image, idea, character that has become fixed or standardized in a conventional form without individuality and is therefore false and shallow.( A way of thinking that does not acknowledge internal difference within a group, and does not acknowledge exception to its general rules or principles. These stereotypes are often based on accurate information but the problem is that stereotypes blind us to other, equally important aspects of a person's character or behavior. Stereotypes may have been created by direct experience with only one or two people from a particular group. Others are probably based on the second-hand information and opinion, output from the mass media, and general habits of thinking; they may even have been formed without any direct experience with individuals from the group. Yet many people are prepared to assume that stereotype is an accurate representation of all members of a specific group.)7、Hierarchy不同的等级权利P33Different in rank and power----equalityEvery society has hierarchy to some degree. In other words, some people have higher rank and more power than others, perhaps because they are older, stronger, wealthier, or have some kind of official position. On the other hand, however, most modern societies also believe that equality is a virtue, at least to some extent. So each culture needs to find its own balance between hierarchy and equality.1) Westerners generally have less respect for seniority — age, position and so forth — than would be the case in a collectivist culture.2) Western societies often try to limit the power of government officials.3) Westerners tend to have a somewhat suspicious and even negative view of power and authority.8、Culture shock文化冲击P36Culture shock is a feeling of being confused and overwhelmed by life in another culture. People who experience culture shock often feel fatigued, impatient and irritable. They may also begin trying to avoid interaction with foreigners, and even become increasingly critical and hostile toward them. Foreigners in China sometimes experience culture shock — and so do Chinese who go to live in other countries.9、Projected cultural similarity P48Projected cultural similarity is the tendency to assume that people from other cultures basically think and feel more the same way we do. In other words, we sometimes assume that while foreigners may look different, dress differently, and speak different languages, "inside we are all more or less the same". People from different culture assume they understand each other instead of asking each other what they think. Because they each expect the other person to react more or less the same way they would, they don't check to see whether or not the other person actually has the same feelings and reactions they would.10、loose culture and tight cultureLoose culture doesn‟t demand a high degree of conformity. In loose cultures, people have a relatively wide range of views as to what is considered normal behavior. They also tend to berelatively tolerant of behavior that does not conform to cultural norms. And there is less pressure on individuals within the same culture to behave the same way most other people in the culture do. Tight culture: expect a relatively high degree of conformity. There is a clear consensus as to what is and is not acceptable behavior and there is more pressure on people to conform to the norms of the culture.Here is an example of how people deal with people who are born left-handed. In tight cultures, children who favor their left hand are encouraged or even forced to use their right hand instead, and the percentage of left-handed people in the adult population is much smaller.11、Ethnocentrism 民族优越感P59"Ethnocentrism" is the tendency to think of one‟s own culture as being at the center of the world and identify with one‟s in-group and to evaluate out-groups and their members according to its standards; in other words, to assume that one‟s own culture's way of thinking and acting is more natural, normal, and correct than the way people from other cultures think and act, and tend to view one‟s own cultural values and ways of doing things as more real, or as the …right‟ and natural values and ways of doing things.12、In-groups and out-groups P70In-Groups: “In-groups”are the people we have the most in common with and identify most closely with, such as our family, classmates, or co-workers. We also have larger in-groups such as people who are from our own region, religious group, ethnic group, or nation. In-groups are groups of people about whose welfare we are concerned, with whom we are willing to cooperate without demanding equitable returns, and separation from whom leads to discomfort or even pain. Out-groups: out groups are those groups of people who we do not identify with---people from other families, regions, ethnic groups, or nations. Out-groups are groups of people about whose welfare we are not concerned, and groups with whom we require an equitable return in order to cooperate.13、war stories P80The term “war stories” originally referred to the kinds of stories soldie rs would tell after experiences in battle. Now “war stories” refers more generally to any stories people tell after strange or stressful experiences, including stories about unusual encounters with foreigners.14 low context/ high context1.Low context: the way westerners communicate tends to be relatively explicit and direct. In other words, Westerners tend to put most of their ideas and feelings into words, and then state their ideas and feelings plainly and openly. It‟s generally considered a good thing to get to the point and say what you mean, and it‟s largely the speaker‟s responsibility to ensure that his/her massage is stated in a way that is clear and easy to understand. --low context, people are expected to pay more attention to the words used in communication than to context in which things are said. They expect others to …take them at their words‟-to believe that what they say is what they mean.2.High context: in collectivist cultures, people tend to communicate in a way that is more indirect and subtle, and listeners are expected to take more responsibility for inerpreting messages correctly. -High context, people are expected to pay much attention to the context in which communication takes place- who the speaker is, where and why the conversation is taking place, body language, and so forth-and when people interpret what others mean, they often give more weight to the context than to the actual words said. People in high context often view direct, explicit communication as unsophisticated or even rude.问答题1、Why would intercultural communication be more difficult than the communication between people from the same culture?（Why is it hard to learn a foreign culture?）先定义intercultural communication1)Some stumbling blocks2)Assuming more cultural similarities leads to misunderstanding3)Language difference4)Misinterpreting verbal communication and body language from other country5)Stereotype and preconceptions6)Evaluate before really understanding7)Interact with foreigners stressfully and suffer from culture shock8)Tend to generalize or simplify9)Tend to define groups by a few key characteristic10)Assume everyone is similar2、What are some differences between an individualist culture and a collectivist one?Are all Westerners individual ? Are all Chinese collectivist?先定义individualist 和collectivist(1) Westerners tend to believe that people should rely on themselves as much as possible- and they usually expect other people to do the same. In contrast, people in collectivist cultures generally feel they have a right to expect help from other members of their groups(family, classmates, and so forth), and they also tend to feel they have an obligation to help other members of their groups.(2) Westerners generally feel that the rights of individuals should not be subordinated to the needs of a larger group, or at least that individuals should have to right to decide for themselves whether to sacrifice their benefit for the sake of the group.(3) Westerners tend to believe that individuals should make decisions for themselves and that individuals should take credit and responsibility for what they have personally done.(4) A final difference lies in the way people in difference cultures view the idea of “individualism”. Westerners tend to view individualism as a good thing. In English, the word “individualism”has no negative connotation. In fact, its connotation is somewhat positive. In contrast, the Chinese term for “individualism” , often has a somewhat negative connotation, and is sometimes used as a synonym for “selfishness”.3、What are the different virtues Chinese and Americans emphasize most?先要定义一下virtueChinese: formality/ hierarchy/ industriousness/ being filial/ hard work/ modesty/ thrifty Americans: activity-dominant/ equality/ motivation based on achievement/ the world is material rather than spiritual/ optimistic/ individualist/ materialism/ success/ humanitarianism4、How do Western cultures view the relationship between public and private life?先定义public: work, national duty; private: home, family, personal friendshipsWestern cultures tend to make an especially clear and firm distinction between the public and private, and generally feel that these two aspects of life should be kept separate from each other. In other words, westerners tend to believe that having a personal relationship with someone should not affect how you treat that person in public, work-related situations. (In fact, some westerners try to avoid mixing work and play completely, and keep their circle of work acquaintances quite separate from their circle of personal friends)Of course, personal relationships do make a difference in how people in the west treat each other, even in public settings. However, the wall between public and private life tends to be somewhat higher in the individualist west than it is in collectivist cultures.5、What are stereotypes? Why are they a problem?It is a derogatory word. It means that image, idea, or chance that has become fixed or standardized in a conventional form without individuality and it is therefore false and shallow. A way of thinking that does not acknowledge internal difference within a group, exception to its general rules or principles. These stereotypes are often based on accurate information but the problem is that stereotypes blind us to other equally important aspects of a person‟s character or behavior. Stereotypes may have been created by direct experience with only one or two people from a particular group. Others are probably based on the second hand information and opinion outputfrom the mass media, and general habits of thinking; they may even have been formed without any direct experience with individuals from the group. Yet many people are prepared to assume that stereotype is an accurate representation of all members of a specific group.6、Try to think of several more generalization that can be made about important characteristics of Chinese culture.Collectivism: emphasis on the doctrine of the meanLarge power distance--hierarchyIntergroup harmony and avoidance of over conflict in interpersonal relationsBelief in the naturalness, necessity and inevitability of hierarchyInequality based on achievement, especially academic, moral and finance achievementBelief that “the judgment of wise people” is a better way to regulate life than rigid artificial laws. People exist “in and through relationship with others”Academic emphasis on memory, attention to details, and lengthy homeworkBrain washThe golden meanHypocriticalThe judgment of wise people/law8、What are the similarity and difference between Projected Cultural similarity and Ethnocentrism? P48两个定义Projected Cultural similarity and EthnocentrismThe similarity: both of them can not be avoided or overcame in intercultural communication. These two phenomena show that every country or nation considers their own culture as the center.The difference: E is taking one‟s own culture norms as the standard by which to judge people of other cultures. PCS is assuming that people of other cultures view things the same way you do. PCS: People have the tendency to assume that other people from other cultural background basically think and feel more or less the same way as they do.E: People have the tendency to think their culture has the superiority to others‟ and assume that their own culture‟s way of thinking and acting is more natural, normal and correct than the way people from other cultures‟ thinking and act.9、Comment on “Do unto others what you would have them do unto you. “P49先定义Projected cultural similarityThe sentence means that it‟s better not to do things to others what you don‟t want others do to you. This behavior shows the phenomena” projected cultural similarity”. In our cultural system, if you don‟t like thing done to you, you just don‟t impose on others. It‟s a kind of virtue. But from the aspect of PCS, people just assume people from other cultures view things the same way we do. What we think is right, we consider others will think it‟s right, too. However, it just doesn‟t work out like that. Because of different cultural background, we have different interpretations of everything happened. We can not expect others o think or act the same as we do.10、Why would people project cultural similarity? P49定义Projected cultural similarityIt is hard for people to imagine a perspective different from their own. It is effected by human nature, people are accustomed to self-centered. When they communicate with foreigners, they usually assume that foreigners are similar to us. As we grow up and learn what is right and wrong, truth and false, normal and abnormal, and so forth, we naturally learn to view the world as our culture view it. The only way to solve PCS is communication.11、comment on conformity in western cultures p56定义Loose cultures do not demand a high degree of conformity. In loose cultures, people have a relatively wide range of views as to what is considered normal behavior.Tight cultures, in contrast, expect a relatively high degree of conformity. There is a clear consensus as to what is and is not acceptable behavior, and there is more pressure on people to conform to the norms of the culture.Chinese culture is tight culture, and western cultures are loose culture. So conformity in western cultures is less in Chinese culture.Weak conformity12、What factors lead to looseness or tightness in culture? P54定义(1)The degree of change in the population--- the more people move, the looser and more individualist a society tends to be.(2)The density of the population.: small dense societies tend to be collectivist, hence tighter. Large dense society tend to be more complex, hence not quite so tight---melting pot.(3)The number of choices available in society--- the more choices available, the more room there is for individualism.(4)strict registration/registered permanent residence13、why does ethnocentrism cause difficulty in intercultural communication? P59定义ethnocentrismBecause we naturally feel that the ways and ideas of our culture are more natural and correct than those of other cultures. So we tend to use the norms of our own culture---such as the idea of what is good/bad, right/wrong, normal/abnormal—as standards when we judge the behavior of people from other cultures. So when we encounter foreigners who behave or think in ways that differ from our cultural norms, we too quickly tend to judge these other ways as strange, wrong or bad.14、Why are in/out-groups a problem in intercultural communication?P70定义We generally have more positive feelings toward members or our in-groups than we do toward outsiders. We trust insiders more. We tend to have a stronger sense of obligation to insiders. We feel it‟s right to help insider more than we help outsiders. We tend to judge in-groups and out-groups by different standards. To insiders, more generous but to outsiders, more critical, suspicious, more harsh judgments.So the tie of goodwill and trust between in-groups and out-groups are often relatively weak, and they break easily when there is conflict or misunderstanding.15、How do Chinese people treat in-group and out-group in line with culture back? P77定义There is a difference between the inside and the outside. Chinese generally have a high sense of loyalty and obligation to their in-groups, and will often go to great lengths to help people they consider members of their in-groups; however, they feel less obligation to outsiders.Chinese often view outsiders who come to china as guests., and give them much special treatment. In part, this is because Chinese view guests as a kind of in-group, and tend to treat in-group members very well.16、Never a borrower or a lender be. P79定义individualismAs it is firstly a famous American saying.This sentence means that ii is best to not lend money to other people and not to borrow from other people. When we lend or borrow something, we risk losing both things and the friendship with that person. To begin with, t is because westerners are in individualist cultures. In such kind culture, individualists tend to view themselves as individuals and to emphasize the needs of individuals. Individualists feel less obligation to others, whether they are in-groups or out-groups. Secondly, because of their characteristics, their individualism, western people tend to be very independent and self-reliant. They will always solve their problems by themselves. So they don‟t want others to rely on them. either.17、Characteristics of war stories P82The term “war stories”originally referred to the kinds of stories soldiers would tell after experiences in battle. Now, “war stories”refers more generally to any stories. People tell after strange or stressful experiences, including stories about unusual encounters with foreigners.War stories about intercultural communication tend to share several characteristics:(1)One reason we tell war stories is to get reassurance that our interpretation of the encountermakes sense.(2)In war stories, we generally portray ourselves as the hero or victim, and we often paint theforeigner as the “bad guy”.(3)We generally tell war stories to people who are likely to sympathize with us, usually peoplefrom our own culture rather than outsiders.(4)As we tell war stories, we often generalize from one specific experience to groups offoreigners as a whole.。

跨文化交际复习答案整理Answer questions1.What are the reasons which might contribute to an increase of intercultural contacts in the world?Nowadays, the increasing trend of intercultural contacts can be ascribed to four main factors: the advancement of technology, immigration, economic globalization and the emergence of multiculturalism.A. With the development of technology, the transportation systems and communication systems have witnessed great advancement. Trips once taking days are now measured in hours, making it possible for people to go to anywhere of the world in one day, and thus speeding up intercultural contact. Moreover, the advanced communication technologies, such as Internet, mobile phones and cable TV transmission equipment, have give people access to sharing and exchanging information and ideas instantaneously.B. Changes in population migration have also contributed to the development of increasing intercultural contact. For pursuing a better job or endeavoring for a better life, people from all over the world leave their country while bringing their own culture, habits, language and so on to the other.C. Economic globalization is another factor for increasing intercultural contacts. With the accelerated trend of economic globalization, the world we lived in is more and more interdependent and interrelated. And each country’s economy is tied to the economy of other countries. Therefore, the intercultural contacts between regions, countries and continents are inevitably increased.D. Multiculturalism is the view that the various cultures in a society merit equal respect and scholarly interest, describing the coexistence of many cultures in a locality, without any one culture dominating the region.Therefore, with the increasing of the trends of multiculturalism, the communications between regions and cultures will inevitably strengthened and increased.2.What are characteristics of communication and culture common to all human beings?Although communications are different from one another in their forms and norms, all communication systems around the world share certain characteristics.A. Indirect: one characteristic of communication is that people can only obtain messages fr om other’s words and behaviors instead of obtaining from the mind of others.B. Interactive: Communication takes place between at least two individuals, and each one in a communication process will affect or be affected by the other’s words or behaviors, a nd as a consequence, he/she will immediately modify or alter his/her responses either in words, tones, gestures, and so on.C. Dynamic: as all communication processes and their consequences are affected by the specific time, place, occasion and the number of people with their particular rules, values, customs, and so on, the communication can be perceived as an ongoing and ever-changing activity.D. Self-reflective: as human beings have a unique ability to think about themselves, to watch how they define the world, and to reflect on their past, present, and future, all forms of communication will inevitably involve and enhance this kind of activity, andthus endowed itself the self-reflective nature.Cultures, like communication, vary according to different history, geography, religion and world views, but they still share certain features.A. Invisible: as we refer to a certain culture, we often mean the world views, perceptions, values, attitudes and preference beneath all the phenomena in that culture, which are all intangible object to human beings.B. Learned: culture is not a procession that we inherited from out parents or forefathers, but is gradually acquired after birth by the influence of the traditional patterns and standards in the community we living.C. Ethnocentric: Each culture has its religion, myth and legends which convince every generation that they are special, powerful and intelligent and are thus capable of great achievements. Such pride helps to bind people in a society together to strive for ever greater accomplishments.D. Integrated: Culture is a complex and inclusive system in which all components, such as values, norms, perceptions and rules, are interrelated. And any change in one aspect of the culture will affect many other aspects.3.How are culture and language related to each other?A. Language is a guide to social reality. Language does not merely serve to allow us to describe what we see as reality, but language also shapes the way we see this reality.B. Language can record culture.Language can record the development of a society. People can learn culture left behind by their ancestors through language, and leave their culture to descendantsthrough language. For example, if we want to know theChinese culture 1000 years ago, we can research the records of that time. Therefore through language, civilization passes over from generation to generation. The society will then make progress step by step.In fact, we can know other cultures by reading books. We don't need to go to go abroad to know about cultures of foreign countries. Language brings us convenience to learn different cultures.C. Culture affects languageFrom the definition of culture, we know that culture includes geography, religion, tradition, custom, value and so on. In fact, culture often affects language through them. Every nation lives and works in a certain natural environment, which is reflected by its language. People from different regions may have different languages. They use different words, metaphors to express their views towards their environment.Nearly every nation has its religion. Religion is an important part in culture. Many daily used words are from religion. For instance: Adam's apple (喉结); my rib(我妻); Judas's kiss(背叛).Every culture has its specific features, which is reflected through language. Chinese people from some regions are accustomed to sleep on a 炕（a heatable bed）. They eat 冰糖葫芦（candied haws on a stick）. Whereas westerners go to motel eat hamburger.People from different cultures have different values. Sometimes, the differences cause misunderstandings. People should pay attention to the different values of different cultures.Culture background determines a man's native language. For example, if a Chineseinfant is adopted by an American couple who live inAmerican, he or she will grow up speaking perfect English.4.How does the perception of communication due to cultural differences affect intercultural communication?Culture strongly influences our subjective reality and there are direct links among culture, perception, and behavior. There are some factors in cultural belief, value, and patterns that might influence both perception and communication.Firstly, belief systems are significant to the study of intercultural communication, because they are at the core of our thoughts and actions. They are our conviction in the truth of something. They tell us how the world operates. Belief systems are important because they are learned and hence subject to cultural interpretation and cultural diversity. We must be able to recognize the fact that cultures have different realities and belief systems. Beliefs are such an influential factor in intercultural communication because they affect our conscious and unconscious minds, as well as the manner in which we communicate.Secondly, one of the most important functions of belief system is that they are the basis of our value. Formally, a value may be defined as an enduring belief that a specific mode of conduct of end-state of existence is personally of socially preferable to another. An awareness of cultural value also helps us understand our own behavior. Thus, value is another very important factor to affect intercultural communication.Thirdly, cultural patterns can affect intercultural communication; culture is extremely complex and consists of numerous interrelated cultural orientations besides beliefs and value. Cultural patterns refer to both the conditions that contribute to the way in which a person perceives and thinksabout the world, and the manner in which they live in that world.These three factors make people have different culture, and also affect both the perception and communication.5.How do you understand functions of non-verbal means used in communication?A. repeating;In the United States, people often use nonverbal messages to repeat a point they are trying to make. We might hold up our hand in the gesture that signifies a person to stop at the same time we actually use the word stop. Or we might point in a certain direction after we have just said, “The new library is south of that building.”The gestures and words have a similar meaning and reinforce one another.B. complementing;Closely related to repeating is complementing. Although messages that repeat can stand alone, complementing generally adds more information to messages. For example, you can tell someone that you are pleased with his or her performance, but this message takes on extra meaning if you pat the person on the shoulder at the same time. Physical contact places another layer of meaning on what is being said.C. substituting;We use substitution in nonverbal communication when we perform some action instead of speaking. If you see a very special friend, you are apt to enlarge the size of your smile and throw open your arms to greet him or her, which is a substitute for all thewords it would take to convey the same feeling.D. regulating;We often regulate and manage communication by usingsome form of nonverbal behavior: we nod our head in agreement to indicate to our communication partner that we agree and that he or she should continue talking; or we remain silent for a moment and let the silence send the message that we are ready to begin our speech. Or we have direct eye contact with someone to let him or her know the channels are open. In short, our nonverbal behavior helps us control the situation.E. contradicting.On some occasions, our nonverbal actions send signals opposite from the literal meanings contained in our verbal messages. You tell someone you are relaxed and at ease, yet you voice quavers and your hands shake. It also is a contradictory message when you inform your partner that you are glad to see him or her, but at same time you are sulking and breaking eye contact. Because people rely mostly on nonverbal messages when they are receive conflicting data, we need to be aware of the dangers inherent in sending opposing messages.Discussion1.Do you always with people that knowing about the correct choice of grammar and vocabulary of a language can ensure a successful communication between a native and non-native speaker of that language? Why or why not?We live in an increasingly complex world. One element of this complexity is themixing of different cultures, languages and faiths. Knowing the grammar and vocabulary of a language is of course not enough to communicate successfully because different cultures have different communication styles.Take China and America as an example. Because of the collectivistic culture of China, the Chinese people are more atease when speaking as members of group than as individuals. They of ten offer personal opinions by using “we” instead of “I”. This can create great difficulty for Americans in differentiating personal views from collective ones. And they will tend to consider such statement as lack of personal opinion and self-confidence.2.Explain this statement and give examples of it “People are alike, and people are different”.The similarities of humans: All humans around the world are like every other human being. Our commonalities as a species go far beyond the ways in which we share ideas and information. We are identical in numerous physiological and chemical ways. We all have a heart, lungs, brain, and the like. We are also literally made of the same components: water, salt, blood and so on. Moreover, emotions like self-respect, admiration, vanity, and so on are common to all cultures. Take the concept of self-respect for example. In Western culture, we may say ego; and in China, we may say face-saving, macho in Mexico, and pride in Japan. The point is, such feelings evoked very much the same.Differences of human beings: since the creation of the world there never were two cases exactly parallel and even the people. Our experience of the world is both internaland unique, therefore we each response to the world differently. Culture, as well as individual, differences keep us apart. Although the philosophical issues of death, isolation, free choice, and meaning confront everyone, our resolutions for each issue have their roots deep in culture. For example, Hinduism tells its members that they will be reincarnated when they die. In Islam, death moves people into heaven or hell, depending on how they lived.(In a word, it is inappropriate to say that we are more alike or we are more different, because people are more alike than they are different. Our society is dynamic, we want to live and have to adapt to our dynamic society. The economic development level, political system and educational ideals are different in different periods so that we have common ideas and concepts in sometime but in other times may not. All of these will have influence on our values, thought, and communication. Therefore, it is always the theme that a successful intercultural communicator appreciates similarities and accepts differences.)3.How have you ever used non-verbal means to facilitate your daily communication? Describe some of the occasions.Nonverbal communication involves all those nonverbal stimuli in a communication setting that are generated by both the source and his or her use of the environment and that have potential message value for the source or receiver.In my daily life, there are many occasions that I used nonverbal means to facilitate my daily communication. For example, frowning and making someone believe I am mad...4.In what way can cultural differences influence international business negotiation?There is a joke about an American and a Japanese sitting on a park bench in Tokyo. Both are businessmen. The American says, “Well, you know I’ve been in Japan for my company for forty years. Forty years! And now they are sending me back home to the States in just a few days.” The Japanese replies, “That’s the problem with you Americans: here today and gone tomorr ow.”This witticism clearly illustrates a major difference in cross-cultural negotiation—the pace at which negotiations are conducted. North American, Australian, Swiss, British, andSingapore negotiators value rapid negotiations, whereas other cultures such as China, Japan, much of Latin America, and Africa prefer slower negotiations. Direct versus indirect is often problematic in business dealings as well. In negotiations with many cultures, a “yes” really means “no”./doc/2e6898362.html,pare and contrast the view to causes of illness and the treatment model between people from different cultural backgrounds in the health-care setting. Causes of illnessMany people of Asian origin(Chinese, Filipinos, Koreans, Japanese, and Southeast Asians) may view illness as a result of an imbalance between yin and yang. Yin is the feminine, passive principle that is manifested in darkness, cold, or wetness. Yang is the masculine, active principle that is exhibited by light, heat, or dryness. Yin and yang combine to produce every occurrence in life. An imbalance in this combination is believed to cause illness.Even in the United States, where high technology and science are primarily relied on to diagnose illness, many Americans believe that their illness is a reminder from God that they have had a behavioral lapse such as neglecting to go to church regularly, not saying one’s prayers, or not thanking God daily for blessings.In the Indian culture, where people hold strong beliefs about fate, reasons for becoming ill often are even questioned.For them, ill health and even death itself are accepted as part of the process of birth and rebirth. Just like an Indian proverb summarizes: “That which blossoms must also decay.”Treatment modelThe Chinese may rely on fortune-tellers to determine auspicious times to perform scheduled surgeries or procedures.The Chinese have other methods for treating illness. As Dresser notes: T o restore the balance of yin and yang, specialist may use acupuncture(metal needles inserted into skin at precise points) and moxibustion (heating crushed wormwood or other herbs directly on the skin). Herbalists, easily found in Chinatown shops, act as health consultants, prescribing and creating herbal remedies.Many Asian groups use “cupping” to cure illness. “Cupping” involves placing heated glasses upside down on the chest or back of the sick person and pulling them off after they have cooled. This practice, believed to “rub out” evil winds and spirits.Many people from Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Brazil believe in Santeria(a type of religion).Within the United States, some groups, particularly African Americans, rely on pica—a craving for nonfood substances—to treat illness. For example, an individual may eat laundry starch to “build up the blood” after an auto accident.。

跨文化交际整理版跨文化交际技巧参考答案定义题1、In tercultural comm uni cati on 跨文化交际P3 There are three kinds of things you need to learn if you want to be able to comm uni cate effectively with Westerners. First, you need to learn a foreign Ianguage, usually English. Second, you should learn as much as possible about Western cultures. However, studying English Ianguage and Western culture is not eno ugh. You should also lear n someth ing about what happens when people from different cultures try to comm uni cate with each other —— in other words, "i ntercultural comm uni cati on."2、Individualist 个人主义In dividualist culture is one in which people tend to viewthemselves as in dividuals and emphasize the needs of individuals. In general, Western culture tends to be in dividualist. They view themselves as in depe ndent of collectives; are primarily motivated by their own prefere nces, n eeds, rights, and the con tacts they haveestablished with others; give priority to their personal goals over the goals of others; and emphasize rational analyses of the advantages and disadvantages to associating with others.3> Collectivist 集体主义Collectivist culture is one in which people tend to view themselves as members of groups (families, work units, tribes, nations), and usually consider the needs of the group to be more important than the needs of individuals* Most Asian cultures, including ChinaS, tend to be collectivist. People see themselves as parts of one or more collectives; are primarily motivated by the norms o 齐and duties imposed by those collectives; are willing to give priority to the goals of these collectives over their own personal goals; and emphasize their connectedness to members of these cultures*4、public behavior /private behaviorPublic behavior is the behavior in public settings,such as in work places, shops and so on. Private behavior is the behavior in private life, such as whe n you are at home or with your family and so on. Both individualist andcollectivist culturesmake a distinction between public life and private life. However, in dividualist Wester ncultures tend to make an especially clear and firm disti ncti on betwee n the public and private, and gen erally feel that these two aspects of life should be kept separate from each other. In other words, Westerners tend to believe that hav ing a pers onal relati on ship shouldnot affect how you treat public, work-related situati ons. 5、Generalizations 文化的笼统性 P26It ' a neutral word which is a general conclusion draw ing from particular examples or evide nce.( In any culture group there will be many differe nt beliefs represe nted, but most of the members of the group will tend in a certaindirecti on .It is this "prep on dera nee of belief," —not uni form aeeepta nee of a give n belief — that gives a culture its nature and is the legitimate subject of genwith some one that person ineralizati on. People in the same culture share many thi ngs in comm on, such as shared kno wledge, shared values, shared perspectives, shared beliefs, shared behavior.) 6、Stereotypes 老套思路P26It is a derogatory word. It means that image, idea, character that has become fixed or sta ndardized in a conven ti onal form without individuality and is therefore false and shallow.( A way of thinking that does not ack no wledgeinternal differe nee withi n a group, and does not ack no wledge excepti on to its gen eral rules or prin ciples. These stereotypes are often based on accurate information but the problem is that stereotypes bli nd us to other, equally importa nt aspects of a pers on's character or behavior. Stereotypes may have been created by direct experienee with only one or two people from a particular group. Othersare probably based on the sec on d-ha nd in formati on and opinion, output from the mass media, and gen eral habits of thinking; they may eve n have bee n formed without any direct experie nce with in dividuals from the group. Yet many people are prepared to assume that stereotype is an accurate represe ntati on of all members of a specific group.)7、Hierarchy不同的等级权利P33Every society has hierarchy to some degree. In other words, some people have higher rank and more power tha n others, perhaps because they are older, stron ger, wealthier, or have some kind of official positi on. On the other hand, however, most moder n societies also believe that equality is a virtue, at least to some exte nt. So each culture needs to find its own balance betwee n hierarchy and equality.1)Westerners gen erally have less respect for seniority —age, position and so forth —than would be the case in a collectivist culture.2)Western societies often try to limit the power of gover nment officials.3)Wester ners tend to have a somewhat suspicious and eve n n egative view of power and authority.& Culture shock 文化冲击P36Culture shock is a feeli ng of being con fused and overwhelmed by life in another culture. People who experie nee culture shock ofte n feel fatigued, impatient and irritable. They may also begin trying to avoid interaction with foreigners, and even become increasingly critical and hostile toward them.Foreigners in China sometimes experience culture shock ——and so do Chinese who go to live in other coun tries.9、Projected cultural similarity P48Projected cultural similarity is the tendency to assume that people from other cultures basically thi nk and feel more the same way we do. I n other words, we sometimes assume that while foreig ners may look differe nt, dress differe ntly,and speak differe nt Ian guages, "in side we are all more or less the same". People from differe nt culture assume they un dersta nd each other in stead of ask ing each other what they think. Because they each expect the other pers on to react more or less the same way they would, they don't check to see whether or not the other person actually has the same feelings and reactions they would.10、loose culture and tight cultureLoose culture doesn 'demand a high degree of conformity. In loose cultures, people have a relatively wide range of views as to what is considered normal behavior. They also tend to be relatively tolerant of behavior that does not conform to cultural norms. And there is less pressure on individuals within the same culture to behave the same way most other people in the culture do.Tight culture: expect a relatively high degree of conformity. There is a clear consensus as to what is and isnot acceptable behavior and there is more pressure on people to conform to the n orms of the culture.Here is an example of how people deal with people who are born left-handed. In tight cultures, children who favor their left hand are encouraged or even forced to use their right hand in stead, and the perce ntage of left-ha nded people in the adult population is much smaller.11、Ethnocentrism 民族优越感P59"Ethnocentrism" is the tendency to think of one' own culture as being at the center of the world and identify with one' in -group and to evaluate out-groups and their members according to its standards; in other words, to assume that one ' s own culture's way of thinking and act ing is more n atural, no rmal, and correct than the way people from other cultures think and act, and tend to view one' own cultur al values and ways of doing things as more real, or as the ‘ right and natural values and ways of doing thi ngs.12、In-groups and out-groups P70In-Groups: In-groups ” are the people we havethe most in comm on with and ide ntify most closely with, such as our family, classmates, or co-workers. We also have larger in-groups such as people who are from our own region,religious group, eth nic group, or n ati on.In-groups are groups of people about whose welfare we are concerned, with whom we are willi ng to cooperate without dema nding equitable returns, and separation from whom leads to discomfort or eve n pain.Out-groups: out groups are those groups of people who we donot identify with---people from other families, regions,ethnic groups, or n ati ons. Out-groups are groups of people about whose welfare we are not concern ed, and groups with whom we require an equitable return in order to cooperate. 13、war stories P80The term “ war stories ” origi nally referred to the kinds of stories soldiers would tell after experie nces in battle. Now “ warstories ”fers more gen erally to any stories people tell after stra nge or stressful experie nces, in cludi ng stories about unu sual encoun ters with foreig ners.问答题1、Why would in tercultural comm uni cati on be moredifficult tha n the comm uni cati on betwee n people from the same culture?(Why is it hard to learn a foreign culture? ) 先定义intercultural comm uni cati on1)Six stumbling blocks2)Assum ing more cultural similarities leads to misun derstanding3)Language differenee4)Misin terpret ing verbal comm uni cati on andbody Ian guage from other country5)Stereotype and preconceptions6)Evaluate before really understanding7)In teract with foreig ners stressfully and suffer fromculture shock8)Tend to gen eralize or simplify9)Te nd to defi ne groups by a few key characteristic10)Assume every one is similar2、What are some differences between an individualist culture and a collectivist one?Are all Westerners in dividual ? Are all Chin ese collectivist?先定义individualist 和collectivist(1)Westerners tend to believe that people should rely onthemselves as much as possible- and they usually expect other people to do the same. In con trast, people in collectivist cultures gen erally feel they have a right to expect help from other members of their groups(family, classmates, and so forth), and they also tend to feel they have an obligati on to help other members of their groups.(2)Westerners gen erally feel that the rights ofindividuals should not be subordinated to the needs of alarger group, or at least that individuals should have toright to decide for themselves whether to sacrifice their ben efit for the sake of the group.(3)Westerners tend to believe that in dividuals should make decisions for themselves and that in dividuals should take credit and resp on sibility for what they have pers on ally done.(4)A final differe nee lies in the way people in differe nee cultures view the idea ofindividualism ”. Westerners tend to view individualism as a good thing. In English, the word individualism ” has no negative conno tati on. In fact, its conno tati on is somewhat positive. In contrast, the Chinese term for individualism ” , often has a somewhat negative connotation, and is sometimesused as asynonym for selfish ness”.3、What are the different virtues Chinese and America ns emphasize most?先要定义一下virtueChinese: formality/ hierarchy/ industriousness/being filial/ hard work/ modesty/ thriftyAmerica ns: activity-domi nant/ equality/motivation based on achievement/ huma nitaria nism 4、 How do Western cultures view the relati on ship betwee n public and private life?先定义Western cultures tend to make an especially clear and firm distinction between the public and private, and gen erally feel that these two aspects of life should be kept separate from each other. In other words, westerners tend to believe that hav ing a pers onal relati on ship with some one should not affect how you treat that person in public, work-related situations. (In fact, some westerners try to avoid mixi ng work and play completely, and keep their circle of workacquaintances quite separate from their circle of pers onal frie nds)Of course, pers onal relati on ships do make a differenee in how people in the west treat each other, eve n in public sett in gs. However, the wall between public and private life the world ismaterial rather in dividualist/than spiritual/ materialism/optimistic/success/tends to be somewhat higher in the in dividualist west tha nit is in collectivist cultures.5、What are stereotypes? Why are they a problem?It is a derogatory word. It means that image, idea, or chanee that has become fixed or standardized in a conventional form without individuality and it is therefore false and shallow.A way of thinking that does not ack no wledge internal differenee within a group, exception toits gen eral rules or prin ciples. These stereotypes are ofte n based on accurate in formati on but the problem is that stereotypes blind us to other equally importa nt aspects of a pers on' character or behavior.Stereotypes may have been created by direct experienee with only one or two people from a particular group. Others are probably based on the sec ond hand in formati on and opinion output from the mass media, and general habits of thinking; they may even have been formed without any direct experience with individuals from the group. Yet many people are prepared to assume that stereotype is an accurate representation of all members of a specific group.6、What are some ways in which Western societies differ in how they view the issue of equality?7、Try to think of several more generalization that can be made about importa nt characteristics of Chin ese culture.Collectivism: emphasis on the doctrine of the mea n Large power dista neeIn tergroup harm ony and avoida nee of over con flict in in terpers onal relati onsBelief in the n atura In ess, n ecessity andin evitability of hierarchyIn equality based on achieveme nt, especially academic, moral and finance achieveme ntBelief that the judgment of wise people” is a better way to regulate life than rigid artificial laws.People exist in and through relati on ship withothers ”Academic emphasis on memory, attention to details, and len gthy homeworkBrain wash8、What are the similarity and differenee betwee n Projected Cultural similarity and Eth nocen trism? P48 两个定义Projected Cultural similarity and Eth nocentrismThe similarity: both of them can not be avoided or overcame in in tercultural comm uni cati on. These two phenomena show that every country or nation considers their own culture as the cen ter.The differe neePCS: People have the tendency to assume that other people from other cultural background basically think and feel more or less the same way as they do.E: People have the tendency to think their culture has the superiority to others' and assume that their own culture s way of thinking and act ing is more n atural, no rmal and correct than the way people from other cultures' thinking and act. 9、Comment on Do unto others what you would have them do unto you. P49 先定义Projected cultural similarityThe sentence means that it' better not to do things to others what you don 'wa nt others doto you. This behavior shows the phenomena” projected cultural similarity ” In our cultural system, if you don 'like thing done to you, you just don 'impose onothers. It 'a kind of virtue. But from the aspect of PCS, people just assume people from other cultures view thi ngs the same way we do. What we think is right, we consider others will think it ' right, too. However, it just does n'work out like that. Because of differe nt cultural backgro und, we have differe nt in terpretati ons of everythi ng happe ned. We can not expect others o think or act the same as we do.10、Why would people project cultural similarity?P49定义Projected cultural similarityIt is hard for people to imagine a perspective differe nt from their own .It is effected by huma n nature, people are accustomed to self-centered. Whe n they comm uni cate with foreig ners, they usually assume that foreig ners are similar to us. As we grow up and learn what is right and wrong, truth and false, normal and abnormal, and so forth, we naturally learn to view the world as our culture view it. The only way to solve PCS is comm uni cati on.11、comme nt on con formity in western cultures p56 定义Loose cultures do not dema nd a high degree of conformity. In loose cultures, people have a relatively wide range of views as to what is con sidered no rmal behavior.Tight cultures, in contrast, expect a relatively high degree of conformity. There is a clear consensus as to what is and is not acceptable behavior, and there is more pressure on people to conform to the norms of the culture.Chinese culture is tight culture, and western cultures are loose culture. So conformity in wester n cultures is less in Chin ese culture.12、What factors lead to looseness or tightness in culture? P54定义(1)The degree of cha nge in the population--- the more people move, the looser and more in dividualist a society tends to be.(2)The density of the population.: small densesocieties tend to be collectivist, hence tighter.Large dense society tend to be more complex, hence not quite so tight---melt ing pot.(3)The n umber of choices available in society--- the more choices available, the more room there is for in dividualism. 13、why does ethnocentrism cause difficulty in in tercultural comm uni cati on? P59定义ethnocentrismBecause we naturally feel that the ways and ideas of our culture are more natural and correct tha n those ofother cultures. So we tend to use the norms of our own culture---such as the idea of what is good/bad,right/wrong, no rmal/ab no rmal —as sta ndards whe n we judge the behavior of people from other cultures. So when we encounter foreigners who behave or think in ways that differ from our cultural n orms, we too quickly tend to judge these other ways as stra nge, wrong or bad.14、Why are in/out-groups a problem in in tercultural comm uni cati on ?P70定义We gen erally have more positive feeli ngs toward members or our in-groups than we do toward outsiders. We trust insiders more. We tend to have a stron ger sense of obligati on to in siders. We feel it' right to help insider more than we help outsiders. We tend to judgein-groups and out-groups by different standards. To insiders, more generous but to outsiders, more critical, suspicious, more harsh judgme nts.So the tie of goodwill and trust between in-groups and out-groups are often relatively weak, and they break easily when there is con flict or mis un dersta nding.15、How do Chinese people treat in-group and out-group in line with culture back? P77定义There is a differe nee betwee n the in side and the outside. Chin ese gen erally have a high sense ofloyalty and obligati on to their in-groups, and will often go to great lengths to help people they consider members of their in-groups; however, they feel less obligati on to outsiders.Chin ese ofte n view outsiders who come to chi na as guests., and give them much special treatme nt. In part, this is because Chin ese view guests as a kind of in-group, and tend to treat in-group members very well.16、Never a borrower or a lender be. P79As it is firstly a famous America n say in g.This sentence means that ii is best to not lend money to other people and not to borrow from other people. Whe n we lend or borrow somethi ng, we risk losing both things and the friendship with that person. To begin with, t is because wester ners are in in dividualist cultures. In such kind culture, in dividualists tend to view themselves as individuals and to emphasize the needs of individuals. Individualists feel less obligati on to others, whether they are in-groupsor out-groups. Sec on dly, because of theircharacteristics, their in dividualism, western people tend to be very independent and self-relia nt. They will always solve their problems by themselves. So they don' want others to rely on them. either.17、Characteristics of war stories P82 The term war stories ” originally referred to the kinds of stories soldiers would tell after experiences in battle. Now, war stories” refers more gen erally to any stories. People tell after stra nge or stressful experie nces, in cludi ng stories about unu sual encoun ters with foreig ners.War stories about in tercultural comm uni cati on tend to share severacharacteristics:(1)One reason we tell war stories is to getreassuranee that our interpretation of theencoun ter makes sen se.(2)In war stories, we gen erally portray ourselves as the hero or victim, and we ofte n paint the foreig ner as the bad guy ”.(3)We gen erally tell war stories to people who arelikely to sympathize with us, usually people from our own culture rather than outsiders.(4)As we tell war stories, we often generalize from onespecific experienee to groups of foreig ners as awhole.。