人力资源英文文献翻译及参考文献英语论文

aGAOUnited States General Accounting OfficeReport to Congressional Requesters February 2003 HUMAN CAPITAL MANAGEMENT FAA’s Reform Effort Requires a More Strategic ApproachGAO-03-156In 1996, FAA initiated human capital reform initiatives in three broad areas,some of which required exemption from title 5, and some of which havebeen fully implemented. FAA has not yet completed implementation ofsome key initiatives. For example, FAA’s new compensation systemremains unimplemented for about one-quarter o f the agency’s workforce—those staff whose unions have not reached agreements with FAA. FAA’sneed to implement initiatives among a workforce with a wide range of skillsand to negotiate changes with multiple unions were among factors thataffected the pace and extent of reform implementation.Selected Initiatives within the Three Areas of FAA’s Reform, Including Whether anExemption from Title 5 Was Required and Implementation StatusFAA had little data with which to assess the effects of its reform effort.While FAA human capital officials cited positive effects of FAA’s reformeffort, the views of managers and employees GAO interviewed weregenerally less positive.FAA’s lack of empirical data on the effects of its human capital initiatives is one indication that it has not fully incorporated elements that are important to effective human capital management into its overall reform effort. These elements include data collection and analysis, performance goals and measures, and linkage of reform goals to program goals. FAA human resource management officials said that the agency should have spent more time to develop baseline data and performance measures before implementing the broad range of reforms but that establishing these elements was a complex and difficult task. FAA has also not gone far enough in establishing linkage between reform goals and overall program goals of the organization. GAO found that the lack of these elements has been pointed out repeatedly in evaluations of FAA’s human capital refor m effort, but FAA has not developed specific steps and time frames by which these elements will be established and used for evaluation. Incorporation of these elements could also help FAA build accountability into its human capital management approach.HUMAN CAPITAL MANAGEMENT FAA’s Reform Effort Requires a More Strategic Approach/cgi-bin/getrpt?GAO-03-156.To view the full report, including the scopeand methodology, click on the link above.For more information, contact GeraldDillingham, Ph.D., at (202) 512-2834 ordillinghamg@.Highlights of GAO-03-156, a report to theChairman, Subcommittee on Aviation,House Committee on Transportation andInfrastructure; Chairman, HouseCommittee on Government Reform; andanother requesterIn 1996, the Federal AviationAdministration (FAA) undertook ahuman capital reform effort underone of the most flexible humancapital management environmentsin the federal government,including broad exemptions fromtitle 5 laws governing federalcivilian personnel management.GAO was asked (1) to examine thechanges FAA initiated in its reformeffort, including whether theyrequired an exemption from title 5and their implementation status;(2) determine the effects of thereform effort according to availabledata and the views of FAA officials,managers, and employees; and (3)assess the extent to which FAA’sreform effort incorporatedelements that are important toeffective human capitalmanagement.This report makesrecommendations to enable FAA todevelop a more strategic approachto its reform effort. By buildingelements that are important toeffective human capitalmanagement into its approach,FAA will be better able to evaluatethe effects of its initiatives, use theevaluations as a basis for anystrategic improvements, and holdagency leadership accountable.FAA will also be better able toshare its results with other federalagencies and Congress.The Department of Transportationand FAA officials generally agreedwith our recommendations.Page i GAO-03-156 Human Capital Management ContentsLetter 1Results in Brief 3Background 6FAA Initiated Personnel Changes in Three Broad Areas, Some of Which Required Exemptions from Title 5 9Key Elements of Personnel Reform Have Not Yet Been Fully Implemented 17FAA Had Little Data on Reform’s Effects, and Views of FAA Officials Often Differed from Views of Managers and Employees WeInterviewed 24FAA Has Not Fully Incorporated Elements Needed for EffectiveHuman Capital Management 35Conclusions 44Recommendations 45Agency Comments and Our Evaluation 46AppendixesAppendix I: Scope and Methodology 49Appendix II: Structured Interview Form and Selected Results 51 Appendix III: Elements for Effective Human Capital Management 61 Appendix IV: Core Compensation Pay Bands and Grade Conversion for 2002 64Appendix V: FAA Human Resource Management Office’s Balanced Scorecard Performance Measures 66Appendix VI: GAO Contacts and Staff Acknowledgments 68GAO Contacts 68Staff Acknowledgments 68Tables Table 1: Overview of Human Resource Management Office’sBalanced Scorecard Performance Measures 39Table 2: Chronology of Internal and External Evaluations of FAA’s Personnel Reform 41Figures Figure 1: Implementation Status of Selected Initiatives within theThre e Areas of FAA’s Personnel Reform That Did or DidNot Require an Exemption from Title 5 4ContentsPage ii GAO-03-156 Human Capital ManagementFigure 2: Selected FAA Human Capital Reform Initiatives and TheirNeed for an Exemption from Title 5 10Figure 3: Career Level Pay Bands for Job Categories under Core Compensation 12Figure 4: Implementation Status of Selected FAA PersonnelReform Initiatives 18Figure 5: Compensation Systems Applicable to FAA’s Workforce 20Figure 6: Compensation of Air Traffic Controllers in Field Facilitiesand Regional and Headquarters Offices, 2002 26Figure 7: Number of FAA Employees Represented by Unions,1991-2001 28Figure 8: Inspector General’s Comments on the Effects ofPersonnel Reform on Hiring Times 29Figure 9: Funding Alternatives Used for Managers’ PCSPromotional Moves between Field Facilities, Fiscal Years1999-2001 31Figure 10: Number of Formal EEO Complaints by Year 34Figure 11: FAA Employees’ Views on the Model WorkEnvironment 35Figure 12: Volpe Center’s Views on Importance of Linkage 40Figure 13: Study’s Views on FAA’s Implementation of PersonnelReform 43Figure 14: Inspector General’s Views on FAA’s Implementation of Personnel Reform 43Figure 15: Consultant’s Views on FAA’s Implementation of Personnel Reform 44Figure 16: Eight Critical Success Factors Corresponding with theFour High-Risk Human Capital Challenges That Can HelpAgencies Manage Human Capital Strategically 62Figure 17: Six Key Practices for Effective Use of Human Capital Flexibilities 63ContentsPage iii GAO-03-156 Human Capital ManagementAbbreviationsCFR Code of Federal RegulationsEEO Equal Employment OpportunityFAA Federal Aviation AdministrationFAACMA FAA Conference Managers AssociationFLRA Federal Labor Relations AuthorityGFT Guaranteed Fair TreatmentGS General ScheduleNAPA National Academy of Public AdministrationNATCA National Air Traffic Controllers AssociationOMB Office of Management and BudgetOPM Office of Personnel ManagementPCS Permanent Change of StationThis is a work of the U.S. Government and is not subject to copyright protection in the United States. It may be reproduced and distributed in its entirety without further permission from GAO. It may contain copyrighted graphics, images or other materials. Permission from the copyright holder may be necessary should you wish to reproduce copyrighted materials separately from GAO’s product.Page 1 GAO-03-156 Human Capital ManagementUnited States General Accounting OfficeWashington, D.C. 20548AFebruary 3, 2003The Honorable John L. MicaChairman, Subcommittee on AviationCommittee on Transportation andInfrastructureHouse of RepresentativesThe Honorable Thomas M. Davis IIIChairman, Committee on GovernmentReformHouse of RepresentativesThe Honorable David Weldon, M.D.House of RepresentativesThe Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) is managing its personnel under one of the most flexible human capital management environments in the federal government. This is a result of 1995 legislation that granted the agency broad exemptions from laws governing federal civilian personnel management found in title 5 of the United States Code. Congress provided these flexibilities in response to FAA’s position that the inflexibility of federal personnel systems was one of the most important constraints to the agency’s ability to be responsive to the airline industry’s needs and to increase productivity in air traffic control operations. In 1996, FAA announced a sweeping reform of its personnel management system. As we have reported,1 major change initiatives generally require a minimum of 5to 7 years to provide meaningful and lasting results, and so FAA’s implementation of personnel reform should now be approaching a point where such results might be discernable. As some other federal agencies, such as the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, have requested similar human capital flexibilities, and others, such as the Transportation Security Administration, are now operating under similar exemptions from title 5 requi rements, FAA’s experiences in implementing its flexibilities could provide valuable information to Congress in considering whether to grant the use of such flexibilities at other agencies and in overseeing their use.1U.S. General Accounting Office, Managing for Results: Using Strategic Human Capital Management to Drive Transformational Change, GAO-02-940T (Washington, D.C.: July 15,2002).Page 2 GAO-03-156 Human Capital ManagementYou asked us to review the status of FAA’s personnel reform. As agreed, weanswered the following questions:• What changes did FAA initiate after being granted broad flexibilities in1995 and to what extent did these changes require exemptions fromtitle 5?• What is the status of the implementation of FAA’s human capital reforminitiatives, and what factors have affected the pace and extent ofimplementation?• What are the effects of FAA’s human capital reform initiatives accordingto data collected by FAA and the views of FAA human resource andlabor management officials, managers and employees, and unions?• To what extent has FAA’s reform effort incorporated elements that areimportant to effective human capital management in the federalgovernment?To answer these questions, we reviewed personnel managementrequirements in title 5 and the changes FAA made to its personnelmanagement system as a part of the agency’s reform effort. We collectedand analyzed internal and external evaluations of different aspects of FAA’spersonnel reform and the available data on the results of reform. Wediscussed reform with agency managers and human resource managementofficials and union representatives and conducted 176 structuredinterviews of randomly selected managers and employees in 27 fieldfacilities nationwide, 6 of FAA’s 9 regional offices, and FAA headquarters.Because of limitations inherent in the relatively small sample size, we didnot generalize the views and opinions of those randomly interviewed to allFAA employees. To augment the views and opinions collected from thestructured interviews, we obtained and analyzed the data available on theresults of the various initiatives provided by FAA’s Office of the Assistant Administrator for Human Resource Management and the lines of business2and obtained the views of FAA senior managers in the five lines of businessand representatives of employee associations. Finally, we considered FAA’sreform effort in light of elements of strategic human capital management2FAA is composed of five separate organizations or lines of business: Air Traffic Services,Research and Acquisitions, Regulation and Certification, Airports, and Commercial Space Transportation.Page 3 GAO-03-156 Human Capital Managementthat we developed in 2002 and assessments of human capital managementefforts and agencie s’ use of personnel flexibilities that wehave performed at other agencies.3 Appendix I contains a more detaileddescription of the scope and methodology of our work. A copy of ourstructured interview questions with selected employee responses isprovided in appendix II. We conducted our work from November 2001 toOctober 2002 in accordance with generally accepted government auditingstandards.Results in Brief In its human capital reform effort, FAA initiated changes in threebroadareas—compensation and performance management, workforcemanagement, and labor and employee relations—some of which required exemptions from title 5. In the area of compensation and performance management, FAA introduced two initiatives—a new, more flexible paysystem in which compensation levels are set within broad ranges, calledpay bands, and a new performance management system intended toimprove employees’ performance through more frequent feedback with nosummary rating. Both new systems required an exemption from title 5. Inthe area of workforce management, FAA undertook initiatives in workforceplanning (the process by which an organization plans and manages the size, capabilities, diversity, and deployment of its workforce), hiring, training,and relocation of employees. While the planning and training initiativesgenerally did not require exemptions from title 5, other workforcemanagement initiatives did require exemptions. In particular, exemptionfrom title 5 requirements allowed FAA to establish its own competitivehiring process and bypass centralized government hiring systemrequirements. Finally, initiatives in the area of labor and employee relationsincluded the establishment of new groups to represent unions andemployees and a new policy initiative to promote diversity and an openwork environment. Neither initiative required exemption from title 5,which continues to govern FAA’s labor relations.While FAA has fully implemented some or all initiatives in each of the threebroad areas of the reform effort it began in 1996, some key initiatives have3U.S. General Accounting Office, A Model of Strategic Human Capital Management, GAO-02-373SP (Washington, D.C., March 15, 2002); U.S. General Accounting Office, Human Capital: Effective Use of Flexibilities Can Assist Agencies in Managing Their Workforces, GAO-03-02 (Washington, D.C.: Dec. 6, 2002).Page 4 GAO-03-156 Human Capital Managementnot yet been fully implemented, and the pace and extent of implementationhave been affected by several factors. In the area of compensation andperformance management, FAA’s new compensation system has not yetbeen implemented for about one-quarter of the agency’s workforce whoseunions have not reached a new pay agreement with FAA. FAA’s newperformance management system had been implemented for about 20percent of the total workforce (15 percent nonunion employees and 5percent union employees) at the time of our review. In the area ofworkforce management, FAA implemented most initiatives in 1996 byallowing managers in the lines of business immediate use of newagencywide flexibilities for hiring and training employees. While FAAestablished similar agencywide policies for developing workforce plans forstaff, this initiative has not been fully implemented. In the area of labor and employee relations, FAA implemented initiatives establishing newpartnership forums for union and nonunion employees and a new modelwork environment program. While we did not determine all of the factorsthat may have affected the pace and extent of i mplementation, FAA’s needto implement initiatives among a workforce with a wide range of skills andworkplace environments and to negotiate changes with 48 bargaining unitswithin FAA’s nine unions were among factors that affected the pace andextent of reform implementation. Figure 1 shows selected initiatives ineach of the three areas of reform, along with whether they requiredexemptions from title 5 and their implementation status.Figure 1: Implementation Status of Selected Initiatives within the Thr ee Areas of FAA’s Personnel Reform That Did or Did NotRequire an Exemption from Title 5Page 5 GAO-03-156 Human Capital ManagementFAA had little data with which to assess the effects of its reform effort.While FAA human capital officials cited positive effects of FAA’s humancapital reform effort, the views of managers and employees and unionrepresentatives were generally less positive. In the area of compensationand performance management, FAA had not systematically collected oranalyzed data to suppo rt human resource management officials’ view thatcompensation changes had increased the agency’s ability to attract andretain employees. At the same time, many FAA managers and employeeswe interviewed were critical of the new compensation system. Nearly twothirds(110 out of 176) of those we interviewed disagreed or stronglydisagreed that the new pay system is fair to all employees. We were able tofind evidence of specific concerns regarding unfairness in disparities in payfor air traffic controllers. In addition, according to representatives ofFAA’s Office of Labor Relations and employee unions, a general sense ofunfairness over pay among some FAA employees outside of air trafficservices has led to increased unionization among FAA employees. Thenumber of employees in unions, as a percentage of the workforce,increased from 63 percent in 1995 to almost 80 percent in 2001. In the areaof workforce management, human resource management officials providedlimited data collected only for air marshals to support their view thatexternal hiring times had decreased from an average of 6 months to as littleas 6 weeks. In contrast, only 12 of the 46 managers we interviewed said thatthe speed of hiring has improved. Finally, FAA labor management officialscited a limited amount of data that indicated that the number of grievancesfiled at the national level by employees represented by unions hadincreased as evidence that new employee-union forums had not improvedlabor management relations. The managers and employees we interviewedhad mixed views on the impact of labor and employee relations reforminitiatives.FAA’s lack of empirical data on the effects of its human capital initiatives isone indication that it has not fully incorporated elements that we andothers have identified as important to effective human capital managementinto its reform effort. These elements include data collection and analysis, performance goals and measures, and linkage of reform goals to programgoals. Systems to gather and analyze relevant data provide a basis againstwhich performance goals and measures can be applied. FAA humanresource management officials said that the agency should have spentmore time to develop baseline data and performance measures beforeimplementing the broad range of reforms but that establishing theseelements was a complex and difficult task. They said FAA was undersignificant pressure to rapidly implement reforms and that one impact ofPage 6 GAO-03-156 Human Capital ManagementFAA’s incremental ap proach to implementing the reforms was that baselinemeasures tended to change as more people were brought under thereformed systems. FAA has also not gone far enough in establishing linkagebetween reform goals and overall program goals of the organization,another element we have identified as important to effective human capital management. We found that the lack of these elements has been pointedout repeatedly in evaluations of FAA’s human capital reform effort, but FAAhas not developed specific steps and time frames by which these elementswill be established and used for evaluation. Incorporation of theseelements could also help FAA build accountability into its human capitalmanagement approach.This report makes recommendations designed to enable FAA to develop amore strategic approach to its reform effort. By building these elementsinto its approach, FAA will be better able to evaluate the effects of itsreform initiatives, use the evaluations as a basis for any strategicimprovements to its human capital management approach, and holdagency leadership accountable for the results of its human capitalmanagement efforts. Doing so would also enable the agency to share itsresults with other federal agencies and Congress. In commenting on thedraft of this report, the Department of Transportation and FAA generallyagreed with the report’s recommendations. They emphasized thecomplexity of the reform effort and said they have been making significantprogress in developing needed elements for measuring the effectiveness ofthe new programs.Background The FAA’s mission is to provide a safe and efficient national aerospacesystem. FAA’s key aviation functions include regulating compliance withcivil aviation safety standards and air commerce, operating the national airtraffic management system, and assisting in the development of airports.The achievement of FAA’s mission is dependent in large part on the skillsand expertise of its workforce. FAA consists of nearly 50,000 people,organized into 5 lines of business and several staff offices. Its workforceprovides aviation services including air traffic control, maintenance of airtraffic control equipment, and certification of aircraft, airline operationsand pilots. FAA’s human resource management offi ce is responsible for managing agencywide implementation of personnel reform and providing policy and guidance to regional human resource management divisions that manage the implementation of personnel reform within their areas of responsibility.Page 7 GAO-03-156 Human Capital ManagementIn September 1993, the National Performance Review concluded that federal budget, procurement, and personnel rules prevented FAA from reacting quickly to the needs of the air traffic control system for new and more efficient equipment and flexibilities for attracting and hiring staff. In May 1994, building on these concerns, Congress directed the Secretary of Transportation to undertake a study of management, regulatory, and legislative reforms that would enable FAA to provide better air traffic control services without changing FAA’s basic organizational structure. The resulting FAA report to Congress, issued in August 1995,4 concluded that the most effective internal reform would be to exempt FAA from most federal personnel rules and procedures.5In reporting on FAA’s request for these exemptions in October 1995, we concluded that, if the Congress decided to provide FAA with new personnel authority, the agency could be used to test changes before they were applied governmentwide.6 At that time, we emphasized the importance of establishing goals prior to the application of the new authority, noting that an evaluation of FAA’s efforts after some experience had been obtained would be important for determining the success of the effort and its governmentwide applicability.On November 15, 1995, Congress, in making appropriations for the Department of Transportation, directed the FAA Administrator to develop and implement a new personnel management system.7 The law exempted FAA from most provisions of title 5 of the United States Code and other federal personnel laws.8 The law required that FAA’s new personnel management system address the unique demands of the agency’s4Federal Aviation Administration, Background Paper: Personnel Management Reform for the Federal Aviation Administration (Washington, D.C.: August 1995).5Unless explicitly exempted by law, all federal agencies must follow federal personnel rules and regulations under title 5 U.S.C., including rules governing how agencies (1) pay andreward employees; (2) hire, train, and transfer personnel; and (3) conduct labor and employee affairs.6U.S. General Accounting Office, Exempting FAA From Procurement and Personnel Rules, GAO/RCED-96-27R (Washington, D.C.: Oct. 27, 1995).7P. L. 104-50, Fiscal Year 1996 Department of Transportation Appropriations Act.8Congress did not exempt FAA from provisions of title 5 pertaining to veterans’ preference; antidiscrimination; federal retirement, unemployment and insurance coverage; andlimitations on the right to strike.Page 8 GAO-03-156 Human Capital Managementworkforce, and, at a minimum, provide greater flexibility in the compensation, hiring, training and location of personnel. Subsequent legislation9 reinstated title 5 requirements related to labor-management relations, and the Federal Aviation Reauthorization Act of 1996 placed additional requirements on FAA by requiring that any changes made to FAA’s personnel management system be negotiated with the agency’s unions. Accordingly, compensation levels became subject to negotiations with employee unions. On April 1, 1996, FAA introduced its new personnel management system.In January 2001, we designated strategic human capital management as a governmentwide high-risk area.10 As our January 2001 High-Risk Series and Performance and Accountability Series reports make clear, serious human capital shortfalls are eroding the ability of many agencies, and threatening the ability of others, to economically, efficiently, and effectively perform their missions.11 In 2002, our studies of human capital management in the federal government identified a variety of elements—critical success factors and practices for effective implementation of flexibilities—that are important for consideration of federal human capital management efforts. For example, systems to gather and analyze data, performance goals and measures, linkage between human capital management goals and program goals of the organization, and accountability are among the elements that we have identified as essential for effective strategic human capital management. Appendix III provides an overview of our March 2002 model for strategic human capital management12 and key practices for federal agencies’ effective use of human capital flexibi lities we identified in December 2002.13Many of these elements relate directly to weaknesses we have identified in our recent reviews of FAA. For example, in July 2001, we reported that a9P. L. 104-122, Further Continuing Appropriations, Fiscal Year 1996, March 29, 1996.10U.S. General Accounting Office, High-Risk Series: An Update, GAO-01-263 (Washington, D.C.: January 2001).11U.S. General Accounting Office, Performance and Accountability Series—Major Management Challenges and Program Risks: A Governmentwide Perspective, GAO-01-241(Washington, D.C.: January 2001).12GAO-02-373SP.13GAO-03-02.Page 9 GAO-03-156 Human Capital Managementlack of performance measurement, evaluation, and rewards hindered the effectiveness of rulemaking reforms.14 In October 2001, we reported that the overall effectiveness of FAA’s training for air traffic controllers was uncertain and that FAA had not measured productivity gains from changes in controllers’ duties.15 We reported in June 2002 on FAA’s difficulties in acquiring and developing staff to meet agency needs through air traffic control workforce planning.16 Most recently, we reported in October 2002。

文献信息：文献标题：Challenges and opportunities affecting the future of human resource management（影响人力资源管理未来的挑战和机遇）国外作者：Dianna L. Stone，Diana L. Deadrick文献出处：《Human Resource Management Review》, 2015, 25(2):139-145 字数统计：英文3725单词，21193字符；中文6933汉字外文文献：Challenges and opportunities affecting the future of humanresource managementAbstract Today, the field of Human Resource Management (HR) is experiencing numerous pressures for change. Shifts in the economy, globalization, domestic diversity, and technology have created new demands for organizations, and propelled the field in some completely new directions. However, we believe that these challenges also create numerous opportunities for HR and organizations as a whole. Thus, the primary purposes of this article are to examine some of the challenges and opportunities that should influence the future of HR. We also consider implications for future research and practice in the field.Keywords: Future of human resource management, Globalization, Knowledge economy Diversity, Technology1.Change from a manufacturing to a service or knowledge economyOne of the major challenges influencing the future of HR processes is the change from a manufacturing to a service or knowledgebased economy. This new economy is characterized by a decline in manufacturing and a growth in service or knowledge as the core of the economic base. A service economy can be defined as a system based on buying and selling of services or providing something for others (OxfordDictionary, 2014a). A knowledge economy is referred to as the use of information or knowledge to generate tangible and intangible value (Business Dictionary, 2014a). Some economists argue that service activities are now dominating the economies of industrialized nations, and knowledge-intensive services or businesses are considered a subset of the overall service economy (Anderson & Corley, 2003).The rise of the knowledge economy has placed new demands on organizations and prompted changes in organizational goals and HR practices. Many of the traditional HR processes were designed during the industrial era, and thus focused largely on manufacturing organizations that were concerned with converting raw materials, components, and parts into finished goods that meet customers' expectations. However, many of the assumptions underlying those traditional HR processes may not be effective with the new service or knowledge organizations. For example, traditional HR practices assume that jobs should be narrowly defined, supervisors should control workers, and efficiency and short term results should be emphasized (Trice & Beyer, 1993). In contrast, knowledge organizations stress that employees' knowledge and skills have a major impact on organizational success, and employee retention is important because individuals' skills are not substitutable.Knowledge organizations also tend to design jobs broadly so as to encourage innovation, autonomy, continuous improvement, and participation in decision making. Given that individuals with unique skills and abilities are essential in knowledge organizations, the new job requirements have created a shortage and increased competition for talented workers in many fields (e.g., software engineering, nursing). Additionally, the change in the economy has resulted in the displacement and unemployment of people who do not have the skills needed for knowledge-oriented jobs (e.g., Bell, Berry, Marquardt, & Green, 2013; Karren & Sherman, 2012). These changes imply that nations need to alter their educational systems to meet job demands in new organizations (Gowan, 2012). The goals of knowledge organizations should continue to bring about changes in HR processes in the future (e.g., Schuler, Jackson, Jackofsky, & Slocum, 1996). For instance, it can be expected that HR practices will employ broad based recruiting to ensure that they uncover skilledapplicants, design jobs to emphasize autonomy and participation in decision-making, use team oriented structures to enhance collaboration and innovation, stress training and employee skill development, and provide incentives that foster employee identification, innovation, and retention. HR will need to shift its emphasis to employee retention, and meeting the varied needs of knowledge workers. Some of these new practices have already been implemented in organizations, but many organizations still use HR practices that do not support knowledge-oriented organizational goals. Future HR processes will need to be modified if knowledge organizations are to be successful. Research will also be needed to examine the effectiveness of these new practices.Although we considered the new knowledge economy as a challenge for HR in organizations, it can also be viewed as an opportunity for change. Given that the skills and abilities of knowledge workers are key to the success of new organizations, the transformation to a knowledge economy provides opportunities for the HR function to become a priority in organizations. As a result, we believe that HR will become more of a critical function in organizations, and the field should be viewed as more essential to the overall success of the organizations.2.Rise in globalizationA second factor calling for changes in HR processes is the rise in globalization. Globalization in this context refers to organizations that operate on a global or international scale (Oxford Dictionary, 2014b). Organizations operating in a global environment face a number of new challenges including differences in language and culture of employees, and variations in social, political and legal systems. Multinational corporations (MNCs) are large companies operating in several countries that are confronted with new questions, including how to create consistent HR practices in different locations, how to develop a coherent corporate culture, and how to prepare managers to work in a diverse cultural environment (Sparrow, 2007).Research on HR in the international context has focused on three approaches to understanding the issues that arise in global environments: international, comparative,and cross-cultural HR (Parry, Stavrou-Costea, & Morley, 2011). International approaches focus on HR strategies, systems, and practices in different socio-cultural contexts and different geographic territories (Parry et al., 2011). It also outlines the anatomy of MNCs, and considers the unique set of HR issues that occur in these contexts (Budhwar & Sparrow, 2002). Although researchers differ on the factors that affect HR practices in global environments, most agree that the following variables influence these systems: (a) contextual variables (such as the host country's legal system, cultural distance between host country and employees' country), (b) firm-specific variables (such as the stage of internationalization, type of industry, link between strategy and structure), and (c) situational variables (such as staff availability, need for control, locus of decision making) (e.g., Budhwar & Sparrow, 2002; Schuler, Dowling, & De Cieri, 1993; Welch,1994).Comparative HR explores the context, systems, and national patterns of HR in different countries, and discusses the idiosyncrasies of various institutions and economic environments (e.g., Aycan et al., 2000; Isenhour, Stone, & Lien, 2012a; Parry et al., 2011). Most of the research on comparative HR indicated that HR practices differ across nations, and are aligned with national cultures (Stone & Stone-Romero, 2008). Two examples of that research include a study by Schuler and Rogovsky (1998) that assessed the relations between Hofstede's national culture dimensions and the design of HR practices. These authors found that a national emphasis on individualism was positively correlated with a company's use of pay-for-performance pay systems. In addition, Gooderham, Nordhaug, and Ringdal (1999) explored cross-national differences in HR practices across European nations. Their results revealed that individualistic nations (e.g., UK, France, and Spain) were more likely to use calculative HR strategies (e.g., pay for performance) than collective nations (e.g., Scandinavian countries). Conversely, collective nations (Scandinavian countries) were more likely to use collaborative practices (e.g., employee participation) than individualistic countries (e.g., Germany, France and Spain).Finally, cross-cultural HR examines the degree to which individuals' cultural values influence the acceptance and effectiveness of HR practices (Aycan et al., 2000;Gelfand, Erez, & Aycan, 2007; Isenhour, Stone, & Lien, 2012b; Stone, Stone-Romero, & Lukaszewski, 2007). Most of the theories in HR and Organizational Behavior (OB) were developed in Western nations and assume that the cultural values of individuals in organizations are homogeneous (Gelfand et al., 2007). However, it is clear that employees' cultural values differ in U.S. and global contexts, and organizations need to align their HR processes with these cultural values (e.g., Gelfand et al., 2007; Stone & Stone-Romero, 2008). For example, cross-cultural research indicated that individuals' cultural values shape their reward preferences, and their reactions to negative feedback (e.g., Gelfand et al., 2007; Joshi & Martocchio, 2008; Stone, Johnson, Stone-Romero, & Hartman, 2006; Stone-Romero & Stone, 2002). In particular, individuals who valued individualism preferred reward allocation systems based on equity or proportionality, but those who valued collectivism preferred equality-based allocation systems (Sama & Papamarcos, 2000). As a result, pay-for-performance systems may motivate employees who are individualistic, but group-based or profit-sharing systems may be more effective with those who value collectivism (e.g., Joshi & Martocchio, 2008; Miller, Hom, & Gomez-Mejia, 2001). Furthermore, research by Stone-Romero and Stone (2002) revealed that individuals who endorse collectivism were more likely to accept negative feedback than those who stress individualism.Given that most organizations are operating in a global environment, we expect that the field will pay even more attention to these issues in the future. One reason is that the employment rates of U.S.-based MNCs have grown consistently over the past decades, and they now employ over 34.5 million workers in multiple countries (Bureau of Economic, 2013). It is anticipated that the numbers of MNCs will continue to expand over time, and HR practices will need to be congruent with these new multicultural and complex contexts. As a result, we expect that future research in HR will focus on the effectiveness and acceptance of HR practices in global environments.Even though we have considered globalization as a challenge for organizations, we believe that it also provides many new opportunities. For instance, globalizationshould expand markets for products and services, and may enhance creativity and innovation because organizations will become more culturally diverse. Research showed consistently that diversity increases innovation and creativity, and this should also apply to the field of HR (van Knippenberg, De Dreu, & Homan, 2004). In particular, HR in global contexts will have to use creative solutions for attracting, motivating, and retaining diverse employees. For example, they may have to use unique rewards systems (e.g., cafeteria or flexible reward systems) to ensure that they meet the needs of workers from different cultural backgrounds (e.g., Stone, Deadrick, Lukaszewski, & Johnson, 2015). Of course, research will be needed to examine the effectiveness of these new approaches.3.Growing domestic diversityApart from changes in the economy and globalization, organizations are also faced with major shifts in the composition of the U. S. population. In particular, it is expected that our population will be older and more ethnically diverse by 2060 (U.S. Bureau of Census, 2014). For instance, by 2060 one in five Americans will be 65 years of age or older, and the number of working age people in the population (ages 18 to 64) will decrease from 62.7% to 56.9%. Along with the age-related changes, the work values of younger generations are expected to be different than previous groups (e.g., Baby Boomers). As a result, organizations will need to develop HR practices that are aligned with the primary goals and the values of multiple generations of employees (Cennamo & Gardner, 2008; Twenge, Campbell, Hoffman, & Lance, 2010).3.1.Increased age and generational diversityAlong with the aging workforce come many new challenges for HR. For instance, given the shortage of skilled workers there is a growing concern about the retention of skilled baby boomers. One reason for this is that baby boomers often have unique skills and abilities that are critical to organizational success, and companies are justifiably worried about retaining them in their roles until qualified replacements can be found or trained. In order to retain these individuals, organizations will need toincrease flexible work arrangements, allow part-time work, provide a supportive environment, and employ recognition systems to motivate them to stay with the organization (Armstrong-Stassen, Schlosser, & Zinni, 2012; Cheung & Wu, 2013; Shacklock & Brunetto, 2011).Another challenge facing organizations is that they will be staffed by members of multiple generations, and members of generations differ in terms of work values, attitudes, and behaviors (Cennamo & Gardner, 2008; Twenge et al., 2010). As a result, organizations will have to modify their HR practices in order to attract and retain skilled members of all of these groups. For example, recent research indicated that baby boomers (born 1946 to 1964) placed a strong emphasis on hard work and achievement, valued intrinsic rewards, and stressed loyalty to the organization (Cennamo & Gardner, 2008; Twenge et al., 2010). In contrast, members of generation X (born 1965–1981) were more likely to value extrinsic rewards, leisure time, steady employment, work family balance, and promotion opportunities than baby boomers (Cennamo & Gardner, 2008; Twenge et al., 2010). Research also indicated that the values of generation Y were somewhat similar to those of generation X (born 1982–1999; i.e., they valued leisure time, work–family balance, extrinsic rewards, status), but they were more likely to emphasize freedom than either generation X or baby boomers. In addition, members of generation Y stressed extrinsic rewards less than generation X, but both generations X and Y reported greater intentions to leave organizations than baby boomers (Twenge et al., 2010).Given these differences in values, organizations are faced with the complex challenge of aligning reward and compensation systems with the values of multiple generations. For example, they may need to expand beyond merely static pay and benefits and incorporate more flexible reward systems. In particular, they might identify the reward preferences of individuals, and develop cafeteria reward systems that provide employees with a total sum for their overall compensation, thus allowing them to select different rewards and benefits (e.g., one person might select vacation time in lieu of pay, whereas others might select pay instead of time off from work; Stone‐Romero, Stone, & Salas, 2003).3.2.Expanded ethnic diversityThere will also be dramatic change in the racial and ethnic make-up of our society. Today, ethnic minorities make up about 37% of the population, but estimates indicate they will comprise 57% of the nation by 2060 (U.S. Bureau of Census, 2014). It has also been projected that the U.S. will become a majority–minority nation by 2043, and the numbers of Hispanic–Americans (Hispanic) will more than double in the coming years (U.S. Bureau of Census, 2014). By 2060, one in three people in the U.S. will be Hispanic.Even though there has been relatively little HR research on the cultural values of ethnic minorities in the U. S., some studies found that, on average, they have different values than Anglo-Americans (Bell, Marquardt, & Berry, 2014; Guerrero & Posthuma, 2014; Stone & Stone-Romero, 2008). For example, Hispanics, African–Americans, Asian–Americans, and Native Americans are, on average, more likely to endorse collective values than Anglo-Americans (Guerrero & Posthuma, 2014; Stone et al., 2006; Triandis, 1994). In contrast, Anglo-Americans are, on average, more likely to stress individualism than their counterparts, but it should be cautioned that there are within group differences in cultural values for all of these sub-groups (Betancourt & Lopez, 1993).Given the transformation in the composition of the U.S. population, current HR practices may be less effective with employees from diverse backgrounds than those from the dominant group. The primary reason for this is that traditional HR processes were designed for a homogeneous set of employees with individualistic cultural values, and the new workforce is likely to have value systems based on collectivism and familism (e.g., Gelfand et al., 2007; Stone & Stone-Romero, 2008). Thus, organizations will have to have their HR practices modified so that they are aligned with the values of new generations, and the cultural values of diverse employees. As noted above, members of different ethnic subgroups often have distinctive reward preferences, and unique work values, and should react differently than Anglo-Americans to traditional HR processes.Thus, in order to attract and retain subgroup members, organizations may have toalter their current reward and benefit systems to meet the needs of these employees. For example, many ethnic subgroup members are more familistic and collective than AngloAmericans (Phinney, 1996), so they may prefer that organizations offer opportunities for teamwork, work–family balance, time off from work, and group based reward systems. As a result, organizations that develop cafeteria compensation and benefits systems that provide flexibility in terms of reward and benefit allocations may be more attractive to the new workforce than traditional reward systems. For instance, those employees who value familism can choose an extra week of vacation time to spend with their families in lieu of pay or other benefits. Organizations will be able to use these flexible compensation plans to attract talented applicants from all ethnic groups.In view of the coming changes in generational and domestic diversity, organizations are likely to modify their future HR practices to meet the needs of employees with diverse values. To date, most of the research on domestic diversity has focused on unfair discrimination and relational demography (e.g., Stone‐Romero et al., 2003; van Knippenberg et al., 2004). We believe that future HR research will need to be expanded and dig deeper into the value differences, reward preferences, and unique work roles of the new diverse workforce.In our discussion above, we viewed changes in generational and ethnic diversity as a challenge for organizations. However, they can also be considered opportunities for organizations to utilize the many talents and skills that these individuals bring to the workforce, and should provide a wide array of individuals with the chance to display their skills and talents. Furthermore, the altered composition of the workforce should help organizations reach broader markets for their products and services, and increase the innovation and creativity in organizations (van Knippenberg et al., 2004). They should also prompt organizations to develop new HR practices that will meet the needs of all members of the workforce (e.g., cafeteria reward systems) (Stone et al., 2006).4.Emerging use of technologyOver the past 30 years, one of the major drivers of change in HR has been the increased use of information technology (hereinafter referred to as technology) to collect, store, and utilize data for decision-making (e.g., Gueutal & Stone, 2005; Strohmeier, 2007; Strohmeier & Kabst, 2009). Technology, especially, the World Wide Web, has transformed key HR processes in organizations (e.g., e-recruiting, e-selection, e-training), and modified the nature of jobs and the relationships between individuals and organizations (Kiesler, Siegel, & McGuire, 1984). For example, it has enabled organizations to use the Internet to advertise jobs, and made it possible for applicants to apply for jobs online (e.g., Dineen & Allen, 2013). In addition, organizations are using various forms of technology to deliver training to employees (e.g., the Internet, intranet systems, video conferencing, online simulations; Salas, DeRouin, & Littrell, 2005). Research on the use of technology to facilitate HR processes indicated that it typically enhances efficiency, and decreases costs associated with HR transactions (e.g., Dulebohn & Johnson, 2013; Dulebohn & Marler, 2005; Strohmeier, 2007). However, some researchers argued that there is no clear evidence that it helps HR meets its primary goals of attracting, motivating, and retaining talented employees (see Stone et al., 2015, for a detailed discussion of influence of technology and the future of HR).Despite the increased efficiency and cost savings associated with the use of technology in the field of HR, researchers maintained that there are a number of limitations associated with using current technologies to manage HR processes (e.g., Stone et al., 2015;Stone‐Romero et al., 2003). For instance, information technologies are often static and use one-way communication systems that do not allow applicants or employees to ask questions or gain advice from HR professionals (e.g., benefits). As a result, the technologies can be impersonal, inflexible, and create an artificial distance between supervisors and employees. Likewise, the use of technology for training may be less engaging than traditional methods, and may not give trainees the opportunity to practice or gain feedback. Furthermore, technology may actually transfer the work of HR departments to line managers or employees, which may reduce overall productivity in organizations (Stone‐Romero et al., 2003).In spite of possible limitations associated with using technology to manage HR processes, it will continue to transform the field in the future. Furthermore, it can be argued that new technologies will emerge that should decrease some of the major drawbacks associated with current systems. For instance, a number of researchers argued that the use of new interactive technologies (e.g., Web 2.0, social media, virtual simulations or job fairs, chat rooms, cloud computing, mobile devices) should decrease some of the weaknesses associated with current systems (see Dineen & Allen, 2013; Stone et al., 2015; Sullivan, 2014). For example, the use of social media, chat rooms, and high definition cloud computing should enable applicants and employees to engage in an interactive dialogue with recruiters or managers. Similarly, the use of virtual reality should provide applicants with opportunities to attend virtual job fairs, give supervisors the ability to mentor subordinates, and offer trainees the chance to participate in virtual training simulations. All of these virtual environments should increase the degree to which technology-based HR processes are personal, flexible, interactive, engaging, and decrease the interpersonal distance between employees and supervisors. Although these arguments seem plausible, research will be needed to examine the effectiveness and acceptance of these new HR processes.Despite the fact that we viewed technology as a challenge in the sections above, it should be noted that it also provides new opportunities for the field of HR. For instance, research showed that technology often decreases the administrative burden in HR, increases efficiency, and allows the field to contribute to the strategic direction of organizations (Stone & Dulebohn, 2013). To date, there is no evidence that it helps organizations achieve its primary goals, but we believe that new interactive technologies will facilitate the attraction and retention of critical employees (Stone et al., 2015). One reason for this is that it will allow supervisors and HR professionals to engage in more frequent interaction and communication with employees. As a result, they will be able to identify and meet the needs of critical employees, and ensure that they remain with the organizations. It may also enable organizations to make better HR decisions based on objective information or decision support systems (Dulebohn & Johnson, 2013). Furthermore, it may facilitate interactions with stakeholders insideand outside the organization. For example, supervisors may be able to communicate with external customers in order to improve employees' performance, and HR professionals should be capable of staying abreast of innovative practices used by other organizations (see Ulrich & Dulebohn, 2015, for a detailed discussion of these issues).中文译文：影响人力资源管理未来的挑战和机遇摘要如今，人力资源（HR）管理领域正面临着巨大的变革压力。

人力资源管理外文参考文献1.Armstrong,M.(2014).Armstrong's Handbook of Human Resource Management Practice.Kogan Page Publishers.2.Boxall,P.F.,&Purcell,J.(2011).Strategy and human resource management.Palgrave Macmillan.3.Budhwar,P.S.,&Debrah,Y.A.(2009).Human resource management in developing countries.Routledge.4.Cascio,W.F.(2018).Managing human resources.McGraw-Hill Education.5.Guest,D.E.(2011).Human resource management and performance: still searching for some answers.Human resource management journal, 21(1),3-13.6.Lengnick-Hall,M.L.,&Lengnick-Hall,C.A.(2010).Strategic human resources management:a review of the literature and a proposed typology.The Academy of Management Review,13(3),454-470.7.Marchington,M.,Wilkinson,A.,Donnelly,R.,&Kynighou,A.(2016). Human resource management at work.Kogan Page Publishers. 8.Schuler,R.S.,&Jackson,S.E.(2014).Strategic human resource management.John Wiley&Sons.9.Ulrich,D.,Brockbank,W.,&Johnson,D.(2012).HR from the outside in:six competencies for the future of human resources.McGraw-Hill Education.10.Wright,P.M.,&McMahan,G.C.(2011).Exploring human capital:putting'human'back into strategic human resource management. Human resource management journal,21(2),93-104. 1.Armstrong,M.(2014).Armstrong's Handbook of Human Resource Management Practice.Kogan Page Publishers.2.Boxall,P.F.,&Purcell,J.(2011).Strategy and human resource management.Palgrave Macmillan.3.Budhwar,P.S.,&Debrah,Y.A.(2009).Human resource management in developing countries.Routledge.4.Cascio,W.F.(2018).Managing human resources. McGraw-Hill Education.5.Guest,D.E.(2011).Human resource management and performance:still searching for some answers.Human resource management journal,21(1),3-13.6.Lengnick-Hall,M.L.,&Lengnick-Hall,C.A.(2010). Strategic human resources management:a review of the literature and a proposed typology.The Academy of Management Review,13(3),454-470.7.Marchington,M.,Wilkinson,A.,Donnelly,R.,&Kynighou,A.(2016).Human resource management at work.Kogan Page Publishers.8.Schuler,R.S.,&Jackson,S.E.(2014).Strategic human resource management.John Wiley&Sons.9.Ulrich,D.,Brockbank,W.,&Johnson,D.(2012).HR from the outside in:six competencies for the future of human resources.McGraw-Hill Education.10.Wright,P.M.,&McMahan,G.C.(2011).Exploring human capital:putting'human'back into strategic human resource management.Human resource management journal,21(2), 93-104.。

参考文献References and Bibliography第一章1．Adapted from Gillian Flynn, "Workforce 2000 Begins Here," Workforce, May 1997, 78-84; and Gillian Flynn, "Bank of Montreal Invests in Its Workers," Workforce, December 1997, 30-38.2．Lynda Gratton, "The New Rules of HR Strategy," HR Focus, June 1998, 13-14.3．Richard W. Judy and Carol D'Amice, Workforce 2020: Work and Workers in the 21st Century, Indianapolis: Hudson Institute, 19974．Peter Morici, "Export Our Way to Prosperity," Foreign Policy, Winter 1995-1996, 3.5．Marc Adams, "Building a Rainbow, One Stripe at a Time," HR Magazine, August 1998, 72-79.6．Judy and D'Amico, Workforce 2020, 5.7．Rick Garnitz, "Aging Workforce Poses an HR challenge," ACA Ne ws, March 1999, 20-21;and Carol Patton, "Golden Solutions," Human Resource Executive, August 1998, 63-65.8．"DOl. Offers Advice on Eldercare Programs," HR Policies & Practices Update, May 30.1998, 3-4.9．"HR's Role in Transformation of Work Debated by HR Executives,"Human Resources Report, April 20,1998,418. Thomas A. Stewart, "Taking On the Last Bureaucrats;" Fortune, January 15, 1996, 105-106.10．Thomas A. Stewart, "Taking On the Last Bureaucracy,"Fortune, January 15, 1996, 105-106.11．Allan Halcrow, "Survey Shows HR in Transition," Workforce, June 1998, 73-80.12．Bruce R. Ellig, "Is the Human Re-source Function Neglecting the employees?" Human Resources Management, Spring 1997, 91-9513．Jennifer Laabs, "Why HR Can't Win Today," Workforce, May 1998,63-74.14．Robert Galford, "Why Doesn't This HR Department Get Any Respect?" Harvard Business Review , March-April, 1998, 24-26.15．Lin Grensing-Pophal, "Taking Your Seat at the Table," HR Magazine, March 1999, 90-94;and Andrew R. Mcllvane, "Window of Opportunity," Human Resource Executive, June 5,1998, 36-38.16．Dave Ulrich,Human Resource Champions, Boston: Harvard Business School Press,References and Bibliography19971.17．Louis R. Forbringer and Carol Oeth, "Human Resources at Mercantile Bancorp oration, Inc.," Human Resource Management, Summer1998, 177-189.18．"The Missing M &A Link," The Wall Street Journa l, October 7, 1997, AL19．Dave Ulrich, "A New Mandate for Human Resources," Harvard Business Review, January-February 1998, 124-134.20．Shari Caudron, "The CEO Need You: Are You Delivering?" Workforce, June 1997, 63-68.21．Linda Davidson, "Measure What You Bring to the Bottom Line," Workforce, September 1998, 34-40.22．Mark Huselid, "The Impact of Human Resource Management Practices on Turnover, Productivity, and Corporate Financial Performance,'' Academy of Management Journal,38 (1995), 635-672.23．Adapted from Michael M. Phillips, "Midwest's Headache: Not Enough Workers," The Wall Street Journal，April 27, 1998, Al; Margaret W. Pressler, "Retail Industry Shops to Find Scarce Employees," The Denver Post, April 19, 1998, 7A; Chris Woodward, "Driver Shortage Makes Truckers King of the Road," USA Today, March 25, 1997, Gl; and Anna W. Mathews, "Wanted: 400,000 Long Distance Truck Drivers‖ The wall Street Journal., September 11, 1997, B1.24．Barbara Parus, "Designing a Total Rewards Program to Retain Critical Talent in the New Millenium.‖ACA News, February 1999, 20-23.25．Cathy Gedvilas, "Rewarding The ‗New Breed' Information Workers," ACA News, July/ August 1998, 30-3526．"Administrative Woes," Human Resource Executive, January 1998, 82.27．"Global Competition Encourages Partnership Between HR and Line Management, Study Says," HR Policies & Practices Update, April 18, 1998. 4.28．Mindy W. Toran, "Rolling with the Changes," Human Resource Executive, June 5, 1998, 39-41.29．HR 21: Human Resources for the Next Century (Washington, DC: Watson, Wyatt Worldwide, 1995).30．Adapted from Scott Lever, "An Analysis of Managerial Motivations Behind Outsourcing Practice in Human Resources," Human Resource Planning 20, 2 (1997), 37-48.31．Len Strazewski, "Double Duty," Human Resource Executive, July1998, 35-38.32．Carla Johnson, "Changing Shapes," HR Magazine, March 1999, 40-48.33．"The Ongoings of Outsourcing," Outsourcing Guide, August 1998, 2-.5.34．Howard R. Mitchell III ,"A Moving issues: To Outsource or Not to Outsource‖HR Magazine, May 1998, 59-68.35．Del Jones, "48% of workers Admit to Unethical or Illegal Acts," USA Today, April 4, 1997, lA.2参考文献36．Based on information in Larue T. Hosmer, The Ethics of Management (Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin, 1987), 12-14.37．Robert D. Gatewood and Archie B. Carrell, "Assessment of Ethical Performance of Organization Members: A Conceptual Framework," Academy of' Management Review 16 (1991) , 667-690.38．Gary R. Weaver. Linda Klebe Trevino, and Philip L, Cochran, "Corporate Ethics Systems,"Academy of Management Journal 42 (1999), 41-57; and Craig Dreilinger, "Get Real (And Ethics Will Follow),‖Workforce, August 1998, 101-102.39．"HR Staff Feeling, Seeing Ethics Pressure," Bulletin to Management, February 12, 1998, 4 40．The Business Ethics Survey (Alexandria, VA: Society for Human Resources Management, 1998).41．Andrew R. Mcllvane, "Work Ethics," Human Resource Executive, August 1998, 30-34.42．Stephen C. Schoonover, HR Competencies for the Year 2000(Alexandria, V A: SHRM Foundation, 1998).43．Kevin Barksdale, "Why We Should Update HR Education," Journal of Management Education 22 (1998), 526-530.44．Debra L. McDaniel, "A Competency Model for Human Resources,'' in David D. Dubois, The Competency Case Book (Amherst, MA: HRD Press, 1998), 121-156.45．Linda Micco, "Ranks of Certified HR Professionals are Swelling Rapidly," HR News, June 15, 1998,14.46．"Certification Lends HR Greater Credibility," Workforce, April 1998,23.47．Adapted from Gillian Flynn, "Remedy Cures for Work Doldrums," Workforce, February 1998, 38-42.第三章1．Based on ―Welfare-to-work: A Good Start,‖ Business Week, June 1, 1998, 102-106;―Welfare Recipients Stay on the Job Longer,‖ Omaha World-Herald, May 27, 1998, A1,10;Bill Leonard, ―Welfare to Work: Filling a Tall Order,‖ HR Magazine, May 1998, 78-87;and .2．Gary Hamel and C.K. Prahalad, Competing for Future (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business School Press, 1994), 227.3．Mark A. Huselid, Susan E. Jack son, and Randall S. Schuler, ―Technical and strategic Human Resource Management Effectiveness as Determinants of Firm Performance,‖ Academy of Management Journal, 40(1997), 171-188.4．Jay B. Barney and Patrick M. Wright, ―On Becoming a strategic sources in Gaining Competitive Advantage,‖ Human Resource Management, Spring 1998, 31-46.5．Russell W. Coff, ― Human Assets and Management Dilemmas: Coping with Hazards on the Road to Resource-Based Theory,‖ Academy of Management Review, 22(1997), 374-402.3References and Bibliography6．The authors acknowledge that the development of concepts in Figure 2—2 are based on ideas suggested by Kathryn D. McKee, SPHR, CCP; Charles W. L. Hill and Gareth R.Jones, Strategic Management(Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1998), 92-96; and Thomas A Barocci, Human Resource Management and Industrial Relations(Chicago: Scott, Foresman, 1985), 105.7．Jay B. Barney, Gaining and Sustaining Competitive Advantage (Reading, MA: Addison- Wesley, 1997), Chapter 1.8．Michael E. Porter, Competitive Strategy: Techniques for Analyzing Industries and Competitors (New York: Free Press, 1980).9．Figure 2—4, as adapted, is based on ideas suggested in S. Ragburam and R. Arvey, ―Business Strategy Links with Staffing and Training Practices,‖ Human Resource Planning 17(1994), 58.10．Adapted from Patrick M. Wright, Gary C. McMahan, Baline McCormick, and W. Scott Sherman, ―strategy, Core Competence, and HR Involvement as Determinants of HR Effectiveness and Refinery Performance,‖ Human Resource Management, Spring 1998, 17-29.11．Sharon Nelton, ―Major Shifts in Leadership Lie Ahead,‖ Nation’s Business, June 1997, 56-57.12．John D.Owen, ―flextime: Some Problems and Solutions,‖ Industrial and Labor Relations Review 50(1997), 152-160.13．―More Than 21 Million Worked at Home,‖ Bulletin to Management, April 2, 1998, 101.14．W. Jack Duncan, Peter M. Ginter, and Linda E. Swayne, ―C ompetitive Advantage and Internal Organizational Assessment,‖ Academy of Management Executive, August 1998, 6-16.15．Timothy P. Summers and Suzanne B. Summers, ―Strategic Skills Analysis for Selection and Development,‖ Human Resource Planning, 20(1997), 14-19.16．Susan Wolfe, ―HRIS Usability: Why You Can‘t Afford To Ignore It,‖ IHRIM.Link January 1998, 44-52.17．―Companies Making Strides on the Intranet Front,‖ HR Policies & Practices, January 9, 1998, 1-2.18．Mike Frost, ―Extranets: A Big Boon-Especially for Small Companies,‖ HR Magazine, January 1998, 31-35.19．Samuel Greengard, ―10 Ways to Protect Intranet Data,‖ Workforce, September 1998, 78-81.20．Tom Starner, ―Being Direct,‖ Human Resource Executive, March 4, 1999, 44-48; and Michelle Neely Martinez, ―Intranets Boost HR to More Strategic, Future-Based Sevels,‖ HR International Update, February 1998, 1-3.21．―Self Service HR: 4 Ways to Cash in on the Next Big HRIS Application,‖ Managing HR 4参考文献Information System, September 1998, 1, 13-14, available at .22．Joel R. Lapointe, ―A Method for Selecting the Right Employee Self-service Situation,‖ HR Magazine, August 1997, 37-42.23．Victor Y. Haines and Andre Petit, ―Conditions for Successful Human Resource Information Systems,‖ Human resource Management, Summer 1997, 261-275.24．Carolyn Hirschman, ―Time for a Change,‖ HR Magazine, August 1998, 81-87.25．Eric R. Quinones, ―Massive Staff Cutbacks No Guarantee of Profits,‖ The Denver Post, February 9, 1998, 3C.26．Aaron Bernstein, ―Oops, That‘s Too Much Downsizing,‖ Business Week, June 8, 1998, 38;John J. Keller, ―AT&T Buyout Package Attracts More Managers Than Expected,‖ The Wall Street Journal, June 4, 1998, B6.27．―Corporate Job Creation, Job Elimination, and Downsizing,‖ 1997 Survey, American Management Association, 1-8.28．Alex M. Susskind, Vernon D. Miller, and J. David Johnson, ―Downsizing and Structural Holes,‖ Communication Research 15(1998), 30-65.29．Robert Folger and Daniel P. Skarlicki, ―When Tough Times Make Tough Bosses: Managerial Distancing as a Function of Layoff Blame,‖ Academy of Management Journal, 41(1998), 79-87.30．Julie Cook, ―Some Way Out,‖ Human Resource Executive, September1998, 1, 34-38.31．Sue C. Erwin, Angus H. Macauley, and Jim O‘Strckey, ―Tips to Help Employers Avoi djLegal Claims for Downsizing,‖ Legal Report, Summer 1997, 1-4.32．A dapted from Rhonda L. Rundle, ―Home Health Rivals Try Merger of Equals, Get Merger from Hell,‖ The Wall Street Journal, February 26, 1998, A1; ―The Perfect Blend,‖ HumanResource Executive, May 19, 1998; 19-21; and Matt Murray, ―KeyCorp Fails to Prove ItCan Unlock Promise of Merger of Equals,‖ The Wall Street Journal, August 25, 1998, A1 第四章1．Tim Aeppel, ―personnel Disorders Sap a Factory owner of His Boy Idealism," The Wall Street journal, January 14, 1998, A1;2．Donna Rosato, ―Northwest‘s Poor Service Sulllis Deal,"' USA today, June 15, 1998, 6B;3．Gabriella Stem, "How A Young Manager Shook Up The Culture at Old Chrysler Plant," The Wall Street journal, April 21, 1997, A1.4．'Determi ning the value of human resources,‖ viewpoint on value, (Omaha, NE: Balckman and associates), July/August 1998, 4.5．David p. Norton, ―aligning strategy and performance with the balanced scorecard,: ACA journal, autumn 1997, 18-26.6．David Ulrich: a new ma ndate for human resources,‖ Harvard business review, January-February 1998, 124.5References and Bibliography7．Bernard Wysocki jr., ― why an acquisition? Often it‘s the people,‖ the wall street journal, October6, 1997,a1;8．Erlrk Schonfie1d, "Have The Urge To Merge?‖fortune, March 31, 1997, 114.9．Keith Whitefield and Michael Poole, "Organizing Employment For High Performance,"Organization Studies, Winter 1997, 745.10．M. J. Mandel, "You Ain't Seen Nothing Yet," Business Week, August 31, 1998, 6m1.11．Frederick D. Buzzie, "Plain Talk about Productive"Across the Board, January 1997, 43-47.12．Joseph Wop "The Year Of The Deal," Business Week, July 13, 1998, 52-53.13．Bob Cardy "What Happened To quality?", Human Resource Division News, Summer 1998, 14-15.14．Zahir Irani and John Sharp, ―Integrating Continuous Improvement and Innovation into A Corporate Culture," Technovation, Vo. 17, No.4, 199-206.15．Del Jones, ―Buyers get No Salls satisfaction," USA Today, January 22, 1997, 1B.16．Thomas A. Stewart, ―A Satisfied Customer Isn‘T Enough,‖ Fortune, July 2l, 1997, 112.17．"Service With A Smile," The Economist, April 25, 1998, 63;18．Hal Lancaste1, "Giving Good Service, Never An Easy Task, Is Getting Harder,‖The Wall Street Journal, June 9, 1998, B119．John M. Hannon, "Leveraging HRM To Enrich Competitive Intelligence, Human Resource Management, 36 (1997), 409.20．Joseph Coates, "Emerging HR Issues For The Twenty-First Century,‖ Employment Relations Today, Winter, 1997, 1.21．Dallas Sailsbury, ― The Changing Employment Contract,‖ Compensation and Benefits Review, January-February, 1997, 78.22．―Workers Expect To Share The Wealth," Bulletin To Management Data Graph, October 16, 1997, 332.23．Maggie Jackson, "Bosses Take A Beating,‖Omaha World-Herald, September 7, 1997, G1.24．Ann Vincola and Nancy Mobley, ―Performance Management Through A Work/Life Lens,"HR Focus, February 1998, 9.25．Hal Lancaster "Will Hiring A Full Stuff Be The Next Fashion In Management?‖The Wall Street Journal, April 28, 1998, B126．Tim Aeppel, "Life At The Fa ctory,‖ The Wall Street Journal, March 18, 1997, 127．James H. Carbone, ―Loyalty: Subversive Doctrine?, Academy Of Management Executive, August 1997, 80-8728．Charley Braun, ― Organizational Infidelity,‖ Academy of Management Executive, November 1997, 11.29．Alan Webber, ―Best Firms Don‘t Need Employee Loyalty,‖ USA Today, July 22, 1998, 11A6参考文献30．Thomas Petzinger, ― The Front Lines,‖ The Wall Street Journal, April 25, 1997, B131．Ro berta Maynard, ― How To Motivate Low Wage Workers,‖ Nation’s Business, May 1997,3532．Pascal Zachary, ― The New Search For Meaning In Meaningless Work,‖ The Wall Street Journal, January 9, 1997 B133．Dan Danbom,‖ Hate Your Job? These Are Even Worse,‖ Denver Post, June 7, 1998, ^J 34．John R. Hollenbeck, Et Al., ―Extending The Multilevel The ory Of Team Decision Making,‖ Academy of Management Journal, 41(1998), 269.35．Scott A. Snell,‖ Designing And Supporting Transnational Teams, Human Resource Management, 37(1998), 147-158.36．Perry Pascarella, ―Compensating Teams,‖ Across The Board, February 1997, 1637．Ralphy King, ― Teams Therapy,‖ The Wall Street Journal, May 20, 1998, 1.38．David Cotter And Ceil Williams, ― Managing Health-Related Absences,‖ Compensation and Benefits Review, May-June 1997, 58.39．Bill Gates, ― Internet A Rich Source Of Medical Information,‖ Omaha Word-Herald, March 15, 199840．Jen Condoding, ―Echos From The Line: HR Lacks Strategic Initiative,‖ HR Focus, July 1997, 1.41．Wayne Cascio, Clifford Young, and James Morries, ― Financial Consequences of Employment-Change Decisio ns In Major U.S. Corporations,‖ Academy Of ManagementJourna, 40(1997), 1175.42．Ma rk Spoginardi, ―Conducting A Human Resources Audit-A Primer,‖ Employee Relations Law Journal, 23(1997), 105第五章1．"Record $34 MiUion for Sex Harassment," Fair Employment Practices, June 25, 1998, 73-74;"$86,257 Awarded in Discrimination Suit," Omaha WorldHerald,February 1998, 4B;M.A. Jacobs, "Law Firm Loses Race Discrimination Case," The Wall Street Journal, March 25, 1996, B8; PatrickMcGeehan, "Smith Barney Diversity Plan Represents a Major Leap for Women on Wall Street, The Wall Street Journal, November 19,1997, B17;Stephanie Armour,"AgeBias Case Sounds Warning,"USA Today, October 24, 1997, B1;"Merrill Lynch Is Told to Pay $1.8Million in Discrimination Case, "The Wall Street Journal, January 22,1997, B14; and "Iowan Awarded$300,000 in Age Bias Lawsuit,‖ Omaha WorldHerald, May 16,1998, Al9.2．Based on "Operating a Multilingual Workplace," Bulletin to Management, June 25, 1998, 200; Ann Davis; "English Only Rules Spur Workers to Speak Legalese," The Wall Street Journal, November 23,1997, BI+; and "Choice Words,‖ Human Resource Executive, June 5,1998, 95-97.7References and Bibliography3．"Visa Quotas Are Increased for Foreign Professionals," Human Resource Executive, February 1999, 9; and Michael Maggio, "Understanding H-lB Specialty Workers," Legal Report, Summer 1998, 7-12.4．Charles A. Pierce and Herman Aquinis, "Bridging the Gap be tween Romantic Relationships and Sexual Harassment in Organizations," Journal of Organizational Be.havior 18 (1997), 197-200.5．Harris v. Forklift Systems, Inc., 114s.ct. 367 (1993).6．Burlington Industries v. Ellerth, U.S.S. Ct. No. 97-569, June 26, 1998;Faragher v. Boca Raton, U.S.S.Ct.No. 97-282, June 26, 1998; and Oncale v. Sundowner Of Lahore Services, U.S.S.Ct. No. 96-568, March4, 1998.7．Jennifer Laabs, "What You're Liable for Now," Workforce, October1998, 34--42.8．Michael Barrier, "Sexual Harassment," Nation's Business, December1998, 14-19.9．Based on Jane AdamsRoy and Julian Barling, "Predicting the Decision to Confront or Report Sexual Harassment,' Journal of Organizational Behavior 19 (1998), 329-336.10．Gilbert Casellas and Irene L. Hill,"Sexual Harassment: Preventingand Avoiding Liability,"LegalReport, Fall 1998, 1-5.11．James A. Burns, Jr., "Accommodating Pregnant Employees, ―Employee Relations Law Journal 23 (1997), 139-144.12．Stopka v. Alliance of American Insurers, CA7, No. 97-1974, April 1, 1998; and Sue Schellenbarger, "Pregnant Workers Clash with Employers Over Job Inflexibility," The Wall Street Journal, February 10, 1999, B1.13．U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1998; Diana E Furchtgott Roth and Christine Stolba, "Comparable Worth Makes a Comeback," The Wall Street Journal, February 4, 1999, A22.14．Arizona Governing Committee v. Norris, 103 S.Ct. 3492 (1983).15．Diana Kunde, "Women Build Careers in Construction Trades," Omaha WorldHerald, January 24, 1999, 1G.16．U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 1998.17．Glass Ceiling Commission, A Solid Investment: Making Use of the Nation~ Human Capital (Washington,DC: U.S. Department of Labor, 1995).18．Timothy D. Schellhardt, "Jury to Consider If 'Overqualified' Signals Age Bias," The Wall Street Journal, July 27, 1998, B1, B8.19．Westinghouse Electric Corp v. Ryder,U.S.S.Ct. No. 97-1070, February23, 1998.20．Based on data compiled by the federal Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 1998.21．Definitions used in this discussion of the Americans with Disabilities Act are those contained either in the act itself or in the Technical Assistance Manual issued by the EEOC; and Robert W. Thompson, "Justices May Clarify Definition of ADA-Covered8参考文献Disabilities," HR News, February 1999, 9-10.22．Francis A. McMorris, "Employee's Transfer Plea Rejected in Another Disabilities Act Ruling," The Wall Street Journal, January 21, 1997, B9.23．Timothy Bland, "ADA: The Law Meets Medicine," HR Magazine, January 1999, 99-104;and Ann Davis, "Courts Reject Many Mental-Disability Claims," The Wall Street Journal, July 22, 1997, B1, B6.24．School Board of Nassau County, Florida v. Airline, 107 S.C. 1123(1987).25．Peter J. Petesch, "The ADA, HIV, and Risk Management Strategies, "Legal Report, Summer 1998, 1-6.26．Bragdon v. Abbott, U.S.S.Ct. No.97-156, June 25, 1998.27．Carolyn Hirschman, "Reasonable Accommodations at a Reasonable Cost," HR Magazine, July 1997, 85-88.28．Barbara Gamble McGill, "ADA Accommodations Do Not Have to Break the Bank," HR Magazine, July1997, 85-88.29．For a discussion of various religions and their observance schedules, see Patricia Digh, "Religion In the Workplace," HR Magazine, December 1998, 85-91.30．Trans World Airlines v. Hardison,432 U.S. 63 (1977).31．Jodi Spiegel Arthur, "Religious Rights Not Violated, Court Says, "Human Resource Executive, June 5,1998, 22.32．Ronald A. Lindsay and Elizabeth H. Bach, "Religious Discrimination," http://www, /docs/whitepapers/61214.htm, 1997.33．Jessica Guynn, "Another Y2K Worry: Messiahs in the Workplace," Omaha WorldHerald, February 7, 1999, 1G; and Stephanie Armour, "Conflict Grows between Bosses, Devout Workers," USA Today, November 21, 1997, 1B-2B.34．"Companies Feel Push to Accommodate Employees' Religious Beliefs," HR Policies and Practices Update, September 19, 1997, 1-2.35．Dothard v. Rawlinson, 433 U.S. 321(1977).36．Harper v. Blockbuster EntertainmentCorp., CAll, No. 96-2461-CV-DLG, April 29, 1998. 37．Public Law 103-353, October 13, 1944.38．Jonathan Segal, "EEO Policies:Walking the Razor's Edge," HRMagazine, December 1997, 109-116.39．Bill Leonard, "A New Era at the EEOC," HR Magazine, February1999, 55-62; and Linda Micco, "EEOC Cuts Number of PendingCases in Half Over Three Years,"HR News, September 1998, 9.40．Stephanie Armour and Barbara Hansen, "Flood of 'Retaliation'Cases Surfacing in U.S.Workplace," USA Today, February 10,1999, lA.41．In structuring the components of AAPs, the authors acknowledge theassistance of Raymond B. Weinberg, SPHR, CCP; and Kathleen Shotkoski, PHR; of Silver Stone9References and BibliographyConsulting, Omaha, NE42．Based on Bruce Horovitz, "Denny'sAirs AntiRacism Ads," USA Today, January 12, 1999, B1; E Rice,"Denny's Changes Its Spots," Fortune, May 13, 1996, 133-142; and N. Harris,"A New Denny's-Dinerby Diner," Business Week, March25, 1996, 166--168.43．Adapted from Dennis Huspeni, "Women's Perspective Helps Force," The Denver Post, June 17, 1998, B1; David Price, "Police Need Brains Not Personality,' USA Today, July30, 1998, 13A; Paul M. Barrett, "Legal Limbo,' The Wall Street Journal, October 12,1998, Al; and Kevin Johnson, "Survey: Women Muscled Out by Bias, Harassment," USAToday, November 28, 1998, lA.44．Throughout the following section, various statistics on workforce composition and trends are taken from U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, and Census Bureaudata widely reported in various reference and news media reports. For additional details,consult .45．Brenda Paik Sunoo, "Initiatives for Women Boost Retention," Workforce, November 1998, 97; and Tara Parker-Pope, "Inside P&G, a Pitch to Keep Women Employees," The WallStreet Journal, September 9, 1998, B1.46．Howard Gleckman, "High Tech Talent: Don't Bolt the Golden Door," Business Week March 16, 1998, 30.47．Rick Garnitz, "Aging Work Poses an HR Challenge," News, March 1999, 20-24. Force ACA News, March 1999, 20-2448．Adapted from Roy Johnson, "The 50 Best Companies for Asians, Blacks, and Hispanics,' Fortune, August 3, 1998, 94-122.49．The following list is adapted from Gail Robinson and Kathleen Dechant, "Building a Business Case for Diversity," Academy of Management Executive, August 1997, 21.50．Patricia Digh, "The Next Challenge: Holding People Accountable," HR Magazine, October 1998, 63-69.51．Leon Wynter, "Allstate Rates Managers on Handling Diversity," The Wall Street Journal, October 1, 1997, B1.52．"SHRM Releases New Survey on Diversity Programs,' Mosaics, July/August 1998, 1.53．Norma M. Rucucci, "Cultural Diversity Programs to Prepare for Work Force 2000: What's Gone Wrong?", Public Personnel Management, Spring 1997, 35-41; and Gillian Flynn,"The Harsh Reality of Diversity Programs," Workforce, December 1998, 26-35.54．Kathryn E Clark, "Breaking Barriers," Human Resource Executive, September 1998, 39--44. Helen Hemophill and Ray Haines, Discrimination, Harassment, and the Failureof Diversity Training (Westport, CT: Quorum Books), 1997. Gillian Flynn, "White MalesSee Diversity's Other Side," Workforce, February 1999, 52-55.55．The authors acknowledge the assis: tance of Christina Harjehausen in structuring the content of the debate on affirmative action. Bakke v. the University of California, 10910S:Ct. (1978); and Hopwood v. State of Texas, 78 E 3d 932 (1996).56．Steven A. Holmes, "FCC Rule on Hiring Minorities Tossed Out," The Denver Post, April 15, 1998, lA.57．For a summary of the political issues on affirmative action, see Clint Bolick, "A Middle Ground on Affirmative Action,' The Wall Street Journal, January 6, 1998, Al8.58．Civil Rights Act of 1964, Title VII, sec. 703a.59．U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, Affirmative Action and Equal Employment (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1974), 12-13.60．Leon G. Wynter, "Business and Race," The Wall Street Journal, July 1, 1998, B1.61．Based on Linda Micco, "EEOC Under Congressional Pressure, Suspends Use of Testers,"HR News, September 1998, 15; and Rochelle Sharp, "EEOC Backs Away from Filing Race-Bias Suit in Face of Congressional Opposition to Testeis,' The Wall Street Journal,June 24, 1998, A4.62．Griggs v. Duke Power Co., 401 U.S. 424 (1971).63．Civil Rights Act of 1964, Title VII, sec. 703c.64．"Adoption by Four Agencies of Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures (1978)/' Federal Register, August 15, 1978, Part IV, 38295-38309.65．For a discussion of statistical methodological details related to employment selection, see Robert D. Gatewood and Hubert S. Feild, Human Resource Selection, 4th ed. (Chicago:Dryden Press, 1998), 111-209.66．/20010424/file/0000, 641, 100022.html第六章1．"Company Finds Job Analysis Key in Relieving Employee 'Discom-fort'," Human Resources Report, May 11, 1998, 501.2．"Equal Employment for Individuals with Disabilities," Federal Register, 56 (144), 35735.3．"Five Things to Remember When Creating a Job Description,"Manager's Intelligence Report, March 1997, 13.4．Alan Farnham, "Where Have All the Secretaries Gone?" Fortune, May 12, 1997, 152-154.5．Barbara Gamble Magill, "ADA Accommodations Don't Have to Break the Bank," HR Magazine, July 1997, 85-88.6．Carolyn Hirschman, "Reasonable Accommodations at a Reasonable Cost," HR Magazine, September 1997, 106-114.7．Cathy Gedvilas, "Rewarding the 'New Breed' Information Workers," ACA News, July/ August 1998, 30-35.8．E. E. Lawler, "From Job-Based to Competency-Based Organization," Journal of Organiza- tional Behavior 15 (1994), 3-15.9．Edward L. Levine, et al. "A Methodology for Developing and Vaildating Minimum。

人力资源英文文献翻译及参考文献-英语论文人力资源英文文献翻译及参考文献参考文献[1] 黄海阳. 工业品企业的品牌营销策略[A]. 营销传播网[2] 中国机械工业质量协会编. 机械工业质量管理教程[M]. 北京：中国科学技术出版社，2001.5[3] 菲利普.科特勒. 市场营销管理[M]. 北京：中国人民大学出版社，1997.1[4] 张德鹏. 市场营销学[M]. 广东：广东高等教育出版社，2005.12[5] 陈荣秋 . 生产管理[M]. 北京：高等教育出版社，2005.6[6] 论文网[J] 2006.3.23[7] 张富山. 顾客满意[M]. 北京：中国计划出版社，2001.4[8] 保罗•斯图伯特. 品牌的力量[M]. 北京：中信出版社2001年版[9] 克劳斯比. 零缺点的质量管理[M]. 北京：中信出版社，2000[10] 纪宝成. 市场营销学教程[M]. 北京：中国人民大学出版社，1989[11] 马林、尤建新. 高等院校ISO9001质量管理体系建立与实施指南[S]. 北京：中国标准出版社，2006.3[12] Murgatroyd,S.1992.A New Framework For managing Public Schools[J]: Total Quality Management. School Organization,Vol.12,No2,1992[13] Bradley A Winn, Kim S Cameron. Organizational Quality: An Examination of the Malcolm Baldrige national Quality Framework[J]. Research in Higher Education ,Vol.39,No.5.1998,p498-513[14] Breygogle,F.W., Implementing Six Sigma, John Wiley &Sons,Inc[N]., New York, New York,1999[15] Brown. Daniel J; Koenig. Harold.F. Applying Total Quality Management to Business Education[M]. Journal of Education for Business,1993(16)目录1 绪论 12 问题分析 22.1第一阶段：生存期 22.2第二阶段：发展期 22.3第三阶段：成熟期 22.4第四阶段：变革期 23 问题解决 33.1组织管理体系 33.2薪酬激励体系 33.3绩效管理体系 33.4职业发展体系 44 建议 55 外文文献原文 8实施人力资源变革，促进管理升级Bruce G Charlton1 绪论1985年哈佛商学院终身教授麦克.波特提出“价值链”理论，表明企业的价值创造是通过一系列活动构成的，这些活动可分为基本活动和辅助活动两类，基本活动包括内部后勤、生产作业、外部后勤、市场和销售、服务等；而辅助活动则包括采购、技术开发、人力资源管理和企业基础设施等。

百度文库- 好好学习，天天向上单位代码学号分类号密级文献翻译院（系）名称专业名称学生姓名指导教师2012年3月30日Human Resource ManagementHuman resources in corporate governance, not only has the human resources planning and strategic leader in the implementation of corporate strategic planning and overall development objectives of the course also has a vital role in this. At present, an increasing number of SMEs in the development of human resources planning is there are a lot of confusion and helplessness.Conditions in the knowledge-based economy, human resources of small and medium enterprises have a vital role in development. More and more small and medium-sized owners, corporate governance has become accustomed to the level of human resources management on the importance of enterprise development, but for the development of human resources planning is always there are a lot of confusion and helplessness."Human resource planning is very simple, not that more recruitment, remuneration, such as content, and sometimes combined with some training things.", "CEOs are still racking their brains set strategy, how can I make a planning", "human resource planning has not done very much sense, does not change plans quickly, the end of the day can be honored only 20% -30%. " HR is more than many small and medium enterprises are the views of human resources planning. So, how small and medium enterprises have no need for human resource planning? How can we work out a scientific human resource planning? First of all, let us take a look at the implementation of small and medium-sized effect of human resource planning is not ideal because:Human resource planning is not fully familiar withDo a good job in human resources management are the trilogy: a clear strategic planning - human resources planning - human resources management system and specific implementation plan. Corporate strategic objectives of the overall development of human resources planning determines the content, and these contents for the establishment of humanresources management system, develop specific plans to add staff, the use of plans, personnel and promotion plan to succeed, education and training plan, assessment and incentive plan, labor relations, retirement plan termination to provide the direction and in accordance with the guidelines. A broad sense of human resource planning includes all of these specific content, and not merely "just more of recruitment, remuneration, such as content, sometimes coupled with the training point of things."Human resource planning is the development of strategic planning an important component of the enterprise but also the human resources management of the foundation and basis. And the management of small and medium-sized and HR are not fully aware of precisely this point, so that the specific process of the formulation and implementation of a lack of sufficient attention, at all levels of department heads and line managers can not effectively cope with.The strategic objectives of the company is not clearHuman Resources Department must be combined with the implementation of corporate strategy to human resources support and guarantees. In human resources development and governance activities, strategic objectives should be to the strategic guidance of human resources policies to ensure the accuracy and effectiveness. Therefore, human resource planning is a prerequisite for enterprise development and corporate strategy clear first, and then can be decomposed into human resources, then demand will have plans, recruitment plans, payroll and other welfare plan with matching. And small and medium-sized general lack of a clear development strategy, particularly in the rapid expansion phase, is often involved in different business areas, including in many emerging industries. These new industries in R & D, marketing, management, and service all aspects of the experience does not mature for reference, especially to open up some new projects, setting a quota of work posts and not as mature as traditional business. Therefore, in human resources managementcan not have a clear plan, can only go one step further and look forward.Changes in the external environment company too fast, not planningChanges in the development of the market very quickly, and with the market despite changes in the industry to make plans, to reach a rate of year-end target of 20% -30%, however. If an IT company is a regional association in one of the major agents. In the beginning of the year, the company's Human Resources Department in accordance with the company's annual development strategy this year to develop the company's human resources planning. But in the New Year began less than three months, the Lenovo Group's own strategy, and the significant changes in organizational structure. So the supply chain as a part of the IT companies need to be adjusted throughout the company's human resources planning, in accordance with the requirements of a new company set up with the establishment, re-enact a series of related training programs. In fact, the external political, economic, legal, technical, cultural and other factors has been a series of dynamic changes, will cause a corresponding strategic objectives of the enterprise constantly changing, which in turn may lead to subsequent changes in human resource planning .Lack of human resources planning and personnel expertiseAt present, although many small and medium-sized set up a Human Resources Department, but the functions of the departments responsible in the exercise, the prevalence of some problems, mainly reflected in: first, the overall quality is not high, very few professionals, lack of expertise reserves, lack of professional skills ; Second, the lack of vocational training system; third, who was born and raised a number of human resources work, do not have good training, no formal influence of large corporations, low vision. Human resources are a very unique work; personal qualities understand the requirements and have a high learning ability. Of these factors, there are many rather than through the process of formal education available. An outstanding work of human resources does not depend oncertification by the theory of culture is not, and need is the work of its deep experience and a keen insight into the community. Otherwise, continue to rely solely on the principle of data processing technology or the training of human resources to create works in the same paper. In view of human resource development and governance are to penetrate the realities of small and medium-sized, with the various enterprises are familiar with the work of human resources and increasing practice, human resource planning will be in the development of enterprises play a powerful role in promoting.Human resources planning are to organize the protection of sustainable development, the importance of seeking development and growth, particularly in the small and medium enterprises. And whether the development and effective implementation of human resources planning does not depend on the size of the company, the most critical is based on the company's development strategy and operating characteristics of the development of suitable management policies. Most of the current characteristics and the operation of these enterprises are facing the problem of work, we propose the following recommendations: Clear core of human resourcesThe starting point for human resources planning is to clearly define the company's core competitive advantages, that is, the business environment in the enterprise, he is the survival value? His resources to maintain a competitive advantage for that? Take in order to maintain its competitive edge to find the real core of human resources. The core of human resources is to determine the survival and development of enterprise key factors, the need for incentives, education and training, design an appropriate career plan, and continuously to ensure that the recruitment of the core group of human resources capacity expansion, quality improvement, and long-term presence in the enterprise.Flexibility to develop forward-looking human resources planningThe so-called flexibility of human resource planning, is based on the core competitiveness of enterprises, re-evaluation and planning of human resources in enterprises, and form a general combination of human resources in order to ensure that the needs of enterprise's core competitive advantage of the conditions to meet the demands arising from the external business environment caused by temporary changes in human needs. In particular, in the assessment of the existing stock of human resources and define their core human resources on the basis of preparatory support the development of manpower planning and training programs accordingly, and its goal is the production or service enterprises are facing capacity expansion of opportunities, as soon as possible, with middle-level officers at the core support staff to enhance the organizations ability to respond.With the advent of the era of knowledge economy, Sees are facing a growing business environment can not guess, is filled with variables and business opportunities. Human resources planning must adapt to the needs of enterprise governance, maintaining a certain degree of flexibility in order to avoid the transfer of the business strategy of human resources when rigid, dysfunctional and hinder the development of enterprises. At the same time to further strengthen the human resource planning human resource management activities of the forward-looking, functional direction and predictability.The establishment of three-dimensional model of human resource managementPractical human resources planning must be based on internal communication, the basis of mutual cooperation. According to human resources management of small and medium-sized features, the creation of a layer in the decision-making, first-line managers and human resources management in collaboration between the scientific divisions of the three-dimensional model of governance, human resources will contribute to the formulation of strategic planning and implementation.Three-dimensional model, is defined as decision-making, human resource managementdepartments, first-line manager is responsible for the scientific division of labor and human resources management of the business, and the corresponding collaboration. In general, the decision-making level responsible for strategic planning and human resources to support the Human Resources Department, line manager, human resources work; human resources management department is responsible for job analysis, job evaluation and other infrastructure services, and to assist front-line managers do a good job in the core business and to help decision-making to do a good job of human resources strategic planning; first-line managers responsible for management of human resources in the core business in the key link to hold, and to assist Human Resources Department to do a good job analysis and job evaluation of posts and other infrastructure, as well as to assist decision-making to do a good job of human resources strategic planning .人力资源管理在企业的人力资源治理中，人力资源规划不仅具有先导性和战略性，在实施企业总体发展战略规划和目标的过程中也具有举足轻重的作用。

The Development of Human Resource Management In China IntroductionWith the advent of the 21st century, Human Resource Management, as a relatively new management subject, is playing a more and more important role in today’s business activities. This repor t mainly discusses 3 questions about today’s human resource management. The first section discusses the changing function of human resource management in terms of 3 aspects which are staff-company relations, HR model development and HR strategies. The second section describes the exploring stage of HRM in China. System building, recruitment and motivation are the three aspects to support the opinion. The third section discusses the new challenges that HR managers in China may face. In this part, challenges from the changing business age, HR managers’ abilities to deal with uncertainty and ambiguity and solitary to collective activity are discussed.Question 1Human resource management, as the quickly developing subject, without doubt, has changed a lot in its function in many fields. This section will mainly discuss the HRM’s change and expansion in the aspect of staff-company relations, HR model development and HR strategies as the following.In the aspect of the staff-company relations, the changing functions will be discussed from 3 aspects which are power factors, employees and motivational method. First, in terms of the power factors, 10 years ago the relationship between employees and the company was regarded as ‘Labor and Enterprise’ while nowadays more companies show understanding and respect for the human spirit. For example, Google China places a piano in the hall of the company and even set a kitchen and the washing machine for their employees (Jim Westcott, 2005). Second, in terms of the employees, employees are considered as thinking and rational beings around 10 years ago. The reason why they chose this company was the satisfactory salary. But today, staffs are considered as fully evolved, completely satisfied, mature human beings. Third, in the motivational methods aspect, the change is really huge. A decade ago, companies often drove employees through basic needs such as a big bonus. While the role seems to highlight people’s social and intellectual needs.In the aspect of HR model development, some human resource management functions have expanded during the past decade. One of the new products of human resource management is the HR outsourcing which support the core HR activities and business processes associated with HR administration. Outsourcing HR functions or processes is a viable decision for businesses, particularly those whose internal HR department has reached the limit of its effectiveness; businesses that want to access new programs or services (but don't want to incur the required investment), or those that want to focus on core competencies. The advantage of HR outsourcing is obvious: Obtaining access to (internally) unavailable expertise, skills, technologies; increased flexibility; reducing costs/reduce investment. This way has achieved great success in some countries, forexample, Canada. Spending on HR outsourcing in Canada, is forecast to increase by more than 13%, on average, every year between 2005 and 2009 (Jim Westcott, 2005).The majority of HR strategies have been developed over the last decade. Twenty per cent of respondents indicate that an HR strategy has been in place at their institution for less than three years, 60% report that the HR strategy was developed in the past three to seven years and 20% indicate that the strategy is ten or more years old. These data reinforce the notion that HR management has taken on a much more strategic role within the past decade. The HR strategy in recruitment and retention can be discussed in long-term goals as well as shorter-term operational procedures. In terms of recruitment and retention some institutions are primarily concerned with short-term objectives. For example, one Canadian respondent stated that their HR strategy involves ‘an annual recruitment and retention plan that governs academic staff hiring and retention for the following academic year’ (Ronold G Ehrenbdeg, 2005). Other responses highlight long-term objectives and broader issues relating to staff development and performance as well as policy and strategic planning for future institutional growth. For example, one Australian institution states that their HR strategy is concerned with ‘workforce planning, age profiling, attraction and retention issues, and reengineering the recruitment process’. The general focus of this strategy is on strategic planning for successive generations.Question 2With China's entering the WTO, modern enterprise management concept has been gradually accepted by Chinese enterprises and, human resources management has been developed and promoted in the majority of enterprises. However, as a management skill that gets access to China less than 30 years and faced with the cultural conflict, HRM in China still stays in the exploring stage.In the aspect of system building, human resources management system in China is imperfect still. According to the recent report of HR in China, less than forty percent of the enterprises have established the business development strategy combining with human resources management system. Furthermore, only 12.9% of them can really implement this strategy. What is more, employees’ career development planning, staff representation system, and the staff Rationalized suggestion are the 3 strategies that are not completed enough. Only 9% of the researched en terprises establish and implement the employees’ career development planning (Zhao Yin, 2007).In terms of the recruitment, the forms of recruitment in Chinese enterprises are not diversified enough. Although the modern enterprises can recruit through more and more channels such as networks, an executive search firm, job fairs, campus recruitment, advertising media and so many ways that can provide companies with human resources information, the majority of the companies still choose form as job fairs. However, according to the ‘2007 Human Resource Report’, the percentage of the surveyedcompanies which have been tried to recruit through network was 35%, which was 12% higher than that of the year 2006. Secondly, the technologies during the recruitment that the companies use are still in a growing stage. Only half of the enterprises plan to use professional test tool to find suitable staff. Ways like knowledge test, psychological test and presentation are introduced in China recently and are welcomed.The motivation in China is at a developing stage. Most Chinese companies have motivation strategies. Quite a few of them prefer to choose short-term and direct motivating strategies like paying. At present, China has 70% of the enterprises in accordance with different types of personnel to set different pay scales (Zhao Yin, 2007). Paying is a common kind of economic motivation. Paying incentives for executives directly show in their steady growth of income - wages, which is very intuitive. However, with the ra ise of executives’ social status and overall ability, material and money are no longer the key point of motivation. Research from China Database, one of the most authority databases, show that 19.6% of the surveyed enterprises use virtual equity of the company as the long-term motivation methods and 18.9% of them use the form of giving share options as the long-term motivation, while 78.2% of the enterprises have not implemented the long-term motivation. As one of the ways to motivate staff, long-term also includes creating a platform for employees which may attract employees since they can exert their abilities fully.Question 3As the functions of human resource have changed since the 21st century, challenges are coming to the human resource managers in China. For China is still in the exploring stage mentioned in question 2, the challenges should be more than those in developed human resource management countries. In the information era, the economic era and the knowledge, the challenges for Chinese HRM managers are mainly from these three fields.The first challenges for HRM is the changing role of organizations from the Industrial Age to the Information Age. Work performed in factories by machines is being replaced by work in offices or at computer terminals. And instead of working with things, people increasingly work with ideas and concepts. Information and knowledge have replaced manufacturing as the source of most new jobs. Thus, taking charge of thousands of workers in a factory is not the typical functions of modern human resource managers. Although the numbers of employees may decrease, but the extent of difficulty will not decrease since employees are more knowledgeable and informative.Like the popular saying nowadays ’The only thing that doesn’t change is change’, with the development of the technologies, tools that human being use speed up the pace of people’s life. Thus the second challenge which may face the human resource manager is the abilities to deal with uncertainty and ambiguity. Static, permanent organizations designed for a stable and predictable world are giving way to flexible, adaptive organizations more suited for a new world of change and transformation. Emphasis on permanence, tradition and the past is giving way to creativity and innovation in the searchfor new solutions, new processes, and new products and services. Maintaining the status is less important than a vision of the future and the organization's destiny. We are used to dealing with certainty and predictability. We need to become accustomed to dealing with uncertainty and ambiguity.The next challenges will be the ability of HR managers to adapt from muscular to mental work (Alexandria, 1997). Repetitive physical labor that doesn't add value is increasingly being replaced by mental creativity. Routine and monotony are giving way to innovation and a break with tradition. In the past, people were considered to be merely workers, an old concept that associated people with things. Now people are considered purveyors of activities and knowledge whose most important contributions are their intelligence and individual talents. We are used to dealing with physical, repetitive manual labor; we need to become accustomed to dealing with mental, creative, and innovative work.What is more, another problem that may challenge HR managers in China is to organize employee to finish projects from solitary to collective activity (FangCai, 2005). With the rising difficulty of complex and technology, it is almost impossible for only one person to finish a project. Thus teamwork is supplanting individual activity. The old emphasis on individual efficiency (on which the total efficiency of the organization depended) is being replaced by group synergy. It's a matter of multiplying efforts, rather than simply adding them. We are used to individualized, isolated work; we need to change to high-performance teamwork. Thus the function of human resource managers is to offer the company the suitable person and coordinate the relationship among the team, especially in China, a country that highlights relationship and harmony very much.ConclusionThis article first analyses the changed functions of human resource management nowadays. In terms of the staff-company relations, a trend of closer and humane relationship between staff and companies emerges. The model of HR outsourcing is showing its strong competitiveness and may become one of the main way that HR management to use. Secondly, this article states that China today still stays in the exploring stage of human resource management. The uncompleted HRM system building, the single form of recruitment, the growing interview technologies and the lack of long- term motivation in Chinese enterprises, all these facts shows that China has a long way to go in the development of HRM. Thirdly, Challenges for HRM managers in China are tough and numerous. Changes from the Industrial Age to the Information Age, stability to change, muscular to mental work lead the challenges for Chinese HRM managers. To sum up, it is a long way to go for the development of human resource management in China.人力资源管理在中国的发展导言随着二十一世纪的到来，人力资源管理作为一个相对较新的管理问题，扮演了一个越来越重要的作用在当今的商业中。

人力资源管理文献英文Human resource management literature refers to a diverse range of materials, including books, research papers, articles, and case studies that explore various aspects of HR management. The literature discusses the strategies, policies, and practices used by organizations to manage their human capital effectively and efficiently. The following document discusses the various components of the human resource management literature, which are essential for organizations to build and maintain a sustainable workforce.Recruitment and SelectionRecruitment and selection are critical components of human resource management. An effective recruitment process helps organizations identify and hire talented employees who can contribute to the organization's success. In contrast, poor recruitment practices can lead to high employee turnover rates, decreased morale, and reduced productivity. The recruitment process involves creating job descriptions, advertising job openings, screening resumes, interviewing candidates, and finally making job offers. Organizations may use various recruitment methods, such as social media, job portals, and employee referrals, to attract potential employees.Selection is the process of choosing the most suitable candidate for a job based on specific criteria. Selection processes include conducting background checks and skills assessments. The literature suggests that organizations should use valid and reliable selection methods to ensure that they are hiring the right people for the job. This is particularly important as poor recruitment and selection processes often result in high levels of employee turnover and a reduction in employee morale and productivity.Training and DevelopmentTraining and development are essential components of human resource management. Organizations invest in employee training and development to enhance their skills, knowledge, and abilities, thereby improving productivity and organizational performance. The literature suggests that employee training and development should be an ongoing process rather than aone-time event. The training process involves identifying training needs, designing training programs, and implementing and evaluating training programs. Development programs aim to prepare employees for future roles, and these may include mentoring, job rotations, and leadership training.Performance ManagementPerformance management is another critical component of human resource management. It is the process of evaluating employee performance and providing feedback to help employees improve. Performance management involves settingperformance goals, monitoring progress, and providing feedback to employees. The literature suggests that an effective performance management system has several benefits, including improved productivity, increased employee engagement, and reduced time spent on employee disciplinary procedures.Compensation and BenefitsCompensation and benefits are the incentives that organizations offer employees to attract them and retain them. The literature suggests that compensation and benefits should be fair and equitable, based on job responsibilities and market trends. The compensation and benefits package should be reviewed and updated regularly to ensure that it remains attractive to potential employees. The benefits package may include health insurance, retirement plans, vacation and sick leave policies, and other perks aimed at motivating employees.ConclusionIn conclusion, the human resource management literature provides organizations with insights into how to manage their human capital effectively. The literature has identified several components that are essential for organizations to build and sustain a high-performing workforce. These include recruitment and selection, training and development, performance management, and compensation and benefits. An effective human resource management system that integrates thesecomponents can help organizations achieve their strategic objectives and maintain a competitive edge.。

3400单词，1.8万英文字符，5240汉字出处：Jameson S M. Recruitment and training in small firms[J]. Journal of European Industrial Training, 2000, 24(1):43-49.Recruitment and training in small firmsSM JamesonAbstractThe hospitality and tourism industries are two of the fastest growing and most dynamic sectors of the UK economy. Both industries are highly labour intensive and, because of this, the effective management of human resources is critical to their success. A defining characteristic of these industries is the high incidence of small firms. The issue of training in the small business sector in general has been neglected by academics and management specialists and this is also the case specifically in tourism and hospitality. This article goes some way to address this gap in knowledge and examines the recruitment and training practices of small tourism and hospitality firms. The issues examined include sources of recruitment, the extent to which small tourism and hospitality firms had training plans and training budgets, participation, and evaluation of training.Keyword(s):Recruitment; Training; Small firms; Hospitality; Tourism.BackgroundSmall firms and trainingAlthough definitions of small firms have been extensively debated, there is no disagreement that the most commonly found tourism or hospitality enterprise is small (Thomas, 1998). To date, very little research has been conducted in these organisations. This is no surprise and as Matlay argues:The issue of training in the small business sector of the British economy has largely been neglected by academic researchers and human resource planning, development and management specialists who, until recently, were content to suggest solutions which were more relevant to the businesses strategies of larger firms (Matlay, 1996, p. 648).This is supported by Johnson and Gubbins (1992, pp. 28-9) who suggest that:relatively little is known about the extent, nature and determinants of training in small and medium-sized businesses, either on a national or on a local basis.It is argued that with the growth of tourism and hospitality and the importance of human resources within them this neglect should not continue.Research conducted in hospitality and tourism firms of all sizes has discovered that informality and a relatively unsophisticated management style characterise the approach taken towards recruitment and training (Goldsmith et al.,1997; Price, 1994; Lucas, 1995; Baum, 1995). Research on recruitment and training in small firms in general (Jameson, 1998) has also indicated that an informal approach towards the management of human resources is the norm in these firms. One of the major themes in small business literature has been the examination of the informality of relations between employers and employees. A correlation has been found to exist between the size of firm and level of formality in various sectors of the economy (see, for example, Scott et al. (1989); Curran et al. (1993)). Research conducted specifically in hospitality firms (Price, 1994, p. 49) found that:one of the main findings from the survey was the importance of the relationship between establishment size and emplo yment practices … there was a strong correlation between size and the extent to which establishments had introduced personnel policies, procedures or other arrangements which met the requirements of employment law.The significance of this relationship cannot be underestimated and must be borne in mind when interpreting the results on recruitment and training in the small firms in the sample.Any meaningful analysis of recruitment and training cannot be undertaken without some understanding of the labour market within which small tourism and hospitality firms operate. Much effort has been expended developing theoretical models of the labour market. As far as the tourism and hospitality industries are concerned one of the most useful theories is dual labour market theory. Goldsmith et al. (1997) summarize this succinctly. Dual labour market theory proposes that the total labour market can be segmented. One section is the primary labour market, where jobs tend to be supplied by large, highly profitable firms with a high capital to labour ratio and high productivity. Here, production is usually large scale with high investment in technology. Employment in these firms is normally stable with relatively high skill and wage levels. In this context, there are normally opportunities for training. The secondary labour market is normally characterised by small firms with low capital to labour ratio, low productivity and small scale production. In these firms, wage and skill levels tend to be low, employment is unstable and training opportunities are usually limited. Small tourism and hospitality firms normally tend to operate within the secondary labour market.There are obvious relationships between recruitment and training. One relationship is where training can provide solutions to problems in the labour market. Campbell and Baldwin (1993) suggest that in many industrialised countries there is a concern that skills shortages and mismatches are appearing in the labour market and that policy makers are aware that recruitment difficulties and skill shortages may reduce the competitiveness of small and large firms. Bradley and Taylor (1996) suggest that there is a growing awareness that education and training systems can influence the skill and occupational mix of a locality and local economic wellbeing. Another type of relationship is one where the level of recruitment affects the level of training. In tourism and hospitality, with their reliance on the secondary labour market and high rates of labour turnover, there is a strong tendency to have high levels of recruitment and low levels of training. The arguments being that either it is not worth investing in training or there simply is not time. RecruitmentResearch on tourism and hospitality firms in general (i.e. not specifically small firms) refers to informal and unsystematic recruitment methods (Lucas and Boella, 1996). Others, who have carried out research into recruitment in small firms in general have found a reliance on informal methods (see, for example, Curran et al., 1993). Millward et al. (1992) found that, whereas larger enterprises relied greatly on formal methods and bureaucratic procedures by specialist personnel departments, the small business owner/manager is likely to handle recruiting and personnel matters without delegating and is unlikely to have any relevant skills.TrainingTourism and hospitality have one of the highest levels of skill shortages (HCTC, 1995; HEFCE, 1998). If, as Bradley and Taylor (1996) suggest, training can influence the skill of a locality, then it is interesting to see how seriously small tourism and hospitality firms take training.According to Curran et al. (1996) small businesses experience problems in providing training for both owner-managers and workers. It has also been discovered that the hospitality industry displays one of the lowest levels of training activity in the UK economy (HCTC, 1995). These points should be borne in mind when the results of this survey are interpreted.Two of the indicators of a systematic approach to training are the existence of a training plan/policy and a specific budget for training.According to the Hospitality Training Foundation (HtF, 1996) 63 per cent of employers in all industries had a training plan. In catering and hospitality 64 per cent had a training plan. The most recent research on training and small firms found that only 28 per cent of such firms had a training plan.It is appropriate to discuss training budgets alongside training plans. It is also useful to compare the survey findings with all industries and with the hospitality industry (no figures are available for tourism). In all industries 55 per cent of employers had training budgets; in hospitality this figure was 43 per cent according to IFF research (HtF, 1996). However, research carried out by the HtF found that only 19 per cent of hospitality firms had a training budget.In the UK, the provision of training to SMEs has become a central issue of economic policy (Miller and Davenport, 1987). Storey (1994) has described this as a major indirect small firms policy initiative. Over the last decade, the provision of training and support to SMEs has increased considerably involving national and local Government, the private sector, and further and higher education institutes (Westhead, 1996. In the survey on small tourism and hospitality firms, the issue of training provision was examined.There is little point in investing in training without attempting to measure its effectiveness. Measuring the effectiveness of training is extremely difficult in any size of firm. The small firms literature suggests that owner-managers of small firms assess the value of workforce training in an informal way and tend to use various kinds of subjective assessments. The firms in the survey were questioned on if and how they measured the effectiveness of training.Research methodResearchers at The Centre for the Study of Small Tourism and Hospitality Firms based at Leeds Metropolitan University, UK, were keen to examine business practices in small firms both by breadth and depth. As such, it was decided to administer a questionnaire to 4,331 small firms. In total, 1,103 were returned completed, giving a response rate of 26 percent. The project focused on four regions: Cumbria; Heart of England; West Country; and Yorkshire. Eight sectors were chosen to provide a broadly based cross-section of these industries. These sectors were public house/bar; travel agent; hotel; visitor attraction; B&B/guesthouse; fast food/takeaway; restaurant or café; self-catering. The vast majority of firms in the sample were independently-owned single outlet businesses (80 per cent). The definition of a small firm adopt ed for the survey is fewer than 50 employees and is a conflation of the European Commission’s definition of very small (or micro) enterprises (fewer than ten employees) and small (between ten and 49 employees). The sample source was the Business Database (British Telecom) and a disproportionatestratified sample was specified within the four regions to provide a cross-section of experiences. This article presents some of the findings of the national survey of small tourism and hospitality firms. The survey is the most comprehensive of its kind ever to be undertaken in the UK and examined business performance, the business environment, marketing and recruitment and training in small tourism and hospitality firms. The survey represents a barometer of the changing attitudes and behaviour of those operating small tourism and hospitality firms.This article concentrates on the recruitment and training practices of the firms in the survey. The aim of the research was to discover the extent and nature of recruitment and training in small tourism and hospitality firms.ResultsInformality and a relatively unsophisticated management style characterise the approach taken towards recruitment and training in the small firms in the survey.When respondents in the survey were questioned about their recruitment activity during the past year (see Table I), and more specifically were asked about the methods used to recruit staff, word of mouth was the most commonly used recruitment method, followed by local press and job centres.These findings support the advice in the recruitment literature which normally suggests that small firms should recruit from the local labour market and should keep their recruitment spending within a very tight budget.In addition to questions on recruitment, respondents were asked a series of questions on training practices. When they were asked if they had a training plan for their business, the results were as indicated in Table II. Although only 11 per cent of small tourism and hospitality firms had a formal written plan, significantly more had some sort of training plan. Although this is lower than for other industries and thehospitality industry in general, it is higher than the figure for small firms, and does indicate some commitment to a systematic approach to training.As far as training budgets were concerned, 12 per cent of firms in the sample had them (see Figure 1). This figure of 12 per cent is not discouraging, and in fact, is almost identical to the figure of 12.5 per cent for small firms in general (Curran et al., 1996). Although both the figures for training plans and budgets appear encouraging, more details are required on the exact nature of the training plans and the precise amount of money devoted to training in relation to turnover etc. However, results from the survey do seem to indicate that some small tourism and hospitality firms are taking training seriously.Respondents were asked if they had provided training during the past 12 months (see Table III). On-the-job training was the most common training method used by small tourism and hospitality firms. This was followed by external training courses and induction. These results are unsurprising as small firms in general tend to favour informal training methods and usually value training which is specific to the job in question. Although on the job training may be appropriate for many jobs in small tourism and hospitality firms, this reliance on informal, unsophisticated training methods is typical of weak internal labour markets which generally have low skill requirements and lack training and promotion opportunities. This can beinterpreted as part of the whole package of the informal, unsophisticated approach to the management of human resources in small firms which is characterised by vague hiring standards and unsystematic recruitment. It runs counter to the primary labour market which has a strong internal labour market with precise hiring standards, formalised recruitment, high skill requirements and opportunities for training and promotion.Respondents in the survey were asked about training courses provided by external agencies and their replies produced the following response (see Table IV).As far as the small tourism and hospitality firms in the sample were concerned the courses which they found to be “very helpful” were organised by private providers (42 per cent found them to be very helpful). The provider who ranked second in the “very helpful” category was trade associations with 40 per cent. Courses provided by the banks appeared to be the least helpful as they had the highest percentage of respondents in the “not very helpful”category. Banks continue to be in the limelight as far as services to small businesses are concerned. Obviously it depends on which bank and which courses small tourism and hospitality businesses have experienced. Much also depends on the expectations that the owner/managers have of such a service. When the positive responses were combined, i.e. “very helpful” and “helpful”, the providers who fared best were private providers (86 per cent), trade associations (83 per cent) and local authorities (83 per cent). The banks’ results were worst with only 40 per cent of owner-managers finding their courses helpful.When respondents were questioned on active involvement in education or training initiatives, the results showed the following (see Table V). As far as Investors in People is concerned the 9 per cent of small tourism and hospitality firms which were either committed to or recognised as Investors In People is still much higher than the industry average of 3 per cent. This contrasts with the HtF’s suggestion that small firms are only as likely as large firms to engage in Investors in People activity.Another finding which contradicts the HtF’s view is that NVQ/SVQs have not been implemented in smaller hospitality establishments. Again, 17 per cent of small tourism and hospitality firms in the survey were participating in NVQs and SVQs. Highest participation was work experience for school pupils and work experience for college students and both of these “initiatives” have traditionally been extensively utilised by tourism and hospitality firms of all sizes.As mentioned above, it is pointless to invest in training unless some attempt is made to measure its effectiveness. In this survey of small tourism and hospitality firms one-third of respondents attempted to measure the effectiveness of training within their firm (see Figure 2). This again indicates that some small tourism and hospitality firms are taking training seriously.In the survey a question on future training intentions was divided into three sections; those relating to owner-managers, managers, staff. The results are summarised in Table VI Not surprisingly, the most likely recipients of training in these firms in the next 12 months will be staff. This may illustrate an intention to take training seriously but, of course, this intention needs to be reviewed in a year’s time. It is also necessary to evaluate the level, type, and quality of training being provided. Although there is an intention to train owner-managers in the next 12 months these are the people in small tourism and hospitality firms least likely to receive training in the next year. Given their importance as trainers, there is a case to be made that they should receive more support and training on how to train their workers more effectively. Authors such as Pittaway (1999) discovered that SME owners felt that their own skills impacted on the performance of the business and that they needed further training.ConclusionIn conclusion, this research has been undertaken as a result of the gap in knowledge on training in small firms, and more specifically on training in small tourism and hospitality firms. It suggests that this gap should not be allowed to continue, due to the growth and increasing importance of the tourism and hospitality industries and the nature of human resources within them. The research operates from the premiss that small firms are not microcosms of large firms, and as such require separate treatment. It is therefore inappropriate and inadequate simply to utilise previous research which is based on the large firm sector.This research has attempted partially to fill the gap in knowledge about the extent and nature of training in small tourism and hospitality firms.As expected, recruitment and training in small hospitality firms are largely carried out on an informal basis. This is entirely appropriate for the sizes of firms in question and is consistent with research conducted in various industry sectors. Implications of informality, however, may include being in breach ofcurrent employment law and may also result in recruiting people who are inappropriate in the long run. Informal recruitment practices and inappropriate selection can lead to high labour turnover.Compared with other industries, hospitality and tourism have higher than average skills shortages, labour turnover and hard to fill vacancies at every level (HEFCE, 1998). The scenario is one in which firms rely heavily on the secondary labour market and exhibit high levels of recruitment. It is argued that high levels of recruitment can affect the level of training in a firm. In fact, Hendry et al. (1991) found that in some cases, managers may prefer to recruit rather than train. Wynarczyck et al. (1993) discovered that the absence of an internal labour market in a small firm can impede the provision of formal training. Although this survey has not found a high level of formal training in small tourism and hospitality firms, it has discovered that in some firms, training is being taken seriously.Although as mentioned above, small businesses experience problems in providing training and the hospitality industry has one of the lowest training levels in the UK, small firms in this sector actually had higher incidences of training plans than small firms in other sectors.Informality is again present in relation to the types of training offered in the firms. As expected, on-job training predominates. Although it is essential to train people to do the job for which they have been appointed, this reliance on informal training can result in the exclusion of staff development in a more general sense and can reduce the likelihood of developing an internal labour market. Dependence on informal on-job training can increase the utilisation of the external labour market which enforces the vicious circle of high levels of recruitment and low levels of training.Optimism regarding training in small tourism and hospitality firms can again be seen when examining results of relationships with Investors In People and NVQs. The results of this survey indicated that in both cases small firms had higher levels of commitment than the hospitality industry in general.Overall this research has offered a snapshot of the nature and extent of recruitment and training in small tourism and hospitality firms.It is suggested that more research needs to be conducted to establish if correlations exist between training activity and the type and size of small tourism and hospitality firm. It is also proposed that whether or not a firm is in a stage of growth can determine attitudes towards and participation in training. Future research should concentrate on depth rather than breadth and a more qualitative approach would be appropriate which determine the reasons why small firm owner-managers decide to train/or not, how they decide on the type of training and if the type of training is effective in the small firm context.小企业的招聘与培训摘要酒店和旅游行业是对英国经济增长最快和最具活力的行业。