跨文化交际学的课堂笔记
I. Culture and Intercultural Communication
Culture:
●Culture may be defined as what a society does and thinks. (Sapir, 1921)
●Culture refers to the total way of life of particular groups of people. It includes everything
that a group of people thinks, says, does, and makes. (R. Kohls, 1979)
●Culture is a learned set of shared interpretations about beliefs, values, and norms, which
affect the behavior of a relatively large group of people.文化是习得的一套关于信仰、价值观、规范的公认的解释，这些信仰、价值观、规范对相当大人类群体的行为产生影响。
The Characteristics of Culture:
1.Culture is not innate; it is learned;
2.Culture is transmissible from person to person, group to group, and generation to
generation;
3.Culture is a dynamic system that changes continuously over time;
4.Culture is selective; (every culture represents a limited choice of behavior patterns)
5.Culture is composed of interrelated facets;
6.Culture is ethnocentric (centeredness on one’s own group).
The American sociolinguist D. Hymes pointed out that people with communicative competence should know when, where and what to speak to whom and how.
Models of communication
Theoretically, the model of communication is always described in the following way:
Communication is exchanging information in the form of messages, symbols, thoughts, signs and opinions.
The Ingredients of Culture
●Language;
●Religion;
●Values and attitudes;
●Education;
●Social organization;
●Technology and material culture;
●Politics;
●Law
Intercultural Communication (IC)
●In its most general sense, IC refers to those occasions when a member of one
culture produces a message for consumption by a member of another culture. (p70, Samovar & Porter)
●More precisely, IC refers to communication between people whose culture
perceptions and symbol systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event.(p70, Samovar & Porter)跨文化交际: 指拥有不同文化认知和符号体系的人们之间进行的交际。
胡文仲：具有不同文化背景的人从事交际的过程就是跨文化交际。
Time orientation: (Hall, 1976):
美国人类学家霍尔（Edward Hall）在《超越文化》（Beyond Culture）一书中首次区分了两种不同的时间观念,即“单向计时制”（monochronic time）和“多向计时制”（polychronic time).
1.Monochronic Time (M-Time)
It schedules one event at a time. In these cultures time is perceived as a linear structure just like a ribbon stretching from the past into the future. e.g. American People
1.1 单向计时制重视日程安排、阶段时间和准时;
1.2 认为“时间是线性的、可分割的，就像一条道路或带子向前伸展到未来，向后延伸到过去”。
1.3 认为同时做两件事几乎有点不道德;
1.4 持有这种时间取向的英美人士把时间看成具体实在（tangible）的东西, 可以节省（save）、花费（spend）、赚得（earn）、浪费（waste）、失去（lose）、弥补（make up）、计量(measure）、甚至当成商品一样买卖（buy, sell）和拥有（have）。
美国人特别强调把时间分割成不同的时段来安排活动,强调守时, 严格按照日程一次做一件事情（do one thing at a time）.
2.Polychronic Time (P-Time)
2.1 P-time schedules several activities at the same time. It is flexible and more humanistic.
2.2 People from P-time system emphasize the involvement of people more than schedules. They do not see appointments as ironclad commitments and often break them.
e.g. Chinese, Latin American, Arab and most Asian cultures
Negative impacts in IC:
1.Ethnocentrism
2.Anxiety and Uncertainty
3.Stereotypes
4.Prejudice
5.Discrimination & Racism
1.Ethnocentrism
If people believe that their culture is the only true culture, they will discriminate against people who manifest cultural norms that fail to correspond to their values and behaviors.
2. Anxiety and Uncertainty
2.1 Anxiety refers to the feeling of being uneasy, tense, worried, or apprehensive about what might happy.
2.2 Uncertainty refers to our inability to predict or explain others’ behavior, feelings, attitudes, behavior, or values.
Our ability to communicate effectively is based, at least in part, on our ability to manage our anxiety and uncertainty.
Anxiety and Uncertainty Management (AUM)Theory (Gudykunst, 1995)：
AUM management theory suggests that effective interpersonal and intergroup communication is a function of how individuals manage the anxiety and uncertainty they experience when communicating
with others.
3. Stereotypes
3.1 Stereotypes are a form of generalization about some group of people, or a means of organizing images into fixed and simple categories that are used to stand for the entire collection of people. (Walter Lippmann)
3.2 Human beings have a psychological need to categorize and classify.
4.Prejudice
It refers to negative attitudes towards other people that are based on faulty and inflexible stereotypes.It is an unfair, biased, or intolerant attitude towards another group of people. ( Lusting & Koester)
5.Discrimination
It refers to the behavioral manifestations of the prejudice, it can be thought of as prejudice “in action”. ( Lusting & Koester)
Racism
The belief that race accounts for differences in human character or ability and that a particular race is superior to others.
Ethnocentrism:
If people believe that their culture is the only true culture, they will discriminate against people who manifest cultural norms that fail to correspond to their values and behaviors.
Individualism and Collectivism
Individualism-collectivism is the major dimension of cultural variability used to explain cross-cultural differences and similarities in communication across culture.
Individualistic Culture
(liberalism):
individuals tend to define themselves by the extent to which they are different from, rather than similar to others. People are encouraged to display self- confidence and assertiveness, disclosure of personal thoughts and feelings.
Collectivistic culture
(Confucianism):
places little value on individual identity and great value on group identity. Going
one's own way is not valued; uniformity and conformity are stressed.
1.Individualism
Individuals tend to define themselves by the extent to which they are different from，rather than similar to others. People are encouraged to display self-confidence and assertiveness, disclosure of personal thoughts and feelings.
Individualistic cultures: Australia, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, U.K., Ireland, Isreal, Italy, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, Sweden, Switerland，U.S.A.
2. Collectivism
Collectivist cultures place little value on individual identity and great value on group identity. They have been labeled as “we” cultures because basic unit is the in-group or collective.
Collectivistic cultures: Brazil, China, Colombia, Egypt, Greece, India, Japan, Kenya, Korea, Mexico, Nigeria, Pakistan, Peru, Saudi Arabia, Thailand, Venezuela, Vietnam.
Individualism-collectivism is expected to affect communication mainly through : ?Influence on group identities;
?Differentiation between ingroup and outgroup communication.
?Both individualism and collectivism exist in all cultures;
?Self-orientation involves the “pursuit of private interests”;
?Collectivity orientation involves the “pursuit of the common interests of the collectivity”.
Comparing major characteristics:
Individualistic culture:
●Emphasis on individual’s goals, self-realization;
●Little differences between ingroup and outgroup communication;
●Independent self construal --- “I”identity;
●Low-context communication which is direct, precise, and absolute.
Collectivistic culture:
●Emphasis on ingroup’s goals---fitting into the ingroup;
●Large differences between ingroup and outgroup communication;
●Interdependent self construal---“we”identity;
●High-context communication which is indirect, imprecise, and probabilistic.
High-context communication:
Most of the information is either in the physical context or internalized in the person, while very little is in the code, explicit, transmitted part of the message(indirect, ambiguous and understated(轻描淡写) --- collectivistic cultures).
Low-context communication:
The mass of information is given in the explicit code (direct, explicit, open, precise, and consistent with one’s feelings --- individualistic cultures).
II. Cross-gender communication
The closer you are to someone, and the longer you have been close, the more you have to lose when you open your mouth. --- Deborah Tannen
Why so?
1.We don’t realize that communication is inherently ambiguous;
2. Conversational styles differ;
3. We expect to be understood if there is love… .
Gender-based communication styles:
1.rapport --- report
2.connection --- status
3. problems --- solutions
4. listening --- lecturing
5. Intimacy --- independence
6. relationship --- information
7. Inclusive --- exclusive
8. novice --- expert
9. community --- contest
Humans are born with different biological sexes, and their culture helps them to be educated into different genders through the process of socialization.
Gendered women and men are considered two different branches of subculture. In this sense, cross-gender communication is a kind of cross-culture communication.
Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love:
?There are eight types of intimate relationships;
?Intimate relationships could be analyzed by examining three components:
1.Intimacy --- feelings of closeness, sharing, communication, and support;
2.Passion --- intense desire to be united with the loved one;
https://www.doczj.com/doc/e710969271.html,mitment --- both the short-term decision to love another and the longer term
commitment to maintain it.
Brown and Levinson’s notion of politeness strategies:
The face-saving view of politeness drives from Brown and Levinson (1978), and it would be no exaggeration to say that it has been most influential in providing a paradigm for linguistic politeness which goes beyond a mere extension of the Gricean maxims (CP: 数量、质量、关系、方式). --- Richard J. Watts
Brown and Levinson’s negative and positive politeness strategies:
积极礼貌的核心：
寻找共同点，表达赞成和赞美，保持亲密关系。
消极礼貌的核心：
用于适当增加距离，表达尊重和给予自由，减少冲突，使交流得以顺利进行。Functions of Brown and Levinson’s negative and positive politeness strategies:有意识地应用礼貌策略，可以在充分发挥亲密关系作用的同时，适当调整距离，减少存在于亲密关系基础中阻碍交流的障碍，提高交流的质量。
Mark Twain once said, “I can live for two months on a good compliment.”… Many couples have never learned the tremendous power of verbally affirming each other. Solomon further noted, “An anxious heart weighs a man down, but a kind word cheers him up. --- Gary Chapman
Some of the Positive politeness strategies:
1.Offering Compliments ;
https://www.doczj.com/doc/e710969271.html,ing in-group identity markers;
3.Seeking agreement;
4.Avoiding disagreement;
5.Telling jokes;
6.Implying knowledge of Hearer’s wants and willingness to fit the wants;
7.Offering promises;
8.Being optimistic;
9.Including both sides in the activity;
10.Giving or asking for reasons;
11.Assuming reciprocity;
12.Giving gifts (goods, sympathy, understanding, cooperation);
Arthur Schopenhauer’s “Hedgehog’s Dilemma”:
Men and women are like hedgehogs coming together for warmth in winter. They will hurt each other if they are too close, but they will feel cold if too far.
Some of the Negative politeness strategies:
1.Asking questions (indirect request);
2.Being pessimistic;
3.Minimizing the imposition by using “just, only, a little…”;
4.Giving deferene;
5.Apologizing;
6.Impersonalizing the Speaker and the Hearer.
III. Culture Shock(文化休克）
Troublesome feelings such as depression, loneliness, confusion, inadequacy, hostility, frustration, and tension, caused by the loss of familiar cues from the home culture. (Linell
Davis).
● A common experience of people who have been suddenly transplanted abroad.
(Xu Lisheng).
●'Culture shock' is used to describe the emotional rollercoaster that someone experiences
when living in a new country. Anyone that has worked and lived in a foreign country will experience culture shock of some sort.
Culture shock is caused by the anxiety that results from losing all our familiar signs and symbols or social contact.
Physical and psychological symptoms of culture shock:
Feelings of estrangement, anger, hostility, indecision, frustration, unhappiness,
sadness, loneliness, homesickness, even physical illness: absent-minded stare, a feeling of helplessness, a desire for dependence on long-term residents of one’s own nationality, headaches, stomachaches, dizziness, excessive sleepiness…;
Views his/her new world out of resentment: being angry at others for not
understanding him/her, or filled with self-pity.
Stage 1 – Excitement ('honeymoon' period)
◆The individual experiences a holiday or 'honeymoon' period with their new
surroundings.
◆They:
. Feel very positive about the culture
. Are overwhelmed with impressions
. Find the new culture exotic and are fascinated
. Are passive, meaning they have little experience of the culture
Stage 2 - Withdrawal
The individual now has some more face to face experience of the culture and starts to find things different, strange and frustrating.
They:
. Find the behaviour of the people unusual and unpredictable
. Begin to dislike the culture and react negatively to the behaviour
. Feel anxious
. Start to withdraw
. Begin to criticize, mock or show animosity to the people
Stage 3 - Adjustment
The individual now has a routine, feels more settled and is more confident in dealing with the new culture.
They:
?Understand and accept the behaviour of the people
?Feel less isolated
?Regains their sense of humor
Stage 4:
The individual now feels “at home”.
They:
?Enjoy being in the culture;
?Functions well in the culture;
?Prefer certain cultural traits of the new culture rather than their own;
?Adopt certain behaviours from the new culture.
Experts agree that culture shock has stages and all agree that once people get beyond the initial and most difficult stages, life in a new country becomes a lot better.
IV. Self-concept
Those who know and know that they know ( follow them)
Those who know but don't know that they know (enlighten them)
Those who don't know and know they don't know (guide them)
Those who don't know and don't know they don't know (avoid them)
1. Define Self-concept
西方最早比较系统地研究自我概念的心理学家是威廉·詹姆士（James W 1890）。他指出自我具有二元性, 即存在两类自我:主我( I) 与客我(Me) 。“主我”是知者( Knower) , 是自我中积极的知觉、思考的部分, “客我”是自我中被注意、思考或知觉的客体, 后者就是自我概念。在他看来, 主我积极地建构着客我。
Cooley提出了“镜中自我”概念。在他看来, 自我是与别人面对面互动的产物。别人好像一面镜子, 一个人的自我意识是他从别人的心里看到别人怎么看他。个人想象他人对自己的看法, 并把这些看法内化, 然后整合成自我意识。
约瑟夫认为，自我概念就是“你对自己是谁的印象。它是你如何理解你对自己的优势、弱点、能力、局限的感觉和想法。它的发展来自别人对你持有和表露出来的印象、你在自己和别人之间所进行的比较、你在种族、民族、性别、和性别角色等方面获得的文化经验以及你对自己的想法和行为的评估”
自我概念就是人们对自己是谁和是什么的全部态度及信仰的总集合，是人们内心对自己所保有的比较稳定的画像。
自我概念是个体对自己看法的总和, 一旦获得了这种对自己的知觉, 个体就倾向于以与这种感觉相一致的方式行动。
2. Develop self-awareness
Self Awareness is having a clear perception of your personality, including strengths, weaknesses, thoughts, beliefs, motivation, and emotions. It also allows you to understand other people, how they perceive you, your attitude and your responses to them in the moment.
Self awareness is the first step in creating what you want and mastering your future. Where you focus your attention, your emotions, reactions, personality and behavior determine where you go in life.
审视Johari Window中的四个自我(开放的自我、盲目的自我、隐藏的自我、不为人知的自我)对提升自我意识，进而增强交流的能力很有帮助:
2.1 每个人都要认识到有几个不同的自我存在。
2.2 增加开放的自我，可以减少盲目和隐藏的自我，这样，自我意识会得到增加。
2.3 学会同自己对话，诚实地不断检查自己，直面隐藏的自我，避免产生不真实的自我概念。
Self-identity is the awareness of one's unique identity.
Self concept is the mental image or the way that one perceives oneself.
Self identity (自我认同，自我同一性) is when one is aware of and can identify with oneself as a separate and (unique) individual. It states who I am and what I stand for, and what I am committed to whether it be a job or my role in life.
V. Intercultural Non-verbal Communication
Verbal intercultural communications happens when people from different cultural backgrounds communicate with each other by using language.当来自不同文化背景的人们用语言进行交流时言语交际就发生了。
Paralanguage(副语言)refers to the rate ,pitch and volume qualities of the voice,which interrupt or temporarily take the place of speech and affect the meaning of a message是与口语交际有关，指说的速度，音高，和质量，这些要素会打断或临时取代语言并影响信息的语意表达.
时间行为：Chronemics is the study of how people perceive and use time.是指研究人们如何看待和使用时间。
时空行为：proxemics refers to the perception and use of space including territoriality and personal space.指对空间的认知和使用时空进行沟通，包括地盘性和个人空间。
目光语：The study of communications sent by the eyes is termed oculesics.研究目光传递的交流信息。
气味行为Olfactics：The study of communication via smell is called Olfactics对通过味道进行交流的研究。
触觉行为Haptics:refers to communicating through the use of bodily context .通过身体接触来进行交流。
身势语行为Kinesics：is the term used for communicating through various types of body movements including facial expressions, gestures, posture and stance ,and other mannerisms that may accompany or replace oral messages.
指交际时所使用的不同类型的动作，包括表情，手势，姿势，和其他代替语言传达信息的行为举止。
色彩学Chromatics: r efers to the study of color use in affecting people’s mood,emotions,and impression of others.指影响你的情绪，情感和对他人的印象的颜色的研究。
移情Empathy: being able to see and feel things from other people’s points of view能够以他人的观点看待和感受事情。
非语言交际与语言交际在五个方面存在区别：
首先，语言交际遵循语法规则，具有严谨的结构，而非语言交际却没有正式的规则和模式，没有固定的结构，非语言交际行为往往需要综合分析周围的情况才能确定。
第二，语言交际使用特定的符号，而非语言交际却没有一套具有明确意义的符号。
第三，语言交际在讲话的时候进行，在停止讲话的时候中断，时断时停，是非连续性的。非语言交际是连续不断的。
第四，语言是后天习得的，而不是生而知之。非语言交际的手段一部分是人类的本能，有些是后天习得的。
最后，从神经生理学的角度看，在从事语言交际时大脑的左半球在进行工作，负责处理语言刺激，作信息分析和推理。而非语言交际由大脑右半球处理。
非语言交际通常与语言交际结合进行，在不同的情况下起着不同的作用，大致上起补充、否定、重复、调节、替代或强调的作用。一般来说，在语言交际和非语言交际传达的信息冲突时，人们倾向于相信后者。
眼神
女性比男性更多地注视对方，因为妇女比男人更重视人际关系，更重视人们之间的感情交流。眼神还对话轮转换起调节的作用。
手势
同一手势在不同的文化中却可以表示并不相同的意义。即使在同一民族中，由于地区习俗的不同，同一手势也可能会具有不同意义。有些手势是某一文化所特有的，也有跨越文化的手势。
身势
总的来说，南欧、中东、拉丁美洲地区的人们讲话时动作较多，动作幅度也很大；北欧、英美人动作较少，幅度也较小。中国、日本、朝鲜人也属于动作较少、幅度较小这一类。上课坐姿，中国强调集体、纪律、合作，美国强调个人、自由、发展自我，无拘无束的自由讨论。姿势与地位的高低有一定的联系。姿势与性别也有着密切的关系。
服饰
三项功能：舒适、保护遮盖与文化真是。它作为文化标志的作用愈来愈大。
在现代社会中，衣着象征身份地位，或表明职业。场合与服装的要求有着密切的关系。
触摸
触摸分为五类：功能、社交、友爱、情爱、情欲。
文化可划分为“接触性文化”（气候暖和的国家）与“低接触文化”（气候寒冷的国家）。英美人对于身体接触十分敏感，通常都极力避免。泰国孩子的头绝对不能抚摸。西方国家，拥抱是一种礼仪，接吻也只是面颊触碰一下。中国教师在美国感到最难适应的是体触、接吻、拥抱。
Intercultural
Non-verbal Communication
●There is no 'international language' of gestures. Instead, cultures have developed
systems of unique gestures;
●It is almost never possible for us to understand intuitively the gestures from another
culture.
Nonverbal codes refer to communicative messages which are not in word form.
More than 55% messages are communicated nonverbally!
非言语交际包括在交际中认为的和环境产生的对于传播者或受传者含有潜在信息的所有刺激，简单地说就是”不用语言的交际”，被称作”无声的语言”。非语言交际在人类交际中非常重要。因为它最能反映一个人的情感或情绪状态。
它指一个人（或多个人）不利用言语形式或只利用副语言形式所传达的信息被另一个人（或多个人）接收的交际行为。
Overview of Nonverbal Communication
1.Body Language
?General appearance and dress
?Gestures
?Eye contact
?Facial expression
?Posture
?Touching
2. Paralanguage
?Silence
?Pitch
?Volumn
3.Environment Language
?Space
?Time
毕继万认为非语言交际可分为：
●体态语（body language，包括各种表情、动作、姿态）
●副语言（paralanguage，包括沉默与非语义声音）
●客体语（object language，包括皮肤颜色、气味、衣着化妆、家具等）
●环境语言（environmental language，包括时间，空间、颜色、城市规划以及人对自
然的影响等，即影响生理与心理的环境因素）。
Paralanguage (伴随语言)
●It refers to voice characteristics and vocal qualities.
●Paralinguistics is the study of such non-semantic aspects of speech as tone, volume, pitch
and tempo, pause and the like which are together with verbal information.
●Our voice may be one of the most informative elements in building up our images.
(1) Pitch(音高)
?Pitch decides hesitation or emphasis.
?When one is excited, his/her voice would be high in pitch, quick in rate, and there will be no pauses between sentences;
?When one is sad or depressed, his/her voice traits would surely be the opposite. (2) Volume Control
?The English always speak in lower voice than Chinese when they make speech or a
lecture, or talking with each other, or phoning. But Chinese often speak in loud voice in the aforesaid occasions.
?Americans are more skilled in regulating their voice volume and use very many different volume levels depending on the size of the audience and the physical environment.
(3) Silence
?Silence can be longer between friends or intimates than the strangers who have to converse.
?Chinese pay more attention to the function of silence in the talking, and think that the pauses and silence have rich meanings.
?Silence may have many possible meanings: agreement--disagreement, thoughtful--ignorance, consideration--inconsideration, secrecy, coldness, submission, boredom etc..
Environment Language
(1) Space
a. Territoriality（领域性）
b. Personal Space
North Americans’ distance habit
●0~50cm: intimate lovers and family members
●>50~120cm: friends (personal distance)
●>120~270cm: acquaintances (social distance)
●>270cm: public space, not belong to oneself
●Behind: strangers speaking from behind are
allowed to stand much more nearer.
VI．Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions
1.Individualism vs. Collectivism
2.Masculinity vs. Femininity
3.Uncertainty Avoidance
4.Long Term Orientation
5.Power Distance
1.Individualism vs. Collectivism
Individualist societies: ties are loose and everyone looks out for himself or herself
Collectivist societies: people integrated into strong, cohesive groups; protection is exchanged for loyalty
2.Masculinity vs. Femininity
Masculine societies: social gender roles are distinct (men focus on material success; women on quality of life)
Feminine societies: social gender roles overlap (both quality of life)
3.Uncertainty Avoidance
“…the extent to which the members of a culture feel threatened by uncertain or
unknown situations.”
4. Long term orientation ：Confucian Dynamism（推动）
?The ‘newest’ dimension
?Truth vs. Virtue: What one believes vs. What one does
5. Power Distance Index权利距离指数(PDI)
The extent to which the less powerful members of organizations and institutions accept and expect that power is distributed unequally.用来表示人们对组织中权力分配不平等状况的接受程度。权力距离有大小之分，它的大小可以用指数PDI（power distance index）来表示。
可根据上级决策的方式（民主还是专制)、上下级发生冲突时下级的恐惧心理等因素来确定权力距离指数的概念。
Features of PDI：
High power distance culture：
◆It’s acceptable for a supervisor to display his authority;
◆Superiors rarely give their subordinates important work;
◆If something goes wrong, the subordinates are usually blamed for not doing their proper
job;
◆Managers rarely interact or socialize with worker;
◆Teachers are treated respectfully;
◆Local politics are prone to totalitarianism; Revolutions are , were common
Low power distance culture：
◆Supervisors are expected to treat employees respectfully;
◆Subordinates may do important work, thus having the chance to get promoted quickly;
◆If something goes wrong, the superior is usually blamed by giving unrealistic
expectations or being too strict
◆Managers socialize and interact with workers more often;
◆Teachers are simply employees;
◆Totalitarianism and revolutions are rare.
参考书目
←Larry Samovar, Communication Between Cultures
←胡文仲《跨文化交际学概论》
←许力生《跨文化交际英语教程》
←贾玉新《跨文化交际学》
←邓炎昌、刘润清《语言与文化---英汉语言文化对比》
精品文档 Culture: Culture is the total accumulation of beliefs, customs, values, behaviors, down and passed are shared, learned institutions and communication patterns that through the generations in an identifiable group of people. law, food, etiquette, religion, literature, language, Objective Culture: history, and customs. are and how they feelings and attitudes about how things Subjective Culture: communication family, spaces, friendship, love, concept should be –the of time, pattern, etc. Learned, transmitted from generation to generation, based on ： Characteristics symbols, dynamic, ethnocentric. It is meant to be a contrast to learning “about”culture underscores Doing Culture: of meaning, process of making communicating across cultures is a the idea that build another, know one so they can get to another people understanding one relationships, and solve problems together. It should not be words on paper, but ideas in practice. individuals which process through Communication: Human communication is the respond to and create messages ––in relationships, groups, organizations and societies to adapt to the environment and one another. Dynamic and interactive Characteristics:interaction between : Communication Generally speaking, it refers to Intercultural people from different cultural backgrounds, such as interactions between people from Hispanic and whites and African Americans, between America and China, between Japanese Americans The form of Intercultural Communication people from different races a. Interracial communication – different but of the same race Interethnic communications –the parties are of b. ethnic origins. same the between members of c. Intercultural communication –communication multiple or hold dual or both of the participants one culture, in which ）（gay, disabled, Mexican American, African American, or https://www.doczj.com/doc/e710969271.html,munication Competence (ICC competence) how much one know about communication. The cognitive component –The affective component –one's motivation to
考试需知：考试前每一列学生把课本放在第一排。考试时间为2．5个小时，试卷1为闭卷考试，前面40分钟用于完成试卷1。待老师收上试卷1后，发下课本，学生做试卷2，试卷2 为开卷考试。可携带纸质词典进考场，不许携带电子词典及手机进考场。 Test Paper 1 Ⅰ. Filling the blanks: 1.Generally speaking, in terms of contextuality, the communication in the West is low-contextual while that in the East is high-contextual 2.Generally speaking, in terms of world views, the West adopts Dualistic view, while the East adopt s holistic view 3.Generally speaking, in terms of thought patterns, the West follows Analytic and abstract thinking, while the East follows synthetic and concrete thinking 4.Generally speaking, in terms of discourse patterns, the West uses Deductive pattern, while the East uses inductive pattern 5In the Axial Age, the great thinkers in China are Confucius,
关于跨文化管理课程的思考 邵大理 1关于跨文化管理本身的思考 通过对跨文化管理相关理论和知识的学习，发现要深入探讨跨文化管理的本质，首先应该明确所谓跨文化的含义。狭义的文化定义是指人类精神活动所创造的成果，如哲学、宗教、科学、文学、艺术、道德、风俗、信仰、价值观等。我所理解的文化是每个民族为了适应不确定的环境而长期积淀下来的一种相对稳定的价值结构，是一种试图以不变应对变化的努力。民族独特性和相对较长期的稳定性是文化的基本特征。我认为不同民族的文化之间存在着巨大的鸿沟，因此是难以“跨越”的，也是难以短时间进行所谓的“融合”。 文化所具有的差异性更多只能在学者的课题中进行着比较性质的研究。对各种文化的研究和学习，也只能够更好的认识不同文化的差异性以及增强对本民族的文化自觉性。而这种学习能否提高文化的相互尊重程度，进而进行文化“融合”，效果是值得怀疑的。其实由于亚文化现象的存在，每个民族内部之间同样存在着差异性。比如中国的疆域辽阔，地域文化也千差万别。即使同为汉族，东北地区、江南地区、广东地区的文化差异性非常显著，更不用说本身具有独特地域文化的西北、西南等少数民族地区。因此文化的多元化在任何时候、任何区域、任何组织都是客观存在的。即使是国内企业，不论是国企民企，都由大量不同性格、不同文化文化背景的员工组成，管理中同样需要应用跨文化管理的相关理论和知识，应当注意从文化角度进行认知、沟通和管理。 跨文化管理知识并不仅仅只由于管理国际企业的需要而存在，而是普遍存在于各类企业和组织当中，这就提示我们跨文化管理的本质在于管理而不是跨文化。因此，现有跨文化管理的问题实质上都是管理问题，那些尝试国际化的企业在遭遇到所谓水土不服的状况时，往往把这一切归结为跨文化问题，但事实上他们更应该在自身最根本的管理问题上寻找原因。 解决目前企业管理中文化差异问题的主要方法并不是简单进行所谓的“文化融合”，因为这不是短期内可以解决的，实际上也缺少可操作性。跨文化管理中
跨文化交际学概论笔记 第一章跨文化交际 一、什么是跨文化交际——具有不同文化背景的人从事交际的过程跨文化交际之所以在今天日益引起人们的注意，主要原因是由于交通工具的进步与通讯手段的发展，使得不同国家、不同种族、不同民族的人能够频繁地接触和交往。L.S.Harms 认为，在世界范围内的交际经历了五个阶段：语言的产生；文字的使用；印刷技术的发明；近百年交通工具的进步和通讯手段的迅速发展；跨文化交际。近二十年来的交际是以跨文化为特征的。 二、第二章跨文化交际学 跨文化交际学在美国Intercultural Communication (与人类学、心理学、传播学关系密切) 1.首先在美国兴起。美国有来自各个国家的移民，有各自的文化系统和风俗习惯，逐渐在美国社会形成了多元文化的格局；美国与各国交往频繁。 2.Edwar Hall 《无声的语言》跨文化交际学的奠基之作。认为不同文化背景的人们在使用时间、空间表达意义方面表现出明显的差异。（对时间、空间、交际的关系作了深入探讨） 3.1970 年是具有重要意义的一年在这一年，国际传播学会承认跨文化交际学是传播学的一个分支，成立了跨文化交际学分会。1972 年，第一届跨文化交际学国际会议，日本东京。 第四章交际 一、交际与传播 这两词来源于同一英语communication表示的是同一个概念，不同学科背景的人采用不同术语。有语言学背景的学者大多使用“交际”，从事传播学教学和研究的学者都采用“传播”。 三、传播的种类 传播可分为人类传播和非人类传播；人类传播又可分为社会传播和非社会传播。非社会传播指内向传播（自我传播），社会传播包括人际传播，组织传播，大众传播。 内向传播（intarpersonal communication)只一个人自己脑子里在自我交流活动或是自言自语 人际传播（interpersonal communication)两个人或以上的信息传受过程。如交谈，书信，小组讨论，大会演讲等。 组织传播（organizational communication)在学校,公司，工厂，机关，军队，党派，群众团体等内部的传播，不都是自上而下的，可具有不同模式，纵式或横式，要注意因文化差异造成的传播不通的局面。 大众传播（mass communication)职业化的传播机构利用机械化，电子化的技术手段向不特定的多数人传送信息的行为或过程，如报刊杂志，广播电视，因特网信息等。 第四章语言交际 一、语言与文化密不可分 （语言反映一个民族的文化，同时有受到文化的巨大影响。）语言与文化有着密切的关系。由于语言的产生和发展，人类文化才得以产生和传承。不存在没有语言的文化，也不存在没有文化的语言。广义的文化包括语言，同时文化又无时无刻不在影响语言，使语言为了适应文化发展变化的需要而变得更加精确和缜密。语言既是文化的载体，又是文化的写照。 E.g.①亲属称谓是语言反映文化的一个突出例证。汉族不仅注重长幼顺序,而且对于是父系、母系或婚系亦十分重视。古人有强烈的传宗接代的观念，按血缘远近区别亲疏,家族里又有内外嫡庶之别。——后来亲属称谓的简化，意味着家族关系在社会生活中不占那么重要的地位。在我国个别地区的亲属称谓中，只有男性称谓，没有女性称谓，可能是古代父系社会的
跨文化交际(胡超版)期末试题
Test Paper Ⅰ. Filling the blanks: 1.G enerally speaking, in terms of contextuality, the communication in the West is low-contextual while that in the East is high-contextual 2.G enerally speaking, in terms of world views, the We st adopts Dualistic view, while the East adopts holistic view 3.G enerally speaking, in terms of thought patterns, the West follows Analytic and abstract thinking, while the East follows synthetic and concrete thinking 4.Generally speaking, in terms of discourse patterns, the West uses Deductive pattern, while the East uses inductive pattern 5In the Axial Age, the great thinkers in China are Confucius, Lao Tze, Mo Tze, and the great thinker in India is Siddhartha Gautama, the great figure in Palestine are Hebrew prophets, and the great thinkers in the West are Plato, Homer and Archimedes Ⅱ. Choose the best answer: 1.Non-verbal messages are classified into two comprehensive categories: those that are primarily produced by the body, such as_________,________,_______; and those that the individual combines with the setting, such as _______, _______, _______.D A.physical contact, eye contact, paralanguage; space, time, man B.facial expression, touch, taste; space, time, silence C.appearance, movement, gesture; surrounding, occasion, man D.movement, smell, paralanguage; space, time, silence 2.In Chinese writing, there are usually more adjectives, proverbs and allusions than in English writing. Some Western scholars name this style “flowery”, stating that its aim is to give a more fanciful impression than information, and the information is usually of beauty, fragrance, happiness, and any other “goodness”aspects so as to attract people. We may term this style as_______-oriented. Western writing is more direct with objective inform ation. To them, much-repeated words may mean less after a while. We may term the Western writing as ________-oriented.C A. adjective, objective B. Chinese, Western C. impression, information C. indirect, direct 3. As to the human nature orientation, the traditional Western belief holds that _______, while the Asian people believe that_______.B A. basically good; basically bad B. evil but perfectible, basically good C. the mixture of good and evil; the mixture of good and evil; D. unknown 4. As to the Man-Nature orientation, the traditional Western belief holds that _______, while the Asian people believe that_______.D A. subjugation to nature; harmony with nature B. harmony with nature; mastery over nature
International management is the process of developing strategies, designing and operating systems, and working with people around the world to ensure sustained competitive advantages. Regional Trading Blocs The dominance of the United States is already over. What is emerging is a world economy of blocs represented by the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), the EU, and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). Much of today’s world trade takes place within three regional free-trade blocs (Western Europe, Asia and the Americans) Much of today’s world trade are grouped around three dominant currencies: euro, yen, and the dollar. Social Responsibility includes the expectation that corporations concern themselves with the social and economic effects of their decisions. The two extreme opinions related to social responsibility – Domestic firms One extreme – the only responsibility of a business is to make a profit. Another extreme – companies should anticipate and try to solve problems in society. General guidelines for code of morality and ethics in individual countries Moral Universalism: address the need for a moral standard that is accepted by all cultures. Ethnocentric approach: Apply the morality used in its home country. Ethical relativism: adopt the local moral code of whatever country in which it is operating. Culture of a society comprises the shared values, understandings, assumptions, and goals that are learned from earlier generations, imposed by present members of a society, and passed on to succeeding generation. Project GLOBE Cultural Dimensions
第一部分绪论：跨文化交际与跨文化交际学 第一章跨文化交际 一、什么是跨文化交际——具有不同文化背景的人从事交际的过程。 跨文化交际日益引起人们的注意的原因：是由于交通工具的进步与通讯手段的发展使得不同国家、不同种族、不同民族的人能够频繁地接触和交往。 认为，在世界范围内的交际经历了五个阶段： A语言的产生； B文字的使用； C印刷技术的发明； D近百年交通工具的进步和通讯手段的迅速发展； E跨文化交际。 近二十年来的交际是以跨文化为特征的。 二、对跨文化交际的不同理解 有的人认为每个人在文化上都是独特的，所以任何两个人之间的交际都是跨文化交际。 文化通常不是指个人的行为，而是指一个群体的生活方式和习惯。作者认为作跨国、跨种族、跨民族研究不仅应该是跨文化交际研究包括的内容，而且应该是放在首位的。 在研究一个国家的文化特点时，我们的眼光首先应集中在它的主流文化上，其次才注意它的亚文化和地区文化的特点。 主流文化亚文化地区文化小群体文化 （不同年龄、职业、性别群体的文化） 第二章跨文化交际学 一、跨文化交际学在美国 Intercultural Communication 与人类学、心理学、传播学关系密切。 首先在美国兴起。美国有来自各个国家的移民，有各自的文化系统和风俗习惯，逐渐在美国社会形成了多元文化的格局；美国与各国交往频繁。 Edwar Hall的《无声的语言》跨文化交际学的奠基之作。（对时间、空间、交际的关系作了深入探讨）1972年，第一届跨文化交际学国际会议在日本东京举行。 70年代，影响最大的书籍：《跨文化交际学选读》 跨文化交际学内容： (1) Richard Porter 8态度、社会组织、思维模式、角色规定、语言、空间的组织与利用、时间观念、非语言表达 (2) Porter. Samovar 3 观点（价值观、世界观、社会组织）、语言过程（语言、思维模式）、非语言过程（非语言行 为、时间观念、对于空间的使用） (3) 心理学家Michael Argyle 6 语言、非语言交际、社会行为准则、家庭和同事的关系、做事的动力和动机、思想观念 二、跨文化交际学在欧洲（与语言学关系密切） 国际跨文化教育训练与研究学会SIETAR International Jenny Thomas 《跨文化语用失误》：语用—语言失误；社交—语用失误。不绝对，因为语境可能不同。
《跨文化交际学概论》读书报告
《跨文化交际学概论》是胡文仲教授于1998在北京编写的。 胡文仲,1935 年生于天津，祖籍江苏。北京外国语大学教授，博导，《外国文学》主编。曾任北京外国语大学副校长，高校外语专业教材编审委员会副主任、主任；高校外语专业教学指导委员会主任；欧美同学会副会长；国务院学位委员会外文学科组成员。现任中国英语教学研究会会长；中国跨文化交际研究会会长；中国高校英语口语协会会长。由于长期从事英语教学和研究、跨文化交际研究和澳大利亚文学研究，他共出版了专著6部，教材4部，编著10部，译著5部，在国内外发表论文数十篇，并一直享有盛名。 早在80年代初期胡文仲就开始对跨文化交际学感兴趣，在国外的生活学习使他更加明白了学习英语国家文化习俗的重要性。回国后他也多次在杂志上发表过一些有关中西文化差异的文章，但随着更多的学习和研究，胡文仲发现目前我国的研究一般性的探讨较多，而基于大量数据研究比较少，他认为跨文化交际学的研究不应仅限于研究不同文化背景的人们在语际方面遇到的问题，还可以从心理学、人类学、社会学等不同的角度进行。因此，他开始编写《跨文化交际学概论》这本书，目的是通过理论和实例能够帮助不同层次的读者普及跨文化知识和理论，作为他们研究跨文化交际学的入门向导。 首先，对本书进行简单的概括介绍。《跨文化交际学概论》这本书共有十二章，被作者概括为五大部分。第一部分（第一章至第二章）主要是为跨文化交际进行定义及对跨文化研究的不同理解，并对跨文化交际学在世界各地的发展史及其成就做了详尽的描述。第二部分（第三章至第四章）是作者对文化和交际的定义，特征及在跨文化交际中的地位进行了阐述。第三部分（第五章至第九章）是跨文化交际的过程，这一部分内容被作者依次分为了语言交际、非语言交际、社会交往、人际关系和经营管理；在这几章中，胡文仲教授对每一个过程的作用和特征都通过举例做了说明。第四部分（第十章）是跨文化交际的核心内容---价值观。价值观是文化中最深层的一个部分，支配着人们的信念、态度和行动。因此，作者就价值观与交际的关系、价值观的特点、有关价值观的研究几个方面进行了描述。第五部分（第十一章至第十二章）的内容为提高跨文化意识，也就是教人们如何在实践中应对跨文化的有关问题。 胡文仲编写的这本书在很多观点上都有了新的突破，就像之前的文章大都只侧重于研究跨文化交际的一个角度，仅仅关心不同文化背景的人们在语言交际方面遇到的问题，没有更
定义题 1. What is “intercultural communication”? P6 refer to communication between people whose cultural backgrounds are distinct enough to alter their communication event. There are three kinds of things you need to learn if you want to be able to communicate effectively with Westerners. First, you need to learn a foreign language, usually English. Second, you should learn as much as possible about Western cultures. However, studying English language and Western culture is not enough. You should also learn something about what happens when people from different cultures try to communicate with each other —in other words, "intercultural communication." 2.What is a culture? P13 A culture is essentially a group of people who carry many of the same ideas in their heads. Culture: can been seen as shared knowledge, what people need to know in order to act appropriately in a given culture. Culture: a learned set of shared interpretations about beliefs, values, and norms, which affect the behavior of a relatively large group of people 3.What are stereotypes?P13 Stereotypes means very broad generalizations such as “British people are polite,”“Americans are friendly”, and so forth. It is a derogatory word. It means that image, idea, character that has become fixed or standardized in a conventional form without individuality and is therefore false and shallow. Stereotypes may have a basis in fact, but they are too broad and shallow, and they give us the mistaken idea that a people’s culture can be summed up easily in a few short , simple statements. Stereotypes are also dangerous because they may trick us into believing that knowing a few stereotypes is the same thing as understanding another culture. 4.What does “interpretation” means?P24 A very important aspect of intercultural communication is “interpretation”, t he process of deciding what foreigners’ words and actions mean and why they do what they do. For example, when Xiao Li tries to understand why the taxi driver asked for so much money, she is “interpreting” his behavior. 5.I n dividualist p32 Individualist culture is one in which people tend to view themselves as individuals and emphasize the needs of individuals. In general, Western culture tends to be individualist. They view themselves as independent of collectives; are primarily motivated by their own preferences, needs, rights, and the contacts they have established with others; give priority to their personal goals over the goals of others; and emphasize rational analyses of the advantages and disadvantages to associating with others. 6.Collectivist P32 Collectivist culture is one in which people tend to view themselves as members of groups (families, work units, tribes, nations), and usually consider the needs of the group to be more important than the needs of individuals. Most Asian cultures, including China's, tend to be collectivist. People see themselves as parts of one or more collectives; are primarily motivated by the norms of, and duties imposed by, those collectives; are willing to give priority to the goals of
《组织行为学》复习资料1 一、名词解释 1.群体 2.沟通 3.领导力 4.态度 5.价值观 二、简答题 1.动机理论包括哪些？ 2.群体发展有哪些阶段? 3.人为什么要加入群体？ 三、分析说明题 1.霍兰德人格-工作适应性理论的意义是什么？根据霍兰德职业兴趣量表分析下你的职业人格类型和适合的职业。 2.什么是激励？利用激励的三要素分析一下你自己目前的激励水平。
答案1 一、名词解释 1.群体：指为实现特定目标，两个或更多的人相互影响、互相依赖而形成的组合。可分为正式的和非正式的。 2.沟通：对意思的传达和理解 3.领导力：领导力就是影响一个群体实现目标的能力。 4.态度：是个人对某一对象所持有的评价和行为倾向。 5.价值观: 代表着基本的信念：“个人和社会接受一种特定的行为或终极存在方式，而摒弃与其相反的行为或终极存在的方式。” 二、简答题 1. 动机理论包括：早期理论：马斯洛需要层次理论、麦戈雷格的X理论Y理论、赫茨伯格的双因素理论、戴维麦克莱兰的需要理论。当代动机理论：认知评价理论、目标设置理论、自我效能理论、公平理论、期望理论。 2.群体发展阶段：形成阶段-震荡阶段-规范阶段-执行阶段-解体阶段 3.人为什么要加入群体？ 安全需要-地位需要-自尊需要-归属需要-权力需要-目标实现的需要 三、分析说明题 1.霍兰德人格-工作适应性理论的意义是什么？根据霍兰德职业兴趣量表分析一下你的职业人格类型和适合的职业。 人职匹配可以提高工作满意度、降低离职率。人格可分为现实型、研究型、艺术型、社会型、企业型和常规型六种类型。适合的职业 2.什么是激励？利用激励的三要素分析一下你自己目前的激励水平。 动机是一种过程，它体现了个体为实现目标而付出的努力的强度、方向和持续性。强度：个体试图付出多大的努力。方向：指向有利于组织的目标坚持性：个体的努力可能维持多长时间。自己目前的激励水平。
UNIT 1 +Global Village: All the different parts of the world form one community linked together by electronic communications, especially the Internet. 世界各地通过电子通讯，特别是互联网，形成了一个整体。 +Melting pot: a socio-cultural assimilation of people of different backgrounds and nationalities. 不同背景和民族的人的社会文化同化。 +Assimilation: the process of adapting oneself to a new culture so much that he/she gradually loses his own culture. +Cultural Diversity: refer to the mix of cultures and sub-cultures of a group or organization or region. 指一个群体、组织或地区的文化和亚文化的混合。 +Culture: a learned set of shared interpretations解释about beliefs, values, and norms规范, which affect the behavior of a relatively large group of people. 一组关于信仰、价值观和规范的共同理解，这些理解影响着相对较大的群体的行为。
《跨国公司经营与管理》复习重点 第一讲概述 关键术语： 跨国公司经济全球化企业国际化子公司与分公司罗斯托提出的“五阶段论”区域经济一体化 思考题： 1、跨国公司的判断标准有哪几个？跨国公司有哪些特征？ 2、跨国公司在世界市场上的竞争优势主要表现在哪些方面？ 3、对我国企业国际化经营的动因进行分析。 4、简述有限责任公司和股份有限公司的区别。 5、简述跨国公司的发展过程及从20世纪90年代以来跨国公司的发展动态。 6、简述20世纪70年代中期至80年代全球第四次并购潮的特征； 7、跨国公司对世界经济的发展起什么作用？ 8、跨国公司对发展中国家经济的发展有什么影响？ 第二讲跨国公司理论 关键术语： 内部化理论产品生命周期企业优势内部化优势国际生产折中理论思考题： 1、垄断优势理论的观点是什么？对该理论应作如何评价？ 2、国际生产折中理路的基本观点是什么？如何评价这一理论？ 3、产品生命周期的观点是什么？如何评价这一理论？ 第三讲跨国公司的经营环境与全球化战略 关键术语： 跨国公司全球战略业务级战略决策确定型决策仲裁调解诉讼德尔菲法 思考题： 1、简述决策的程序。 2、试述战略决策的特征及程序。 3、简述东道国政治风险对国际企业的威胁。 4、跨国公司全球战略管理过程包括哪些内容？
5、影响全球战略目标的因素有哪些？ 6、正确引导跨国公司本地化战略的应对措施？ 7、简述调解、仲裁与诉讼的概念及其应用原则 第四讲跨国公司对外直接投资 关键术语： 对外直接投资对外间接投资 思考题： 1、什么是对外直接投资？它与对外间接投资有哪些区别？ 2、跨国公司对外直接投资的动因是什么？ 3、对外直接投资可行性研究包括哪些阶段和内容？ 4、跨国公司热衷于采用并购式进行国际直接投资的原因是什么？ 5、试论促进我国企业对外直接投资的决策。 第五讲跨国公司的营销管理 关键术语： 目标市场市场定位国际营销组合国际分销渠道促销社会阶层 思考题： 1、简述目标市场的三种策略。 2、试述企业在不同的产品生命周期阶段，应采取的不同经营策略。 3、试述企业进行分销渠道长度决策必须考虑的因素。 4、简述跨国公司的促销策略。 5、简述确定广告预算的三种方式。 6、试述跨国公司市场竞争策略的内涵和影响因素。 第六讲跨国公司的组织管理 关键术语： 组织结构管理幅度国际战略联盟全球地区/产品结构集权与分权矩阵结构国际事业部结构 思考题： 1、简述企业国际部结构不适用的条件。 2、试述决定组织结构的因素。 3、简述跨国公司在设计组织结构时要考虑的问题。 4、跨国公司组织结构有哪些基本形式？并给出其一组织结构的的适用条件
第一章跨文化交际 一、什么是跨文化交际——具有不同文化背景的人从事交际的过程 跨文化交际之所以在今天日益引起人们的注意，主要原因是由于交通工具的进步与通讯手段的发展，使得不同国家、不同种族、不同民族的人能够频繁地接触和交往。 L.S.Harms认为，在世界范围内的交际经历了五个阶段：语言的产生；文字的使用；印刷技术的发明；近百年交通工具的进步和通讯手段的迅速发展；跨文化交际。近二十年来的交际是以跨文化为特征的。 二、对跨文化交际的不同理解 有的人认为每个人在文化上都是独特的，所以任何两个人之间的交际都是跨文化交际。 有的人认为，不同国籍人们之间的文化差异与不同职业的人们之间的文化差异并没有什么本质上的区别，只是程度上的差异。 有的人认为，跨文化交际研究应该把重点放在亚文化系统的语篇系统方面。 有的人认为，作大范围的国与国之间的对比对于改进跨文化交际益处不大，应该把眼光放在更具体的文化差异上。跨文化交际研究的范围应该也包括地区、职业、年龄、性别等方面的文化差异的探讨。 文化通常不是指个人的行为，而是指一个群体的生活方式和习惯。作者认为作跨国、跨种族、跨民族研究不仅应该是跨文化交际研究包括的内容，而且应该是放在首位的。至于地区、阶级、阶层、职业、性别、年龄等不同层次的差异也应该给予关注。至于个人之间的差异的研究只是在我们把他们当做群体的代表时才有意义。在研究一个国家的文化特点时，我们的眼光首先应集中在它的主流文化上，其次才注意它的亚文化和地区文化的特点。 主流文化亚文化地区文化小群体文化 （不同年龄、职业、性别群体的文化）第二章跨文化交际学 一、跨文化交际学在美国Intercultural Communication 与人类学、心理学、传播学关系密切 1.首先在美国兴起。美国有来自各个国家的移民，有各自的文化系统和风俗习惯，逐渐在美国社会形成了多元文化的格局；美国与各国交往频繁。 2.Edwar Hall 《无声的语言》跨文化交际学的奠基之作。认为不同文化背景的人们在使用时间、空间表达意义方面表现出明显的差异。（对时间、空间、交际的关系作了深入探讨） 3.1970年是具有重要意义的一年，在这一年，国际传播学会承认跨文化交际学是传播学的一个分支，成立了跨文化交际学分会。1972年，第一届跨文化交际学国际会议，日本东京。 4.70年代，影响最大的书籍。《跨文化交际学选读》 5.跨文化交际学内容：
1. Culture: All the material and spiritual things created by man. 2. Communication: Transmission of information/feelings between a sender and a receiver. 3. Intercultural/Cross-cultural communication: Communication between people of any two different cultures between countries or within a country. 4. Intercultural communication: Usually communication between members of the same culture. 5. Intercultural (communicative) competence: Knowledge, attitudes and ability / skills required for intercultural communication. 6. Racial, ethnic, international communication: Communication between races, ethnic groups or nations. 7. Contact, encounter, interaction, exchange, dialog, negotiation, etc. Culture The total sum of material and spiritual wealth created by the mankind in the process of the social and historical development, especially literature, art, science, technology, architecture, education, traditions and customs, etc. Characteristics of culture: (1) Culture is learned: (2) Culture is dynamic and adaptive: (3) Culture is pervasive (传遍): (4) Culture is interrelated: Spring Festival (5) Culture is largely invisible: (6) Culture is ethnocentric:种族优越感 Cultural identity:One’s sense of belonging to a particular culture or ethnic group. intercultural identity：One’s sense of belonging to more than one particular culture or ethnic group in an intercultural situation. Types of intercultural identity /acculturation (1) Assimilation 融入型: Breaking away from one’s ethnic culture and trying to identify with the dominant culture; (2) Integration 融合型: Maintaining contact with the dominant culture while retaining the core values of one’s ethnic culture; (3) Separation 分离型: Adhering to one’s ethnic culture and shunning the dominant culture in the foreign environment; (4) Marginalization 边缘型: Alienated from and unidentified with either one’s ethnic culture or the dominant culture. Communication: Transmission of information between a sender and a receiver. Ingredients/process of communication: Source：The source is the person with an idea he or she desires to communicate. Encoding：Encoding is the process of putting an idea into a symbol. Message：The term message identifies the encoded thought. Encoding is the process, the verb; the message is the resulting object. Channel：The term channel is used technically to refer to the means by which the encoded message is transmitted. The channel or medium, then, may be print,