第一章 绪论
1/ What is linguistics?
什么是语言学？
Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular
language, but languages in general.
2/ The scope of linguistics
语言学的研究范畴
The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)
The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics. [fəˈnetɪks]（语音学）
The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. [fəuˈnɔlədʒi] （音系学）
The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology.
[mɔ:ˈfɔlədʒi]（形态学）
The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. [ˈsɪnˈtæks]（句法学）
The study of meaning in language is called semantics. [sɪˈmæntɪks]（语义学）
The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. [præɡˈmætiks]（语用学）
The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics.（社会语言学）
The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. （心理语言学）
The study of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known
as applied
linguistics. （应用语言学）
But in a narrow([ˈnærəu] adj. 狭隘的； 狭窄的；) sense, applied linguistics refers to the
application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the
teaching of foreign and second language.
Other related branches include anthropological([ˈænθrəpəˈlɔdʒɪkəl] adj. 人类学的)
linguistics, （人类语言学） neurological [ˈnjʊərəˈlɔdʒɪkəl] linguistics, （神经语言学） mathematical
linguistics, （数字语言学）and computational [ˈkɔmpju(:)ˈteiʃ(ə)n(ə)l]
linguistics.（计算机语言学） 3/ Some important distinctions in linguistics
语言学研究中的几对基本概念
Prescriptive [priˈskriptiv] and descriptive [dɪˈskrɪptɪv]
描写与规定
If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to
be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they
should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.
Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar.
Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive.
The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is
“correct” or not.
Synchronic [siŋˈkrɔnik] and diachronic [ˈdaiəˈkrɔnik]
共时和历时
The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a
language as it changes through time is a diachronic
study. In modern linguistics, synchronic
study is more important.
Speech and writing
口头语与书面语
Speech and writing are the two major media of communication.
Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form.
Reasons:
1. Speech precedes([ˈpriˈsi:d] vt.& vi.在……之前发生或出现，先于；在……之上，优于；给……作序；处于……前面的位置) writing;
2. There are still many languages that have only the spoken form;
3. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the
written, and carries a larger load ([ləud] n. 负荷；负担；装载；工作量)of communication than the
written.
Langue [lɑ:ŋɡ] and parole [pə'rəul]
语言和言语
The Swiss linguist( [ˈlɪŋgwɪst] n.通晓数国语言的人；语言学家)F. de Saussure made the distinction between langue and parole early 20th century.
Langue refers to the abstract ([ˈæbstrækt] adj. 抽象的，理论上的)linguistic system shared by
all the members of a speech community( [kəˈmju:niti] n. 社区；社会团体；共同体；[生态] 群落),
and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.
Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study.
He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities
governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.
语言能力和语言运用
Competence( [ˈkɔmpitəns] n.能力；技能；相当的资产)and performance
Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.
He
defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language,
and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He
believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify( [ˈspesifai] v.指定；详述；提出…的条件；使具有特性)the language rules.
4/ What is language?
语言的定义
Language is a system of arbitrary([ˈɑ:bitrəri] adj.随意的，任性的，随心所欲的;主观的，武断的；霸道的，专制的，专横的，独断独行的)vocal( [ˈvəukəl] adj. 声音的，嗓音的； 由嗓音发出或产生的；有声音的，能发出声音或语言的；畅所欲言的 n.元音；[音乐]声乐作品)symbols used for
human communication.
Sapir,Edward uses “ideas” “emotions” and “desires” in his definition.
Hall, like Sapir, treats language as a purely human institution.(purely [ˈpjʊəlɪ] adv.完全地，十足地；纯粹地；纯洁地，贞淑地) (institution[ˈɪnstiˈtju:ʃən] n.（大学、银行等规模大的）机构；惯例，制度，规定，建立；社会事业机构；<口>名人，名物)
Chomsky’s definition is quite different, it focus on the purely structural properties of languages
and to suggest that these properties can be investigated from a mathematically precise point of
view.
5/ Design features
语言的甄别性特征
Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any
