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新编简明英语语言学戴炜栋版本u1--u6期末笔记整理

新编简明英语语言学戴炜栋版本u1--u6期末笔记整理
新编简明英语语言学戴炜栋版本u1--u6期末笔记整理

●语言学家:

1.F.de Saussure P4

Swiss linguist. He distinct the langue and parole in the early 20th

century 写了《普通语言学》

强调研究语言(what linguist should do is to abstract langue from parole)

2.N Chomsk

American linguist distinct competence and performance in the late 1950s

强调研究语言能力(competence)和索绪尔的相似点

●Saussure和chomsky不同之处:

索绪尔从社会学角度(sociological view)他的语言概念属于社会习俗范畴(social conventions);乔姆斯基是从心理学角度(Psychological view),认为语言能力是每个个体大脑的特征(property of mind of each individual)

3.现代语言学基本上是描述性的(descriptive),传统语法是规

定性的(prescriptive)

4.现代语言学中共时性研究更重要(synchronic)

Phonetics(语音学) Phonology(音位学)

●发音器官

1.pharyngeal cavity

2.oral cavity

3.nasal cavity

●speech and writing are the two media or substances 言语和文字是自

然语言的两种媒介和物质(言语比文字更加基础)

●语音学从哪三个角度研究?

(1)说话者角度articulatory phonetics 发声语音学(历史最悠

久)

(2)听话者角度auditory phonetics 听觉语音学

(3)研究语音的传播方式acoustic phonetics 声学语音学

●主要现在用IPA标音标,但是语言学家会用严式标音(narrow

transcription)书上举了两个字母的例子{l} leap,feel ,health {p} pit,spit (送气,不送气)p h来表送气

●语音的分类:元音(voiced sound)和辅音

●voiceless

●元音的分类:

(1)根据舌头哪一个部位最高,分为front、central、back

(2)嘴巴的张合度,分为闭元音、半闭元音、半开元音、开元音(3)不圆唇的(所有前和中元音+{a:} )和圆唇的(rounded)后元音

●Segment 和syllable 前面数有几个元音辅音;后面数有几个元音●语音学和音位学的区别

(1)语音学家关注{l} 的发音,清晰舌边音和模糊舌边音

(2)音位学家关注{l}分布模式,即在什么位置发这个音如{l} 在元音后或辅音前,发模糊舌边音feel、quilt

{l}放在元音前发清晰的舌边音leap

注意:Phonology is concerned with the sound system of a particular language.(关注某种语言的语音系统)

Linguistics is the scientific study of human languages in general.

一、区分音素,音位,音位变体

●音素:phone

(1)在单词feel[fi:?],leaf[li:f],tar[tha:],star[sta:]中,一共有7个音素,分别是[f],[i:],[?],[l],[th].[t],[a:].

(2)英语共有48个音素,其中元音20个,辅音28个。

(3)音素不一定能区别意义

●音位:phoneme

它有如下特点:

(1)音位总是属于一定的语言,脱离具体的语言,音位无从谈起。

(2)属于同一个音位的各个音,不能区别意义,不同音位的各个音,能够区别意义。

(3)音位必须是最小的单位。

(4)音位是能辨别词义的音素,属于音素的一种,比如“蓝”“男”

lan,nan, l和n就是音位,能区别两个字

(5)习惯将音位放在两条斜线里,音素放在方括号里

●音位变体: allophone

(1)音位变体就是同一个音位的不同的变异形式,是音位在特定语音环境中的具体体现或具体代表。如英语中的,

leap /li:p/ 与feel /fi:l/ 中的两个不同的/l/,就是音位/l/的两个

不同变体。

二、音位对立,互补分布,最小对立对

●音位对立:phonemic contrast

如果两个音位可以出现在相同的语音环境中,且具有区别语义的功能,那么它们就形成了音位对立.如tip和dip中的/t/和/d/占据了相同的语音位置,且具有区分语义的价值,因此/t/和/d/形成音位对立.

●互补分布:complementary distribution

如果在语音上相似的两个音不能出现在相同的位置上,且没有区别意义的功能,那么它们之间的关系就是互补分布关系.如top中送气的[t]和stop中不送气的[t]的关系是互补关系,如果把stop中的[t]发成了送气音并不影响语义. 类似还有:peak,speak

●最小对立对:minimal pair

最小对立对指的是两个语音群(通常是单词)中的语音除了一个音不同,且不同的音处在相同的位置上,其余的成分完全相同,因此这两个语音群形成最小对立对.如tip和dip形成最小对立对,其中/-ip/完全相同,只有第一个音不同.构成最小对立对的还有/pig/和/dig/;/pen/和/ben/;/robe/和/rote/等,其中/p/,/d/,/p/,/b/,/b/,/t/就是英语中的音位(能区分意义)

其中/tip/和/pit/,/mop//opt/不构成最小对立对.

●音位对立与最小对立体

音位对立就是指能够造成意义差别的那些语音差别,比如在mate、late、hate、pate、bate、date、gate、kate中,每一个单词的第一个辅音都能造成语音差别,因此都形成音位对立。(看的是音标)

最小对立体就是两个对立的音位只有一个语音特征不同,其他语音特征都相同。比如pate和bate中的[p]和[b],都是辅音、都是塞音、都是双唇音,都是……,但有一点不一样,前者是清辅音,后者是浊辅音。

相反,[m]和[p]就不能形成最小对立体,因为它们虽然都是辅

音、都是唇音,但至少有两个语音特征不同:除了清浊不同外,一个是鼻音,一个是塞音。

●l、r音标开头,后面一定是元音

Morphology

●语言学家用形态学这个术语来指语法中构词这一部分(read,

reader,lip-read)

●词的分类:开放类open class(名,动,副,形)、封闭类closed

class(连词,冠词articles,介词,代词)

●Morphemes(词素)-------

(1)the minimal、smallest units of meaning最小的意义单位。

(2)词素是意义+音阶的组合(a meaning and a stretch of sound joined together)注意:词素的声音和意义没有必然联系,

词素具有任意性(arbitrary)

(3)Cannot be further analyzed

●词汇是最小自由体

●词素可以分为

(1)free and bound morphemes (自由或黏着词素)

如:boy (free)复数-s是黏着的

(2)allomorphs 同质异形体,语素变体

即一个词素的不同变体,

如books /s/ bags /Z/, judges /IZ/ 复数词素-s的不同发音一、总结-s的发音:

(1)在清辅音后发/S/

(2)在浊辅音或元音后发/Z/

(3)es 发/iz/

再如过去时/d/,/t/, /id/ have the same meaning and are in

complementary distribution

(3)派生词素和屈折词素(都是针对词缀来说的)Derivational morphemes:the morphemes change the grammatical class or add new meanings to the existing words. (改变词的词性或意义) 注意quick-quickly,ly是inflectional “ly”没有改变词性和词义

Inflectional morphemes:the morphemes are for the most part purely: grammatical markers(表示时态、数、格\比较或最高级这样的黏着词素,如-ing、-ed,不附加词汇意义的)

二、分析词的结构

root and affixes一个复杂的词汇通常是由一个根词素和一个或多个词缀构成。词根是词的核心部分,构成意义的主要成份,通常词根归属于一个词汇的范围,可以由名、动、形、介词。而affixes是黏着词素(bound morphemes)如teacher,er为affixes。Prefix前缀,suffix后缀,infix中缀

三、构词的形态学规则

两种构词方法:

(1)派生

(1)复合词(是由词汇+词汇串起来的)

(a)名词+名词=名词postbox

形容词+形容词=形容词icy-cold

(b)名词+形容词=形容词head-strong

动词+名词=名词pickpocket

例外:带介词的复合词=非介词的词性

Undertake inaction

(c)复合词重音在第一部分,如redcoat

书本p40 练习(划出derivational affixes和inflectional affixes)

1.The farmer’s cows escaped.

2.It was raining.

3.Those socks are inexpensive

4.Jim needs the newer copy.

5.The strongest rower continued

6.She quickly closed the book.

7.The alphabetization went well.

Syntax句法学

一、范畴:句法范畴、词汇范畴、短语范畴

(1)词汇范畴lexical categories

major categories:N. V. prep. Adj.

minor categories: Det(限定词),Deg(程度词),Qual

(修饰词),con. ,aux.(助动词)

(2)如何区分词汇的范畴

三个标准:meaning, inflection, distribution

(3)短语范畴phrase categories

[1]短语结构标志语的规则:

NP: 限定词+名词

VP: 修饰语+动词

AP/PP 程度词+形/介

[2]XP规则:(标志语)(Mod)X (Mod)(补语*)

[3]标志语在中心词的左边,补语在中心词右边

[4]补语不管有多少都放在中心词右边,补语短语即

complement phrase(CP),CP所在结构为主句(matrix

clause)

如:she believes that she will win (CP)

[5]Coordination rule并列规则:and,or,but

[6]Modifiers修饰语:依据中心词的位置不同,修饰语位

置也不同,当有补语时,中心词之后的修饰语一般也

出现在补语右边。

二、句子规则

[1]助动词是中心词infl

[2]疑问句inversion(显性动词或that/whether移动到C位

[3]隐性Do insertion:移动疑问词DO(插入的)到C位

[4]WH移位:用于特殊疑问句或者whom这种的关系从句。

[5]Subcategories

第五章:semantics 语义学

1.对意义meaning的研究

① the naming theory命名论

② the conceptualist view概念论

③ contextualism: John Firth 语境论(语言语境和场景语境)

④ behaviorism Bloomfield 行为主义论based on contextualist view

2.词汇意义:sense and reference.

Sense 就是这个词固有的意义,词典上的解释abstract and de-contextualized.抽象的不与语境相关的

Reference是指在特定的场合下,说话人和听话人都知道的事物。

如狗在叫。(都知道是指那只在叫的狗)

注意:have the same sense may have different reference.

Have the same reference may have different sense.(morning star/evening star.)

3.Major sense relations(主要的意义关系)

① synonymy同义现象

a.dialectal synonyms方言同义词

b. stylistic synonyms文体同义词(问题、正式度不同)比如dad和father

c. synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning情感或评价意义不同的同义词(褒贬义)appliance和collaborate都是帮助,一个是帮助去犯罪

d. collocational synonyms搭配同义词如腐烂:sour milk;rotten meat

e. semantically different synonyms语义不同的同义词(意义上稍有不同)astound、surprise

② polysemy多义现象——one word that has more than one related meaning

③ homonymy 同音异义(分为三种)

Homophones: 同音异义发音一样如:night knight

Homographs: 同形异义拼写一样tear n.眼泪tear v.撕

Complete homonyms: 完全同音异义词发音和拼写完全一样如ball和ball,fast 和fast

④ hyponymy下义关系—— inclusiveness 包含关系superordinate.上坐标词

hyponyms下坐标词,同一个sueperordinate下的下义词被称为:co-hyponyms

⑤ antonymy反义词——oppositeness

●Gradable antonyms 等级反义词(有中间词,程度不同)

如:old and young; hot and cold;wide and narrow; cheap and expensive

●Complementary antonyms互补反义词(两个极端,不存在第三种情

况)

dead/alive,male/female;present and absent; pass and fail; single and married

●Relational opposites: 关系反义词,两个词之间存在着相对关系Husband and wife; father and son; teacher and student;doctor and patient; buy and sell; let and rent; above and below.(上下); own and belong to; north of and south of

4.句子之间的意义关系:

① X is synonymous with Y (X与Y同义)如果X真,Y真;X假,Y也假

②X is inconsistent with Y (X与Y不一致)如果X真,Y假;X 假,Y真

③ X entails Y (Y is an entailment of X) (X蕴含Y(Y是X的一个含义))

如果X真,Y一定真(去过法国→一定去过欧洲)

如果X假,Y有可能真(没去过法国→去/没去过欧洲欧洲)

④ X presupposes Y (Y is a prerequisite of X) (X预设Y(Y是X的先决条件))

如果X真,Y一定真

如果X假,Y仍然真

⑤ X is a contradiction X自我矛盾(总是假)

⑥ X is semantically anomalous X语义反常

U6 Pragmatics语用学

1.Pragmatics 和semantics 的区别

即是否考虑语境的因素(the context )

2.Sentences meaning and utterance meaning 句子和话语

句子的意义是抽象的、脱离语境的;而话语的意义是具体的、依赖语境的(concrete, and context-dependent)

3.John Austin

British philosopher研究model of speech acts. He aims to answer”what do we do when using language”(言语行为模式)

◆先是分为constatives and performatives (叙事话语和行事话语)◆后来他认为人在说话时可能执行三个动作:locutionary act;

illocutionary act; perlocutionary act.

◆言内行为指发出的词句(仅仅是字面的组成);言外行为就是说

话人的真正意图,在说话过程中执行的动作;言后行为就是说话后而执行的动作。

4.John Searle---- 两个贡献

(1)classification of speech acts.(言语行为分类)

American philosopher-linguist 他做的贡献就是对言外行为进行分类(illocutionary act)

◆Representatives----阐述类,说话人在陈述或者描述他认为是真实

的是

◆Commissives -----承诺

◆Directives----指令,说话人想让听话人做某事

◆Rogatives---询问

◆Declarations-----宣告

◆Expressives----表达

(2)Searle proposed the notion of indirect of speech act.(提出间接言语行为的概念)

说话时,一种是主要言语行为(说话者的交际目的),一种是次要言语行为(他取得这个目的的手段);primary speech act / secondary speech act

5.会话原则Principal of conversation

●Paul Grice--------认为,在进行绘画室,参与者最起码的愿意合

作,这个普遍原则成为:Cooperative Principle, 合作原则(CP)这个普遍原则之下,包含四个原则:

1.the maxim of quantity

足够的信息、不要提供超过所需信息之外的信息

2.The maxim of quality

不说假话;不说缺乏足够证据的话

3.The maxim of relation

有相关性

4.The maxim of manner

避免表达艰涩;避免其一;间接,避免繁杂;有条理

当违法准则是flouting a maxim,意味着我们的语言就变成间接的----即公然违背

6.跨文化语用失误:语用学通常有两个方面:语用语言学和社会语用学。

英语语言学概论大纲(DOC)

一、课程性质及其设置目的与要求 (一)课程性质和特点 《英语语言学概论》课程是我省高等教育自学考试英语专业(本科段)的一门重要的专业理论课程,其任务是培养应考者系统地学习英语语言学的基本知识,掌握语言系统内部语言学各分支之间的关系和各分支的重要概念和基本理论,了解语言学在其它学科领域的应用,熟悉现代语言学重要的流派及其代表人物;通过该课程的学习,考生可以从不同的角度了解语言(的性质),了解语言学习和语言教学,为日后进一步学习语言学、从事语言教学实践和语言学研究打下扎实基础。本课程的特点是:专业术语多,概念多,内容抽象,所以,考生最好在学习本课程之前先学习提高语言读写能力的课程,如高级英语、泛读(三)、写作等,这样可以减少语言障碍,有利于学好语言学的理论知识。 (二)本课程的基本要求 本课程共分为本书共分四编,计十三章。第一编(一至二章)介绍了语言和语言学;第二编(三至八章)介绍了语言学的主要分支—语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学;第三编(九至十二章)为跨学科领域与应用—话语分析、社会语言学、心理语言学,以及语言学理论与外语教学;第四编(十三章)介绍了现代语言学流派。通过对本书的学习,要求应考者对英语语言学有一个全面和正确的了解。具体应达到以下要求: 1、掌握语言的性质、功能,以及语言学的研究范围、语言学的分支和重要的语言学概念; 2、掌握语言系统内部语言学各分支之间的关系和各分支的重要概念和基本理论; 3、了解语言学在其它学科领域的应用; 4、熟悉现代语言学重要的流派及其代表人物。 (三)本课程与相关课程的联系 英语语言学概论是一门基础理论课程,其含盖范围很广,既涉及语言系统内部的语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学,又涉及许多交叉学科,如话语分析、社会语言学、心理语言学、应用语用学(包括语言学理论与外语教学),以及本教程未涉及的神经认知语言学、计算机语言学、人工智能与机器翻译等。语言学的进一步研究甚至会涉及到哲学、逻辑学等领域。 在自考课程中,词汇学与语言学关系最为密切,词汇学的许多概念、理论和研究方法都来源于语言学。高级英语、泛读(三)、写作、翻译等课程则是学好语言学的基础。文学与语言学并非对立的关系,这两个领域的研究方法可以互相补充、互相借鉴,日后无论从事语言学还是文学研究,这两个领域都必须同时涉猎。 二、课程内容与考核目标

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