Course outline
Basic scientific English Introduction to chemistry Inorganic chemistry Organic chemistry Physical chemistry Analytical chemistry Research methods and related equipments Academic communication Miscellaneous (green chemistry, bio… video)
Physical Chemistry
物理化学
Physical chemistry is a combined science of physics, chemistry, thermodynamics, electrochemistry, and quantum mechanics. It functions to provide molecular-level interpretations of observed macroscopic phenomena. Typically, changes in temperature, pressure, volume, heat, and work of systems in the solid, liquid, and or gas phase are correlated to microscopic atomic and molecular interactions. Thermodynamics Quantum mechanics
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热力学 量子力学
Modern physical chemistry is firmly grounded upon physics. Important areas of study include thermochemistry (chemical thermodynamics), chemical kinetics, quantum chemistry, statistical mechanics, electrochemistry, surface and solid state chemistry, and spectroscopy. Physical chemistry is also fundamental to modern materials science. Physical chemistry now strongly overlaps with chemical physics. Thermochemistry Chemical kinetics Quantum chemistry Statistical mechanics Surface Solid state
热化学 化学动力学 量子化学 统计力学 表面 固态
The relationships that physical chemistry tries to resolve include the effects of:
1. Intermolecular forces （分子间力）on the physical properties of materials (plasticity（可塑性）, tensile strength（张力）, surface tension（表面张力） in liquids).
2. Reaction kinetics （反应动力学） on the rate of a reaction.
3. The identity of ions on the electrical conductivity of materials.
Molecules at the surface of a liquid are attracted only by other molecules at the surface and by molecules below the surface. Molecules in the interior of a liquid experience forces from neighboring molecules in all directions.
The surface tension of water enables the steel needle, though denser than water, to float on the surface of the water. It also supports the water strider.
Reaction kinetics
H2 + Cl2 -> 2HCl
Only collisions with enough energy react to form products. The energy of the system changes as the reactants approach each other.
Thermodynamics
Classical thermodynamics Statistical thermodynamics Chemical thermodynamics Thermodynamic systems
Isolated （隔离）Systems – matter and energy may not cross the boundary. Adiabatic (绝热) Systems – heat may not cross the boundary. Diathermic (透热) Systems - heat may cross boundary. Closed (封闭) Systems – matter may not cross the boundary. Open (开放) Systems – heat, work, and matter may cross the boundary.
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When energy changes are measured in a chemical reaction, the system is the reaction mixture being studied, and the surroundings are the flask, the room, and the rest of the universe. The energy change is the difference between final and initial states.
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Thermodynamic potentials
Internal energy 内能 Helmholtz free energy 亥姆霍兹自由能 Enthalpy 焓 Gibbs free energy吉布斯自由能
U A=U-TS H=U+PV G=U+PV-TS
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Entropy (熵) is a measure of molecular randomness, or disorder. Gases have more randomness and higher entropy than liquids, which in turn have more randomness and higher entropy than solids.
The laws of thermodynamics
Zeroth law of thermodynamics, stating that thermodynamic equilibrium is an equivalence relation.
First law of thermodynamics, about the conservation of energy
Second law of thermodynamics, about entropy
Third law of thermodynamics, about absolute zero temperature
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Thermochemistry (chemical thermodynamics ) is the study of the heat evolved or absorbed in chemical reactions. Thermochemistry, generally, is concerned with the heat exchange accompanying transformations, such as mixing, phase transitions(相变), chemical reactions, etc., which includes calculations of such quantities as the heat capacity (热容), heat of combustion(燃烧热), heat of formation(生成热), etc.
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A calorimeter (热量计) for measuring the heat flow in a reaction at constant pressure. The reaction takes place inside an insulated vessel outfitted with a loose-fitting top, a thermometer, and a stirrer. Measuring the temperature change that accompanies the reaction makes it possible to calculate heat.
A bomb calorimeter for measuring the heat evolved at constant volume in a combustion reaction. The reaction is carried out inside a steel bomb, and the heat evolved is transferred to the surrounding water, where the temperature rise is measured.
Chemical kinetics or reaction kinetics
chemical kinetics or reaction kinetics study reaction rates in a chemical reaction. Analyzing the influence of different reaction conditions on the reaction rate gives information about the reaction mechanism(反应机理) and the transition state of a chemical reaction. In 1864, Peter Waage pioneered the development of chemical kinetics by formulating the law of mass action(质量作用定理 ), which states that the speed of a chemical reaction is proportional to the quantity of the reacting substances.
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Rate of reaction Kinetics deal with the experimental determination of reaction rates： zero order reactions: rates are independent of initial concentration first order reactions second order reactions
In consecutive reactions the rate-determining step (速决步) often determines the kinetics. The main factors that influence the reaction rate include: the physical state of the reactants, the concentrations of the reactants, the temperature at which the reaction occurs, and whether or not any catalysts(催化剂) are present in the reaction.
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Enzymes \ en-zīm\ are great catalysts because they can increase the A factor and decrease the energy of activation at the same time, both increasing the reaction rate without increasing the temperature.
Quantum chemistry
Quantum chemistry is a branch of theoretical chemistry, which applies quantum mechanics and quantum field theory to address issues and problems in chemistry. The description of the electronic behavior of atoms and molecules as pertaining to their reactivity is one of the applications of quantum chemistry. Quantum chemistry lies on the border between chemistry and physics, and significant contributions have been made by scientists from both fields. It has a strong and active overlap with the field of atomic physics and molecular physics, as well as physical chemistry.
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BET公式BET formula DLVO理论DLVO theory HLB法hydrophile-lipophile balance method pVT性质pVT property ζ电势zeta potential 阿伏加德罗常数Avogadro’number 阿伏加德罗定律Avogadro law 阿累尼乌斯电离理论Arrhenius ionization theory 阿累尼乌斯方程Arrhenius equation 阿累尼乌斯活化能Arrhenius activation energy 阿马格定律Amagat law 艾林方程Erying equation 爱因斯坦光化当量定律Einstein’s law of photochemical equivalence 爱因斯坦－斯托克斯方程Einstein-Stokes equation 安托万常数Antoine constant 安托万方程Antoine equation 盎萨格电导理论Onsager’s theory of conductance 半电池half cell 半衰期half time period 饱和液体saturated liquids 饱和蒸气saturated vapor 饱和吸附量saturated extent of adsorption 饱和蒸气压saturated vapor pressure 爆炸界限explosion limits 比表面功specific surface work 比表面吉布斯函数specific surface Gibbs function 比浓粘度reduced viscosity 标准电动势standard electromotive force 标准电极电势standard electrode potential 标准摩尔反应焓standard molar reaction enthalpy 标准摩尔反应吉布斯函数standard Gibbs function of molar reaction 标准摩尔反应熵standard molar reaction entropy 标准摩尔焓函数standard molar enthalpy function 标准摩尔吉布斯自由能函数standard molar Gibbs free energy function 标准摩尔燃烧焓standard molar combustion enthalpy 标准摩尔熵standard molar entropy 标准摩尔生成焓standard molar formation enthalpy 标准摩尔生成吉布斯函数standard molar formation Gibbs function 标准平衡常数standard equilibrium constant 标准氢电极standard hydrogen electrode 标准态standard state 标准熵standard entropy 标准压力standard pressure 标准状况standard condition 表观活化能apparent activation energy 表观摩尔质量apparent molecular weight 表观迁移数apparent transference number 表面surfaces 表面过程控制surface process control 表面活性剂surfactants 表面吸附量surface excess 表面张力surface tension 表面质量作用定律surface mass action law 波义尔定律Boyle law 波义尔温度Boyle temperature 波义尔点Boyle point 玻尔兹曼常数Boltzmann constant 玻尔兹曼分布Boltzmann distribution 玻尔兹曼公式Boltzmann formula 玻尔兹曼熵定理Boltzmann entropy theorem 玻色－爱因斯坦统计Bose-Einstein statistics 泊Poise 不可逆过程irreversible process 不可逆过程热力学thermodynamics of irreversible processes 不可逆相变化irreversible phase change 布朗运动brownian movement 查理定律Charle’s law 产率yield
Unit 1 Chemical Industry 化学工业 1.Origins of the Chemical Industry Although the use of chemicals dates back to the ancient civilizations, the evolution of what we know as the modern chemical industry started much more recently. It may be considered to have begun during the Industrial Revolution, about 1800, and developed to provide chemicals roe use by other industries. Examples are alkali for soapmaking, bleaching powder for cotton, and silica and sodium carbonate for glassmaking. It will be noted that these are all inorganic chemicals. The organic chemicals industry started in the 1860s with the exploitation of William Henry Perkin‘s discovery if the first synthetic dyestuff—mauve. At the start of the twentieth century the emphasis on research on the applied aspects of chemistry in Germany had paid off handsomely, and by 1914 had resulted in the German chemical industry having 75% of the world market in chemicals. This was based on the discovery of new dyestuffs plus the development of both the contact process for sulphuric acid and the Haber process for ammonia. The later required a major technological breakthrough that of being able to carry out chemical reactions under conditions of very high pressure for the first time. The experience gained with this was to stand Germany in good stead, particularly with the rapidly increased demand for nitrogen-based compounds (ammonium salts for fertilizers and nitric acid for explosives manufacture) with the outbreak of world warⅠin 1914. This initiated profound changes which continued during the inter-war years (1918-1939). 1．化学工业的起源 尽管化学品的使用可以追溯到古代文明时代，我们所谓的现代化学工业的发展却是非常近代（才开始的）。可以认为它起源于工业革命其间，大约在1800年，并发展成为为其它工业部门提供化学原料的产业。比如制肥皂所用的碱，棉布生产所用的漂白粉，玻璃制造业所用的硅及Na2CO3. 我们会注意到所有这些都是无机物。有机化学工业的开始是在十九世纪六十年代以William Henry Perkin 发现第一种合成染料—苯胺紫并加以开发利用为标志的。20世纪初，德国花费大量资金用于实用化学方面的重点研究，到1914年，德国的化学工业在世界化学产品市场上占有75%的份额。这要归因于新染料的发现以及硫酸的接触法生产和氨的哈伯生产工艺的发展。而后者需要较大的技术突破使得化学反应第一次可以在非常高的压力条件下进行。这方面所取得的成绩对德国很有帮助。特别是由于1914年第一次世界大仗的爆发，对以氮为基础的化合物的需求飞速增长。这种深刻的改变一直持续到战后（1918-1939）。 date bake to/from: 回溯到 dated: 过时的，陈旧的 stand sb. in good stead: 对。。。很有帮助
01.THE ELEMENTS AND THE PERIODIC TABLE 01元素和元素周期 表。 The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is referred to as the atomic number, or proton number, Z. The number of electrons in an electrically neutral atom is also equal to the atomic number, Z. The total mass of an atom is determined very nearly by the total number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus. This total is called the mass number, A. The number of neutrons in an atom, the neutron number, is given by the quantity A-Z. 原子核中的质子数的原子称为原子序数，或质子数，卓电子数的电中性的原子也等于原子序数Z，总质量的原子是非常接近的总数量的质子和中子在原子核。这被称为质量数，这个数的原子中的中子，中子数，给出了所有的数量 The term element refers to, a pure substance with atoms all of a single kind. To the chemist the "kind" of atom is specified by its atomic number, since this is the property that determines its chemical behavior. At present all the atoms from Z = 1 to Z = 107 are known; there are 107 chemical elements. Each chemical element has been given a name and a distinctive symbol. For most elements the symbol is simply the abbreviated form of
复习《物理化学》过程中，顺便整理了专业名词的翻译，大家凑合着，依我看，简单的会考汉译英，复杂的会考英译汉。不管怎么样，中文英文背过最好。如果有错误，赶紧的，说。1多相系统heterogeneous system 2自由度degree of freedom 3相律phase rule 4独立组分数number of independent component 5凝聚系统condensed system 6三相点triple point 7超临界流体supercritical fluid 8超临界流体萃取supercritical fluid extraction 9超临界流体色谱supercritical fluid chromatography 10泡点bubbling point 11露点dew point 12杠杆规则level rule 13连结线tie line 14部分蒸馏（分馏）fractional distillation 15缔合分子associated molecule 16最低恒沸点minimum azeotropic point 17最低恒沸混合物low-boiling azeotrope 18无水乙醇(绝对乙醇) absolute ethyl alcohol 19最高恒沸点maximum azeotropic point 20会溶点consolute point 21共轭层conjugate layer 22烟碱nicotine 23蒸汽蒸馏steam distillation 24步冷曲线cooling curve 25热分析法thermal analysis 26低共熔点eutectic point 27低共熔混合物eutectic mixture 28异成分熔点incongruent melting point 29转熔温度peritectic tempreture 30固溶体solid solution 31退火annealing 32淬火quenching 33区域熔炼zone melting 34分凝系数fractional coagulation coefficient 35褶点plait point 36等温会溶点isothermal consolute point 37双节点溶解度曲线binodal solubility cueve 38一（二）级相变first(second) order phase transition 39超流体super fluid 40顺磁体paramagnetic substance
第二章科技英语构词法 词是构成句子的要素，对词意理解的好坏直接关系到翻译的质量。 所谓构词法即词的构成方法，即词在结构上的规律。科技英语构词特点是外来语多（很多来自希腊语和拉丁语）；第二个特点是构词方法多，除了非科技英语中常用的三种构词法—转化、派生及合成法外，还普遍采用压缩法、混成法、符号法和字母象形法。 2.1转化法（Conversion） 由一种词类转化成另一种词类，叫转化法。例如： water(n.水)→water(v.浇水) charge(n.电荷) →charge(v.充电) yield(n.产率) →yield(v.生成) dry(a.干的) →dry（v.烘干） slow(a.慢的) →slow(v.减慢) back(ad.在后、向后) →back（v.使后退、倒车） square(n.正方形) →square(a.正方形的) 2.2派生法（Derivation） 通过加前、后缀构成一新词。派生法是化工类科技英语中最常用的构词法。 例如“烷烃”就是用前缀（如拉丁或希腊前缀）表示分子中碳原子数再加上“-ane”作词尾构成的。若将词尾变成“-ane”、“-yne”、“-ol”、“-al”、“-yl”，则分别表示“烯”、“炔”、“醇”、“醛”、“基”、等。依此类推，从而构成千成种化学物质名词。常遇到这样的情况，许多化学化工名词在字典上查不到，全若掌握这种构词法，能过其前、后缀分别代表的意思，合在一起即是该词的意义。下面通过表1举例说明。需要注意的是，表中物质的数目词头除前四个另有名称外，其它均为表上的数目词头。 本书附录为化学化工专业常用词根及前后缀。此外还可参阅《英汉化学化工词汇》（第三版）附录中的“英汉对照有机基名表”、“西文化学名词中常用的数止词头”及“英汉对照有机词尾表”。 据估计，知道一个前缀可帮助人们认识450个英语单词。一名科技工作者至少要知道近50个前缀和30个后缀。这对扩大科技词汇量，增强自由阅读能力，提高翻译质量和加快翻译速度都是大有裨益的。 2．3合成法（Composition） 由两个或更多的词合成一个词，叫合成法。有时需加连字符。 如副词+过去分词well-known 著名的 名词+名词carbon steel 碳钢 rust-resistance 防锈 名词+过去分词computer-oriented 研制计算机的 介词+名词by-product 副产物 动词+副词makeup 化妆品 check-up 检查 形容词+名词atomic weight 原子量 periodic table 周期表 动词+代词+副词pick-me-up 兴奋剂 副词+介词+名词out-of-door 户外 2．4压缩法（Shortening） (1)只取词头字母 这种方法在科技英语中较常用。
15 Extractive and Azeotropic Distillation Extractive and azeotropic distillation have the common feature that a substance not normally present in the mixture to be separated is deliberately introduced into the system in order to increase the difference in volatility of the most hard to separate components. Extractive distillation can be defined as distillation in the presence of a substance which is relatively non-volatile compared to the components to be separated, and which, therefore, is charged continuously near the top of the fractionating tower, so that an appreciable concentration is maintained on all plates in the tower below its entry. Azeotropic distillation can be defined as distillation in which the add ed substance forms an azeotrope with one or more of the components in the feed, and by virtue of this are present on most of the plates in the tower above its entry at an appreciable level of concentration. These separation methods find their principal applications in the separation of mixtures whose components boil too close together for the economical use of simple fractionating equipment. These separation methods are particularly applicable when the components to be separated differ in chemical type. The theoretical principles involved are well documented, and will not be further considered here. The processes diff er in the means used to maintain be desired solvent concentration on the plates of the tower. In extractive distillation the high concentration of solvent is maintained by virtue of its non-volatility, and by the fact that it is charged at a high point in the tower. The solvent is, necessarily, removed from the base of the principal tower. In azeotropic distillation, most of the solvent is taken off from overhead, with relatively small amounts (ideally, none) drawn off with the bottoms. Extractive distillation is generally more flexible than azeotropic distillation, a greater variety of solvents and a wider range of operation conditions are available; and the concentration of solvent may be controlled by heat and material balances rather than by the accident of azeotrope composition. Furthermore, since vaporization of the solvent is not required beat loads are usually considerably less. It has been mainly used for the separation of toluene, not benzene. But it is mentioned here for
中职英语教学之我见 中职英语教学应注重构建和谐融洽的师生关系，激发和培养学生的兴趣以增强学习自信心；采用多种教学方法以提高英语吸引力，培养学生良好的学习习惯。 标签： 中职学校；英语；教学方法 开展任何行之有效的教学活动，都应当是以学生为核心、双向互动的教育，对于中职的英语教学工作更是如此，这样才可为学生学好英语创造良好的教学氛围。一位合格的英语教师，不但应该拥有完善、专业的理论知识体系，还应当擅长运用各种教学手段和技巧，去发掘和培养学生的语言能力，最大限度地开发学生的语言潜能。因此在中职英语教学中，教师应主要做了以下几点： 一、构建和谐融洽的师生关系 构建和谐融洽的师生关系对提高英语教学效果起着决定性的作用。众所周知，开展人思想的工作最难，尤其面对正处在性格养成期的青少年学生。要使授课效果得到提升，就必须深入教学实践中去了解学生的兴趣偏好，分析和总结学生的心理活动发展的规律。 首先，在学习上应严格要求学生，让学生学到更多知识，提高学习效率。学生真正学到了知识，考试的时候没有遗憾，考完试后没有悔恨，随着时间的推移，年龄的增长，他不单不会记恨于“严师”，而且会渐渐体会到“感恩”的涵义。 其次，在课堂之下，教师应和学生交流、沟通。交谈的时候要会请学生坐下，和学生平起平坐。这种交流、沟通如果称作“聊天”会更合适一些。可以聊家庭、生活、保健、流行时尚等等。还可以互讲故事、互述经历……至于“学习”，只在关键时刻，以物指人，讲几句经典、哲理的话就可以了。多关心成绩差一些的学生、心理上有障碍的学生、很努力而成绩却不理想的学生……作为一名教师，只要能走进学生的“心”中，让学生看到、体会到老师对学生的爱，学生自然就会尊重老师，不会“闹课堂”啦！让学生喜欢你、信任你，走进学生的心里，和学生平等对话并保持“ 零距离”，学生就会喜欢所教的学科，才会在课堂上学得主动并神采飞扬，也必然会成绩优异。 第三，教师应该提高自身素质。作为教师，要教书育人，但不能失去求知的本能。时代在更新，知识也在不断更新，作为教师，都应该有所涉及。不要让自己的学生觉得老师“什么都不懂”，在学术方面也应如此。要随时充满危机感，不断充实自己。 最后，学生犯错，绝对要受到惩罚，绝不能姑息，只是要注意惩罚的“程度”
Unit 2 Research and Development 研究和开发 Research and development, or R&D as it is commonly referred to, is an activity which is carried out by all sectors of manufacturing industry but its extent varies considerably, as we will see shortly. Let us first understand, or at least get a feel for, what the terms mean. Although the distinction between research and development is not always clear-cut, and there is often considerable overlap, we will attempt to separate them. In simple terms research can be thought of as the activity which produces new ideas and knowledge whereas development is putting those ideas into practice as new process and products. To illustrate this with an example, predicting the structure of a new molecule which would have a specific biological activity and synthesizing it could be seen as research whereas testing it and developing it to the point where it could be marketed as a new drug could be described as the development part. 研究和开发，或通常所称R&D是制造业各个部门都要进行的一项活动。我们马上可以看到，它的内容变化很大。我们首先了解或先感觉一下这个词的含义。尽管研究和开发的定义总是分得不很清楚，而且有许多重叠的部分，我们还是要试着把它们区分开来。简单说来，研究是产生新思想和新知识的活动，而开发则是把这些思想贯彻到实践中得到新工艺和新产品的行为。可以用一个例子来描述这一点，预测一个有特殊生物活性的分子结构并合成它可以看成是研究而测试它并把它发展到可以作为一种新药推向市场这一阶段则看作开发部分。 1.Fundamental Research and Applied Research In industry the primary reason for carting out R&D is economic and is to strengthen and improve the company?s position and profitability. The purpose of R&D is to generate and provide information and knowledge to reduce uncertainty, solve problems and to provide better data on which management can base decisions. Specific projects cover a wide range of activities and time scales, from a few months to 20 years. 1．基础研究和应用研究 在工业上进行研究和开发最主要的原因是经济利益方面，是为了加强公司的地位，提高公司的利润。R&D的目的是做出并提供信息和知识以减低不确定性，解决问题，以及向管理层提供更好的数据以便他们能据此做出决定。特别的项目涵盖很大的活动范围和时间范围，从几个月到20年。 We can pick out a number of areas of R&D activity in the following paragraphs but if we were to start with those which were to spring to the mind of the academic, rather than the industrial, chemist then these would be basic, fundamental (background) or exploratory research and the synthesis of new compounds. This is also labeled “blue skies” research. 我们可以在后面的段落里举出大量的R&D活动。但是如果我们举出的点子来源于研究院而不是工业化学家的头脑，这就是基础的或探索性的研究 Fundamental research is typically associated with university research. It may be carried out for its own intrinsic interest and it will add to the total knowledge base but no immediate applications of it in the “real world” well be apparent. Note that it will provide a valuable
Chemistry Summer Holidays Homework for Future Freshmen of High school Class: __________________________ Chinese Name:______________________ English Name:______________________ Beijing#80 High School International Department
Introduction to Chemistry 化学入门 Definition:Chemistry is the study of the composition, structure, and properties of matter, the processes that matter undergoes, and the energy changes that accompany there processes. (化学的定义：化学是研究物质的组成，结构，性质，物质发生的变化，以及变化过程中涉及的能量变化。) Branches of Chemistry: Organic Chemistry；Inorganic Chemistry；Physical Chemistry; Analytical Chemistry; Biochemistry; Theoretical chemistry (化学的分支：有机化学；无机化学；物理化学；分析化学；生物化学；理论化学)
Day 1 【Task】Please put the Chinese name into the suitable chapter. Vocabulary about chapter name. 章节名称词汇 （----What may we study about chemistry in the first year? 高一可能涉及哪些化学知识？） 物质和变化；原子：构建物质的基本单元；酸和碱；氧化还原反应；气体； 化学键；原子中的电子排布；称量和计算；有机化学；反应能量；元素周期律；化学方程式和化学反应；化学平衡；化学反应动力学；化学计量学； 化学式和化学物质；物质的状态；生物化学；电化学；滴定与pH值； 水溶液中离子和稀溶液的依数性；溶液； Chapter 1 Matter and Change ( ) Chapter 2 Measurement and Calculation ( ) Chapter 3 Atom-Building Block of Matter ( ) Chapter 4 Arrangement of Electrons in Atoms( ) Chapter 5 The periodic Law ( ) Chapter 6 Chemical Bonding ( ) Chapter 7 Chemical Formulas and Chemical Compounds ( ) Chapter 8 Chemical Equations and Reactions ( ) Chapter 9 Stoichiometry ( ) Chapter 10 States of Matter ( ) Chapter 11 Gas ( ) Chapter 12 Solution ( ) Chapter 13 ions in Aqueous Solution and colligative Properties ( ) Chapter 14 Acid and Base ( ) Chapter 15 Acid-Base Titration and pH ( ) Chapter 16 Reaction Energy ( ) Chapter 17 Reaction Kinetics ( ) Chapter 18 Chemical Equilibrium ( ) Chapter 19 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions ( ) Chapter 20 Electrochemistry ( ) Chapter 22 Organic Chemistry ( ) Chapter 23 Biology Chemistry ( )
化学及化工专业英语词汇(G) 化学及化工专业英语词汇(G)化学及化工专业英语词汇(G)gabriel synthesis 加布里埃耳合成法 gadoleic acid 烯酸 gadolinite 硅铍钇矿钕 gadolinium 钆 gadolinium chloride 氯化钆 gadolinium nitrate 硝酸钆 gadolinium oxide 氧化钆 gage 规 gage cock 计量旋塞 gage glass 玻璃水位计 gage pressure 表压力 gage transformation 规范变换 galactaric acid 粘酸 galactometer 乳比重计 galactonic acid 半乳糖酸 galactosamine 半乳糖胺 galactosazone 半乳糖脎 galactose 半乳糖
galactoside 半乳糖苷galacturonic acid 半乳糖醛酸galantamine 加兰他敏galbanum 阿魏脂 galena 方铅矿 gallate 没食子酸盐 gallein gallic acid 没食子酸 gallium 镓 gallium hydroxide 氢氧化镓gallium nitrate 硝酸镓gallium sulfate 硫酸镓galvanic cell 伽伐尼电池galvanic corrosion 电化学腐蚀galvanic reaction 电链应galvanic series 电位序galvanized sheet steel 镀锌钢板galvanizer 镀锌器galvanizing 镀锌galvanochemistry 电化学galvanometer 检疗 gambir 棕儿茶
Unit 21 Chemical Industry and Environment 化学工业与环境 How can we reduce the amount of waste that is produced? And how we close the loop by redirecting spent materials and products into programs of recycling? All of these questions must be answered through careful research in the coming years as we strive to keep civilization in balance with nature. 我们怎样才能减少产生废物的数量？我们怎样才能使废弃物质和商品纳入循环使用的程序？所有这些问题必须要在未来的几年里通过仔细的研究得到解决，这样我们才能保持文明与自然的平衡。 1.Atmospheric Chemistry Coal-burning power plants, as well as some natural processes, deliver sulfur compounds to the stratosphere, where oxidation produces sulfuric acid particles that reflect away some of the incoming visible solar radiation. In the troposphere, nitrogen oxides produced by the combustion of fossil fuels combine with many organic molecules under the influence of sunlight to produce urban smog. The volatile hydrocarbon isoprene, well known as a building block of synthetic rubber, is also produced naturally in forests. And the chlorofluorocarbons, better known as CFCs, are inert in automobile air conditioners and home refrigerators but come apart under ultraviolet bombardment in the mid-stratosphere with devastating effect on the earth’s stratospheric ozone layer. The globally averaged atmospheric concentration of stratospheric ozone itself is only 3 parts in 10 million, but it has played a crucial protective role in the development of all biological life through its absorption of potentially harmful shout-wavelength solar ultraviolet radiation. 1．大气化学 燃煤发电厂像一些自然过程一样，也会释放硫化合物到大气层中，在那里氧化作用产生硫酸颗粒能反射入射进来的可见太阳辐射。在对流层，化石燃料燃烧所产生的氮氧化物在阳光的影响下与许多有机物分子结合产生都市烟雾。挥发的碳氢化合物异戊二烯，也就是众所周知的合成橡胶的结构单元，可以在森林中天然产生含氯氟烃。我们所熟悉的CFCs，在汽车空调和家用冰箱里是惰性的，但在中平流层内在紫外线的照射下回发生分解从而对地球大气臭氧层造成破坏，全球大气层中臭氧的平均浓度只有3ppm，但它对所有生命体的生长发育都起了关键的保护作用，因为是它吸收了太阳光线中有害的短波紫外辐射。 During the past 20 years, public attention has been focused on ways that mankind has caused changes in the atmosphere: acid rain, stratospheric zone depletion, greenhouse warming, and the increased oxidizing capacity of the atmosphere. We have known for generations that human activity has affected the nearby surroundings, but only gradually have we noticed such effects as acid rain on a regional then on an intercontinental scale. With the problem of ozone depletion and concerns about global warming, we have now truly entered an era of global change, but the underlying scientific facts have not yet been fully established. 在过去的二十年中，公众的注意力集中在人类对大气层的改变：酸雨、平流层臭氧空洞、温室现象，以及大气的氧化能力增强，前几代人已经知道，人类的活动会对邻近的环境造成影响，但意识到像酸雨这样的效应将由局部扩展到洲际范围则是慢慢发现的。随着臭氧空洞问题的出现，考虑到对全球的威胁，我们已真正进入到全球话改变的时代，但是基本的