Lecture Summary Republican and Imperial Rome
After describing Italy before the rise of Rome, the society of royal Rome, and the early republic and its constitution, this chapter tells the story of Rome’s expansion: the conquest of Italy, the wars with Carthage, the increasing involvement with the Greek world, the eventual takeover of the Hellenistic east, the decline of the republic amid political factions and civil war, the Augustan settlement, imperial administration, foreign policy, literature, architecture, and the rise and influence of Christianity, the crisis of the third century and the barbarian invasions of the fifth century.
The culture of Italy developed later than those of societies in the Near East. About 1000 B.C.E., Italy was overwhelmed by war-like invaders. Civilized Etruscans arrived in Tuscany (Etruria) about 800 B.C.E. They dominated the native Italians and accumulated considerable wealth. They expanded both to the north and south, but their conquests were lost in the course of the fifth century B.C.E. Etruscans influence on the Romans endured, particularly regarding religion.
The chapter then describes Roman society and government under the kings (753–509 B.C.E.).
In essence, Rome was ruled by a king whose powers were limited by his advisors, who composed the Senate, and an assembly of the people.
The center of Roman life was the family, in which the father had a position analogous to that of the king in the state. One of Rome’s most important institutions was clientage; a client entrusted himself to the protection of a more powerful man (called a patron) in exchange for services which included military and political support. Roman society was divided into two classes: patricians and plebians. Members of the wealthy patrician class could conduct state religious ceremonies, sit in the Senate, or hold office. They could not marry outside of their group. The plebian class consisted primarily of small farmers, laborers, and artisans. As Rome grew, these lines tended to blur as plebians acquired wealth, but they nonetheless remained intact.
A revolution in 509 B.C.E. replaced the monarchy with the republic. Class distinction in early
Roman society was based on birth:the patricians monopolized the positions of power and influence, while the plebeians were barred from public office and from the priesthoods. Over the next two centuries the plebeians tried to achieve equality with the patricians through the ―struggle of the orders.‖ By 287 B.C.E., the plebeians gained full access to the magistracies, as well as an important voice in the government. But still only a small group of leading families dominated the Senate and highest magistracies.
Rome’s conquest of Italy took more than two centuries. Rome only suffered a serious setback once, when the Gauls invaded the city in 387 B.C.E. The Romans dealt with conquered cities quite liberally, offering citizenship to some, potential citizenship to others, and allied status to the rest.
Now Rome faced Carthage, the great naval power of the western Mediterranean. Rome fought three major wars against Carthage from 264–241, 218–201, and 149–146 B.C.E. Roman resources and fortitude were taxed to the limit, especially in the Second Punic War against the great general Hannibal. In the end, Carthage was comp letely destroyed. Rome’s victory against Carthage and its success in the eastern Mediterranean opened the way to Roman supervision of the entire Mediterranean region. The Roman constitution, which had been well adapted to the mastery of Italy, would be severely tested by the need to govern an empire beyond the seas.
Greeks and Romans did not understand freedom in the same way. The Romans found themselves becoming more and more involved in the affairs of Greece and Asia. Political contact with Greece had a great effect upon Roman culture. Romans borrowed Hellenistic traditions, identifying their own gods with Greek equivalents and incorporating Greek mythology into their own. Greek educational influences can be easily traced. Advanced study in rhetoric and philosophy opened the Roman conqueror to the older and wider culture of the Hellenistic world.
Whether intended or not, Rome’s expansion brought with it power, wealth, and responsibility.
By the middle of the second century B.C.E., Rome faced a serious manpower problem: peasants were losing their land and many could no longer qualify for the army. A political threat was also developing as patrons had less control over clients who fled their land. In 133 B.C.E., a
young tribune from an aristocratic family, Tiberius Gracchus, attempted to solve these problems by proposing that public land be redistributed to the poor.The bill aroused great hostility and Tiberius was murdered by a mob of senators and their clients. Nevertheless, his career brought a permanent change to Roman politics as he showed an alternative to the traditional aristocratic career: politicians could go directly to the people. In 123 B.C.E., Tiberius’ younger brother, Gaius, became tribune with a much broader platform of reforms. After he lost a bid for reelection, Gaius also was killed.
Troubles abroad soon led to even more serious dangers. Rome faced a crisis in North Africa and an invasion of Italy by Germanic tribes. Rome handled these well, thanks to the military ability of Marius. Marius soon began to enlist volunteers who could not meet earlier property qualifications for the army.
After the revolt of the frustrated Italian allies in 90 B.C.E. and the subsequent ―social war,‖ Rome offered them full citizenship. A successful general in the war, Sulla, dominated the next decade as he became consul. He then tried to restore senatorial government by reconstituting the state and restricting the powers of the people and their representatives, the tribunes.
The chapter recounts the rise of Pompey and Crassus in the 70s and 60s B.C.E. Crassus was responsible for the suppression of the slave revolt of Spartacus in 73 B.C.E. and Pompey received extraordinary commands against the pirates and Mithradates. The decade of the 60s also saw the rise of Julius Caesar, who combined with Pompey and Crassus in 60 B.C.E. to control the state in an association termed the ―first triumvirate.‖
The decade of the 50s saw the death of Crassus and the polarization of Caesar and Pompey. Their coalition fell apart with Pompey supporting the senate against Caesar. In 49 B.C.E., Caesar led his troops across the Rubicon River, starting a civil war which ended in 46 B.C.E. with Caesar the victor. On March 15, 44 B.C.E., Caesar was assassinated by senators who hoped to restore the republic, but succeeded only in unleashing 13 more years of civil war, which killed the republic.
The period from 44–31 B.C.E. saw the duel between Caesar’s lieutenant, Mark Antony, and his eighteen-year-old heir, Octavian. Antony chose the wealth of the east and the alliance of Cleopatra; Octavian chose the west as his power base. Octavian won a decisive victory at Actium in 31 B.C.E. which was soon followed by the suicides of Antony and Cleopatra. At the age of 32, Octavian was absolute master of the Mediterranean world. Octavian gradually developed a system which left most of the real power to himself but pretended to be a restoration of the republic with Octavian as princeps (―first citizen‖). The governmental system of the early Roman Empire is thus called the principate. The settlement of Augustus (as he was now called) won the support of the upper classes. The Senate elected magistrates, made laws and exercised important judicial functions. These powers were, nevertheless, illusory in that the Senate merely assented to candidates or laws placed before it by the emperor. Opposition to imperial rule did exist, especially under emperors who failed to respect the dignity or property of the senators. Under Augustus, Tiberius, Claudius, Vespasian, Ti tus, and the five ―good emperors,‖ however, the empire was run well and the Pax Romana (Roman Peace) was maintained throughout the empire.
Augustus had a genius for practical administration and was able to install rational government in the provinces for the first time. Imperial policy was a combination of the recognition of local differences with an attempt to unify the empire. Most of the provinces flourished economically in this period and accepted Roman rule easily.
Roman culture was at its height during this time. The patronage of Augustus played an important role in the manufacture of propaganda as well as great literature in the works of Livy, Horace, and Virgil, whose epic poem, the Aeneid, portrayed Augustus as the second founder of Rome. In the second century C.E., criticism and satire dominate the literary scene.
The first two centuries of the Roman Empire were indeed a ―golden age,‖ but problems began to emerge at the end of this period. The cost of government kept rising as barbarian pressure increasedand the size of the army and bureaucracy grew. There seems to have been a population decline. Taxes were raised and the emperors resorted to debasing the coinage, which brought inflation.
The growth of Christianity is also recounted. Jesus, in the prophetic tradition, taught that God would bring an end to the world as men knew it and would reward the righteous in heaven. Jesus was crucified as a dangerous revolutionary in Jerusalem in about 30 C.E. The new religion that grew up around the teachings of Jesus as reported by the apostles might have had a short life were it not for Paul of Tarsus, a Hellenized Jew, who was convinced that the new religion was not a version of Judaism and that converts did not have to adhere to Jewish law. Christianity, Paul believed, was for all mankind. Paul traveled throughout the Mediterranean, spreading the gospel.
Another important factor in Christianity’s survival was its strong internal organization. Bish ops led Christian communities and, by keeping in touch with each other, prevented doctrinal splintering.
For the most part, the Roman government did not take the initiative in attacking Christians in the first two centuries. Heresies compelled the church leaders to form a clear and firm orthodox canon which strengthened Catholic belief. Rome eventually became one of the most important centers of Christianity, partly as a result of Jesus’s two most important apostles, Peter and Paul, being martyred there.
In the third century, the Roman Empire was simultaneously attacked on three fronts. The Roman army was in decline. As time passed, it was made up of an increasingly high percentage of foreign mercenaries. The fighting effectiveness of the Roman army was impaired.
Society at large also suffered. Taxes rose while the shortage of manpower reduced agricultural production. Piracy and the neglect of roads and harbors hindered trade. The debasement of coinage encouraged inflation. The traditional ruling aristocracy was changing, and the lower classes found it almost impossible to move up to a higher social order.
Reconstruction and reorganization took place under Diocletian (285–305) and Constantine (324–337). Diocletian introduced the tetrarchy, the rule of the empire by four men with power divided on a territorial basis. This plan for better administration and smooth succession failed as a civil war erupted after Diocletian’s retirement in 305. By 324, the empire was united again by Constantine, who built the new capital of Constantinople on the site of ancient Byzantium. Under Diocletian and Constantine, the emperor changed from princeps (first citizen) to dominus (lord).
By the third century, Christianity had taken hold in the east and in Italy. Constantine supported Christianity vigorously and called the Council of Nicaea in 325 to solidify Christianity’s hold on the empire and to deal with the heresy of Arianism.
Renewed barbarian invasions in the fifth century put an end to effective imperial government in the west. A form of classical culture persisted in the east, centered in Constantinople. The Byzantine Empire would last until the fifteenth century.
KEY POINTS AND VITAL CONCEPTS
1. Roman Constitution: One of the great achievements of the Romans was their constitution. An
unwritten collection of laws based upon tradition and precedent, it sanctioned a government dependent upon two principles: annuality and collegiality. That is, more than one person held each office (with the exception of the dictatorship), and they held it generally for one year only.
Each citizen was allowed to vote, and did so in a number of traditional assemblies. Intended to govern a city-state, the constitution was appended to meet the demands of imperial administration.
2. Struggle of the Orders: The period from 509 to 207 B.C.E. has been termed the “Struggle of the Orders,” since the plebeians agitated for legal equality with the patricians. Gradually the plebeians, through tactics such as secession, won full legal, political, and social equality with the patricians.
This was achieved without bloodshed—a point that the Romans were proud of, and which contrasted with the chaos and violence of the late republic.
3. Clientage: The client–patron relationship in Rome was very important, and domestic politics
involved the workings of this relationship on many levels whether it was among aristocrats or
between aristocrats and the poor. The relationship was hereditary and sanctioned by religion and custom.
4. Roman Imperialism: A much debated point in Roman history concerns Roman intentions in the
acquisition of its empire. Did Rome have a blueprint for empire and consciously follow a policy of aggressive imperialism? The answer is probably no, but once Romans became involved in a dispute (especially in the Greek east and often by invitation), they found it difficult to remain neutral with their own interests and even survival at stake. Within about 120 years, Rome had expanded from control of the Italian peninsula to mastery of the entire Mediterranean—a transformation that would present great problems for the state in the second and first centuries
B.C.E.
5. The Reforms of the Gracchi: The reforms instituted by the Gracchi—including redistribution of
public land, colonies, Italian citizenship, and subsidized grain—were not illegal, and in some cases even had precedent. Yet it was the brothers’ methods, especially those of Tiberius, that aroused the hatred of the aristocracy. Many precedents for later actions proceeded from the Gracchan episode, including murder and violent intimidation sanctioned by a dubious enactment called the ―Final Decree of the Senate.‖ A major problem left unresolved during this period was the approval of Italian citizenship. In the end, Rome would fight the Social War (90–88 B.C.E.) and win, only to agree to full Italian citizenship anyway.
6. The Reforms of Marius: In addition to changes in formation and weaponry, Marius changed the
composition of the army. He began using volunteers, mostly dispossessed farmers and proletarians, who looked upon military service as a way of obtaining guaranteed food, shelter, clothing, and booty. Most importantly, they expected a piece of land upon discharge. Rather than looking to the Senate to provide these benefits, they expected them from their commander as fulfillment of a patron–client compact. One of the main reasons the republic collapsed was because of private armies loyal to their generals and not to the state.
7. The Reforms of Sulla: These were enacted in the late 80s and were designed to reestablish the
Senate as the ruling institution of Rome. They called for, among other things, restrictions upon the veto power of tribunes and a halt to any advance in career after holding that office. Then, only people without ambition would hold the office, and the republic would be preserved from the troublesome obstructions of the Gracchi or Livius Drusus the Younger. The reforms, however, were undone by 70 B.C.E.
8. The Assassination of Julius Caesar: Caesar’s murder by Brutus, Cassius, and about 60 senators
stemmed from ideologues who believed that they were ridding Rome of a tyrant, and that after liberation, the republic would automatically be restored. Thus, they made no plans to follow up their deed, and even refused to kill Mark Antony. It is not certain if Caesar planned to become ―king‖ of Rome, although he held the title of dictator for life. It is certain, however, that he did not court the traditional aristocracy, and even abused their dignity upon occasion. His heir, Octavian, would form a coalition of supporters and conservatives which proved successful in the long run.
9. The Augustan Principate: The Augustan settlement ostensibly restored the republic, but in fact, established a monarchy. Augustus controlled 20 of the 26 legions in the provinces with the most potential for fighting. Egypt, with its wealth and important grain production, belonged to him alone. In fact, geographically, the imperial provinces practically surrounded the senatorial. However, Augustus knew that he could not rule by force alone. He built around him a coalition of supporters who owed their positions to him. Augustus respected the dignity of the senators by using them in the administration and l istening to their advice. This “sham of government,” as it has been called
put a premium upon efficient and equitable treatment of its citizens. The strength of the system can be evaluated in its survival even through the reigns of incompetent and cruel emperors.
10. Persecution of Christianity: The Roman policy toward Christianity was ambivalent. After the
localized persecution by Nero in Rome, there was only sporadic violence in the provinces, much
of it provoked by Christians. Only later, in 250 C.E., did the emperor Decius launch a full-scale persecution. Much of the hatred of the Christians was due to their firm denial of pagan gods and to anti-Christian propaganda that portrayed them as guilty of cannibalism and incest.
11. Constantine and Christianity: In his struggle to overcome his opponents in the civil war
following the retirement of Diocletian, Constantine was said to have had a dream that convinced him that he owed his success to the Christian god; from then on he supported Christianity (calling and presiding over the Council of Nicaea) without abolishing the imperial cult or pagan state religion. He was not baptized until on his deathbed. His devotion has therefore been questioned. Some have seen a utilitarian purpose in his support of Christianity—it enabled him to confiscate the gold and silver from some of the pagan temples in order to help reestablish the currency standard.
12. Republican and Imperial Rome in Global Perspective: The history of the republic is a sharp departure from the common experience of ancient civilizations. In the development from a monarchy to a republic founded on equitable laws, and the subsequent accumulation and administration of empire, the Romans displayed their pragmatic character. They created something unique: an empire ruled by elected magistrates with an effective power equal to the kings and emperors of China, India, and Iran. However, the temptations and responsibilities of such a vast empire proved too much for the republican constitution. The influx of slaves led to the displacement
of citizens, who served as professional soldiers in the service of generals seeking personal glory above loyalty to the state. The conquest of a vast empire led the Romans toward the more familiar path of development experienced by rulers in Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, India, and Iran. Comparisons can be made with the Chinese “dynastic cycle” that included a period of strength and security fortified by impressive leadership. Like the former Han Dynasty in China, the Roman Empire
in the west fell, leaving disunity, insecurity, disorder, and poverty. Like similar empires in the ancient world, it had been unable to sustain its “immoderate greatness.”
演讲摘要共和党和罗马帝国
描述意大利罗马兴起之前后，皇家罗马社会，民国初年和宪法，这一章讲述了罗马的扩张故事：意大利的征服，与迦太基，越来越多地参与与希腊的世界战争，在希腊东部的最终收购，在政
治派别和内战，奥古斯结算，帝国政府，外交政策，文学，建筑，共和国的衰落，和基督教的
兴起和影响力，第三个世纪的危机五世纪的蛮族入侵。
意大利的文化发展晚于近东的社会。约公元前1000年，意大利的形影类似战争的侵略者。文
明的伊特鲁里亚人抵达托斯卡纳（伊特鲁里亚）约800 BCE他们统治了意大利本土积累了可观
的财富。他们扩大双方的北部和南部，但他们的征服迷失在公元前5世纪的历程伊特鲁里亚影
响力的罗马人忍着，特别是关于宗教。
本章然后描述罗马社会和政府在国王（753-509 BCE）。从本质上说，罗马统治国王的权力，他的顾问，谁组成的参议院和人民的集会进行了限制。
罗马生活的中心，是家庭，其中父亲的位置类似于在该州的王者。一个罗马最重要的机构是委
托关系;客户把自己托付给一个更强大的人（称为靠山），以换取保护服务，其中包括军事和
政治支持。罗马社会被分为两类：贵族和plebians。富裕的贵族阶层可以进行状态宗教仪式的
成员，坐在参议院，或任职。他们不能结婚的集团以外。该plebian类主要包括小农户，工人
和工匠。作为罗马的增长，这些线路往往模糊效果plebians获得的财富，但他们仍然保持完好。
在509 B.C.E.一场革命替换为共和国的君主制。等级区分早期罗马社会的基础上诞生：在贵族
垄断权力和影响力的位置，而平民是公职，并从教士禁止。在接下来的两个世纪中的平民试图
通过“订单的斗争。”通过287 BCE实现与贵族平等，平民们得到全面进入裁判，以及在政府
的一个重要的声音。但是仍然只有一小部分领先的家庭占据了参议院和最高裁判。
意大利罗马的征服了两个多世纪。罗马只有严重受挫一次，当高卢人入侵我市在387 BCE罗马
人处理征服城市相当宽松，提供公民一些，潜在的国籍给别人，和相关情况的休息。
现在罗马迦太基面临的西地中海的大海军力量。罗马打了三场大的战争对抗迦太基从264-241，218-201，和149-146 BCE罗马的资源和毅力进行征税发挥到极致，尤其是在对大将军汉尼拔第
二次布匿战争。在结束时，迦太基被完全摧毁。罗马战胜迦太基和其在地中海东部的成功开辟
了道路到整个地中海地区的罗马监督。罗马宪法，已经很好地适应了意大利的掌握，将由需要
决定一个帝国之外的海洋受到严重考验。
希腊人和罗马不了解以相同的方式自由。罗马人发现自己越来越多地参与到希腊和亚洲的事务。与希腊的政治接触过在罗马文化有很大的影响。罗马人借用古希腊的传统，确定了自己的神与
希腊现金等价物以及将希腊神话到自己。希腊教育的影响可以很容易地追踪。在修辞学和哲学
高级研究打开了罗马征服者希腊化世界的老年人和更广泛的文化。无论是有意或无意，罗马的
扩张带来了权力，财富和责任。
到了公元前二世纪中叶，罗马面临着人手严重的问题：农民正在失去他们的土地，很多人就不
再有资格参加军队。一种政治威胁也发展成为了顾客对谁逃离他们的土地客户较少的控制。在133 BCE，从一个贵族家庭，提比略·格拉古年轻的论坛，试图通过提议公共土地重新分配给
穷人，以解决这些问题。该法案引起了极大的敌意和提比略被谋杀了参议员和他们的客户的暴徒。然而，他的职业生涯带来了永久性的改变罗马的政治，因为他表现出替代传统的贵族职业：政治家可以直接到人。在123 BCE，Tiberius的弟弟，该犹，成为论坛与改革的更广泛的平台。
之后，他失去了申办竞选连任，也该犹被打死。
国外的烦恼很快导致了更严重的危险。面对罗马在北非危机和意大利的入侵日耳曼部落。罗马
这些处理好，感谢马吕斯的军事能力。马吕斯很快就开始争取谁不能满足早期财产资格为军队
的志愿者。
失意的意大利盟友在90 BCE起义后而随后的“社交战争”，罗马给他们充分的公民。一个成
功的战争，苏拉，主宰未来的十年，他成为领事。然后，他试图通过重构国家，限制人民和他
们的代表，护民官的权力，以恢复参议院政府。
本章讲述庞培和克拉苏在70年代和60年代BCE上涨克拉苏负责斯巴达克斯的奴隶起义的73 BCE抑制和庞培收到对海盗和密特兰达特斯非凡的命令。 60年代的十年里也看到了凯撒大帝
的兴起，谁与庞培和克拉苏在60 BCE结合以控制关联状态称为“前三头同盟”。
50年代的十年中看到克拉苏的死和恺撒和庞培的两极分化。他们的联盟与庞培支持反对恺撒
参议院土崩瓦解。在49 BCE，凯撒率领他的军队穿越卢比肯河，开始内战在46 BCE结束凯撒
胜利者。在44年3月15日BCE，凯撒被暗杀参议员谁希望恢复共和制，但成功只在发动13
多年的内战，造成该共和国。
从44-31 B.C.E.期看到凯撒的副将，马克·安东尼和他的18岁继承人，屋大维之间的对决。安
东尼选择了财富的东部和埃及艳后的联盟;屋大维选择了西部作为他的权力基础。屋大维赢得
了亚克兴了决定性的胜利在31 BCE这很快就被随后安东尼和克娄巴特拉的自杀。在32岁的时候，屋大维是地中海世界的绝对主宰。屋大维逐步发展留下最真实的力量，以自己却假装是一
个恢复与屋大维的共和国princeps的（“第一公民”）的系统。因此早期罗马帝国的政府系统
被称为元首。奥古斯都的解决（因为他现在被称为）赢得了上层阶级的支持。参议院选举产生
的法官，制定的法律和行使重要的司法职能。这些权力是，尽管如此，虚幻在参议院只同意了
摆在它面前的皇帝候选人或法律。反对帝国统治确实存在，特别是在皇帝谁不尊重参议员的尊
严或财产。在奥古斯都，提比略，克劳狄，维斯帕先，提图斯和五个“好皇帝”，然而，帝国
被运行良好，大同协会（罗马和平）维持整个帝国。
奥古斯有一种聪明，实用的管理，并能够安装理性的政府在各省的第一次。帝国政策是承认有
企图统一帝国的地方差异的组合。大部分省份的经济繁荣在此期间，轻松地接受罗马统治。
罗马文化是在它的高度在这段时间。奥古斯都光顾的李维，贺拉斯和维吉尔，他的史诗中，埃
涅阿斯纪，描绘奥古斯都为罗马的第二个创始人的作品起到了宣传的制造中起重要作用，以及
伟大的文学作品。在公元二世纪，批评和讽刺称霸文坛。
前两个世纪的罗马帝国确实是一个“黄金时代”，但问题开始浮出水面，在此期间结束。政府
成本不断上升的压力，野蛮人的increasedand军队的规模和官僚主义增长。似乎是一个人口下降。税被提高，皇帝使出贬低造币，这带来了通货膨胀。
基督教的增长也回忆。耶稣，在先知的传统，教会，神将结束，以世界为他们已经知道它，将
奖励正义在天堂。耶稣被钉十字架是一个危险的革命在耶路撒冷约30 CE的新宗教的成长起来，耶稣的教导所报告的使徒可能有一个短暂的生命，如果不是大数，一个希腊化的犹太人，谁相
信保罗新的宗教是不是一个版本，犹太教和转换没有坚持犹太律法。基督教，保罗相信，是为
全人类。整个地中海保罗游历，传播福音。在基督教的生存的另一个重要因素是其强大的内部
组织。主教领导的基督教社区，并通过在保持相互接触，防止分裂较浓。
在大多数情况下，罗马政府没有采取在头两个世纪的基督徒进攻的主动权。异端迫使教会领袖，形成一个明确和坚定的正统佳能这加强了天主教的信仰。罗马最终成为基督教的最重要的中心
之一，部分原因是耶稣的两个最重要的使徒彼得和保罗，结果被殉国那里。
在第三个世纪，罗马帝国同时攻击三个方面。罗马军队是在下降。随着时间的推移，它是由外
国雇佣兵，越来越高的比例了。罗马军队的战斗力被削弱。
整个社会也受到影响。税收上升，而人手不足降低农业生产。盗版，道路和港口的忽视阻碍贸易。造币的贬值鼓励通货膨胀。传统的统治贵族正在发生变化，而下层发现它几乎不可能拉升
到更高的社会秩序。
重建和重组了戴克里先（285-305）和康斯坦丁（324-337）下进行。戴克里先推出的四帝共治制，帝国的统治被四名男子用功率除以在领土的基础。作为内战爆发戴克里先退休305通过
324之后，帝国君士坦丁，谁建君士坦丁堡的新的资本古代拜占庭的网站再次联合该计划为更
好的管理和顺利接班失败。在戴克里先和君士坦丁皇帝从princeps的（第一公民），以dominus（主）改变。
到了第三个世纪，基督教已经站稳了脚跟，在东部和意大利。康斯坦丁支持基督教大力并呼吁
尼西亚理事会325巩固基督教举行的帝国，并应对阿里乌斯教的异端。
在五世纪重新蛮族入侵杜绝有效帝国政府在西部地区。在东方古典文化的一种形式依然存在，
集中在君士坦丁堡。拜占庭帝国将持续到十五世纪。
重点，为重要的理念
1.罗马宪政：一个罗马人的伟大成就是他们的宪法。基于对传统和先例的法律一条不成文的集合，它认可的政府依赖于两个原则：annuality和合议。也就是说，不止一个人持有各办事处
（除专政），他们拿着它通常为一年只。每个公民都可以投票，并在一些传统的组件这样做。
旨在治理一个城市国家，宪法被追加，以满足皇家管理的需求。
2.斗争的订单：周期从509至207 BCE被称为“订单的斗争”，因为平民搅拌与贵族法律上的
平等。渐渐的平民，通过战术，如分裂国家，赢得了与贵族充分的法律，政治和社会平等。
这是实现不流血，一个点，罗马人而自豪，并与已故共和国的混乱和暴力的对比。
3.委托关系：在罗马的客户赞助的关系是非常重要的，而国内政治的参与在许多层面上这种关
系无论是贵族间的贵族或与穷人之间的运作。的关系是遗传性和宗教和习俗认可。
4.罗马帝国主义：在罗马史的关注罗马意图备受争议点在收购了帝国。难道罗马有一个蓝图帝国，自觉遵循侵略性的帝国主义政策？答案很可能是否定的，但一旦罗马人开始参与争端（尤
其是在希腊东部，经常被邀请），他们发现很难保持中立，与自己的利益甚至生存危在旦夕。
在约120年间，罗马已经从意大利半岛的控制权扩大到整个地中海的转变的掌握，将在第二和
第一世纪BCE的状态存在很大的问题，
5.格拉古兄弟的改革：由公共土地，殖民地，意大利国籍的格拉古兄弟，包括实行再分配的改革，粮食补贴，是不是非法的，而且在某些情况下，甚至有先例。然而，这是两兄弟的方法，
尤其是那些提比略，即引起了贵族的仇恨。很多先例从Gracchan事件，包括谋杀和暴力恐吓
可疑颁布制裁后进行动作称为“参议院最终法令。”在此期间得不到解决的一个主要问题是意
大利国籍的批准。最终，罗马将争取社会时期（90-88 BCE）和赢，只同意将全意大利国籍反正。
6.马吕斯的改革：除了改变形成和武器装备，马吕斯改变军队的组成。他开始使用志愿者，大
多是一无所有的农民和无产者，谁看了后服兵役作为获得保证的食品，住房，衣服和战利品的
一种方式。最重要的是，他们预计在放电的一块土地。而不是看向参议院提供这些好处，他们
从他们的指挥官为履行靠山客户端紧凑期望他们。其中一个主要的原因共和国崩溃是因为私人
军队忠于自己的将领，而不是国家。
苏拉7.改革：这些颁布于上世纪80年代，目的是为了重新建立参议院罗马的统治机构。他们
呼吁，除其他事项外，在看台的否决权，并担任该职位后停止职业生涯中的任何事先限制。然后，只有人没有野心将举行办公室，和共和国将从格拉古兄弟或利维乌斯德鲁苏斯雅戈尔的麻
烦障碍物被保留。这些改革，但被70 B.C.E.撤消
8.凯撒大帝的刺杀：凯撒的谋杀布鲁特斯，卡修斯，大约60名参议员，从谁相信他们摆脱暴
君的罗马，以及解放后，共和国将被自动恢复理论家梗。因此，他们没有计划跟进他们的行为，甚至拒绝杀死马克·安东尼。现在还不能确定，如果撒打算成为罗马的“王”，虽然他持有的
独裁者生活的称号。这是肯定的，但是，他不打官司了传统的贵族，甚至在一次滥用自己的尊严。他的继承人，屋大维，将形成的支持者和保守派这在长期来看证明是成功的联盟。
9.奥古斯都元首：在奥古斯都解决表面上恢复了共和制，但事实上，建立一个君主制。奥古斯
都控制了26军团20省最具潜力的战斗。埃及，凭借其丰富的和重要的粮食生产，属于他一个人。事实上，地理，帝国各省几乎包围了参议院。然而，奥古斯都知道，他不能用武力统治孤独。他建立了他周围的支持者谁欠他们的立场对他的联盟。奥古斯都使用他们在管理和听取他
们的意见，尊重参议员的尊严。这种“假政府的”，因为它已被称为
把保费后，其公民的有效和公平的待遇。该系统的强度在其生存甚至通过的无能和残酷皇帝的
统治进行评估。
基督教的迫害10：对基督教的罗马政策是矛盾的。在罗马由Nero本地化的迫害后，只有零星
的暴力事件在全国各省，大部分是基督徒挑衅。只是到了后来，在250 CE，做了皇帝德西乌斯
发动全面迫害。许多基督徒的仇恨是因为他们坚决否认的异教神和反基督教的宣传说他们描绘
的食人有罪和乱伦。
11.君士坦丁与基督教：在他的奋斗，克服自己在内战戴克里先退休后的对手，康斯坦丁说有
一个梦想，说服了他，他欠他的成功对基督教的上帝;从那时起，他支持基督教（呼叫和主持
尼西亚会议），而不废除君主崇拜或异教国家宗教。他没有受洗，直到在他的临终。他的献身
精神也因此受到质疑。有些人看到他的支持的功利目的基督教，这使他能够没收黄金和白银从
一些异教徒的寺庙，以帮助重建了货币的标准。
12.共和党和罗马帝国在全球视角：在共和国的历史，是从古代文明的共同经历大幅背离。在
从君主制建立在公平的法律，一个共和国，而帝国的后续积累和管理的发展，罗马人展示了他
们务实的性格。他们创造一些独特的：一个有效的权力等于中国，印度和伊朗的帝王统治裁判
选出一个帝国。然而，这样一个庞大帝国的诱惑和责任证明太多的共和宪法。奴隶的涌入导致
了公民，谁担任职业军人将领中寻求个人的荣耀上面忠诚国家的服务的位移。一个庞大的帝国
征服带领罗马人对发展经历了在埃及，美索不达米亚，中国，印度和伊朗的统治者更熟悉的路径。比较可以与中国“朝代循环”，其中包括一个时期的强度和安全性被令人印象深刻的领导
设防的进行。像前汉在中国，罗马帝国在西部下跌，留下不团结，不安全感，混乱和贫穷。就
像在古代世界同类帝国，它已经无法维持其“无节制的伟大。”
Article Children Must be Taught to Tell Right from Wrong William Kilpatrick Many of today 's young people have a difficult time seeing any moral dimension （ 道德层 面 ） to their actions. There are a number of reasons why that 's true, but none more prominent than a failed system of education that eschews （ 回避 ） teaching children the traditional moral values that bind Americans together as a society and a culture. That failed approach, called “decision - making, ” was introduced in schools 25 years ago. It tells children to decide for themselves what is right and what is wrong. It replaced “character education. （ 品格教 育 ）” Character education didn 't ask children to reinvent the moral wheel （ 浪费时间重新发明早已存 在的道德标准）; instead, it encouraged them to practice habits of courage, justice and self-control. In the 1940s, when a character education approach prevailed, chewing gum; today they worry about robbery and rape. Decision-making curriculums pose thorny （ 棘手的 ） ethical dilemmas to students, with the impression that all morality is problematic and that all questions of right and wrong are in dispute. Youngsters are forced to question values and virtues they 've never acquired in the first place or upon which they have only a tenuous （ 薄弱的 ） hold. The assumption behind this method is that students will arrive at good moral conclusions if only they are given the chance. But the actual result is moral confusion. For example, a recent national study of 1,700 sixth- to ninth-graders revealed that a majority of boys considered rape to be acceptable under certain conditions. Astoundingly, many of the girls agreed. This kind of moral illiteracy is further encouraged by values-education （价值观教育 ） programs that are little more than courses in self-esteem （ 自尊 ）. These programs are based on the questionable assumption that a child who feels good about himself or herself won 't want to do anything wrong. But it is just as reasonable to make an opposite assumption: namely, that a child who has uncritical self-regard w ill conclude that he or she can 't do anything bad. Such naive self-acceptance results in large part from the non-directive （ 无指导性的 ）, non-judgmental （ 无是非观的 ）, as-long-as-you-feel-comfortable-with-your-choices mentality （ 思 想） that has pervaded （ 渗透） public education for the last two and one-half decades. Many of today 's drug education, sex education and values -education courses are based on the same 1960s philosophy that helped fuel the explosion in teen drug use and sexual activity in the first place. Meanwhile, while educators are still fiddling with （ 胡乱摆弄 ） outdated “feel - good ” approaches, New York, Washington, and Los Angeles are burning. Youngsters are leaving school believing that matters of right and wrong are always merely subjective. If you pass a stranger on the street and decide to murder him because you need money —if it feels right —you go with that feeling. Clearly, murder is not taught in our schools, but such a conclusion —just about any conclusion —can be reached and justified using the decision-making method. It is time to consign （ 寄出 ） the fads （风尚 ） of “decision - making ” and “non- judgmentalism ” to the ash heap of failed policies, and return to a proved method. Character education provides a much more realistic approach to moral formation. It is built on an understanding that we learn morality not by debating it but by practicing it. Sample teachers worried about students leaving them
Original: My neighbor's children love playing hide-and-seek as all children do, but no one imagine that a game they played last week would be reported in the local newspaper. One afternoon, they were playing in the vacant lot down the corner. Young Paul, who is only five years old, found the perfect place to hide. His sister, Natalie, had shut her eyes and was counting to ten when Paul noticed the storage mail box at the corner and saw that the metal door was standing open. The mailman had just taken out several sacks of mail and had carried them to his truck which was standing at the curb a few feet away. Paul climbed into the storage box and pulled the door closed so hard that it locked. Soon realizing what he had done, he became frightened and started crying. Meanwhile, Natalie was looking for him everywhere but could not find him. It was lucky that she happened to pause at the corner for a minute and heard her brother's cries. She immediately ran to tell the mailman who hurried back from his truck to unlock the metal door. Paul was now free, but he had had such a bad scare that he could not stop crying. The mailman, however, soon found a way of making him laugh again. He told him that the next time he wanted to hide in a mail box, he should remember to put a stamp on himself! Summary: The children were playing hide-and-seek in a vacant lot one afternoon. Finding that the storage mailbox had been left open, Paul hid and locked himself in it accidentally. His sister, Natalie, heard his cries and realized where he was hiding, so she immediately told the mailman to unlock the metal door. After letting him out, the mailman made him stop crying by telling him to put a stamp on himself the next he wanted to hide in a mailbox. Original: Why do some animals die out? In the past two hundred years people have caused many kinds of animals to die out--to become extinct. People keep building houses and factories in fields and woods. As they spread over the land, they destroy animals' homes. If the animals can't find a place to live, they die out. Sixteen kinds of Hawaiian birds have become extinct for this reason. Other animals, such as the Florida Key deer, may soon die out because they are losing their homes.Hunters have caused some animals to become extinct, too. In the last century, hunters killed all the passenger pigeons in North America and most of the buffalos. Today they are fast killing off hawks and wolves. Pollution is killing many animals today, too. As rivers become polluted, fish are poisoned. Many die. Birds that eat the poisoned fish can't lay strong, healthy eggs. New birds aren’t born. So far, no animals have become extinct because of pollution. But some, such as the bald eagle and the brown pelican, have become rare and may die out. Scientists think that some animals become extinct because of changes in climate. The places where they live become hotter or cooler, drier or wetter. The food that they eat cannot grow there any more. If the animals can't learn to eat something else, they die. Dinosaurs may have died out for this reason. Summary:
一篇英语summary范文英语Summary写第一步：阅读 A.认真阅读给定的原文材料。如果一遍不能理解，就多读两遍。阅读次数越多，你对原文的理解就越深刻。 B.给摘要起一个标题。用那些能概括文章主题思想的单词、短语或短句子作为标题。也可以采用文中的主题句作为标题。主题句往往出现在文章的开头或结尾。一个好标题有助于确定文章的中心思想。 C.现在，就该决定原文中哪些部分重要，哪些部分次重要了。对重要部分的主要观点进行概括。 D.简要地记下主要观点——主题、标题、细节等你认为对概括摘要重要的东西。 第二步：动手写作 A. 摘要应该只有原文的三分之一或四分之一长。因此首先数一下原文的字数，然后除以三，得到一个数字。摘要的字数可以少于这个数字，但是千万不能超过这个数字。
B. 摘要应全部用自己的话完成。不要引用原文的句子。 C. 应该遵循原文的逻辑顺序。这样你就不必重新组织观点、事实。 D. 摘要必须全面、清晰地表明原文所载的信息，以便你的读者不需翻阅原文就可以完全掌握材料的原意。 E. 写摘要时可以采用下列几种小技巧： 1) 删除细节。只保留主要观点。 2) 选择一至两个例子。原文中可能包括5个或更多的例子，你只需从中筛选一至二个例子。 3) 把长段的描述变成短小、简单的句子。如果材料中描述某人或某事用了十个句子，那么你只要把它们变成一两句即可。 4) 避免重复。在原文中，为了强调某个主题，可能会重复论证说明。但是这在摘要中是不能使用的。应该删除那些突出强调的重述句。
5) 压缩长的句子。如下列两例： “His courage in battle might without exaggeration be called lion-like.” 可以概括为：”He was very brave in battle.” “He was hard up for money and was being pressed by his creditor.”可以概括为：“He was in financial difficulties.” 6) 你还可以使用词组代替整句或者从句。请看下面的例子： “Beautiful mountains like Mount Tai, Lushan Mountain, and Mount Huang, were visited by only a few people in the past. Today, better wages, holidays with pay, new hotels on these mountains, and better train and bus services, have brought them within reach of many who never thought of visiting them ten years ago.”
摘要是对一篇文章的主题思想的简单陈述。它用最简洁的语言概括了原文的主题。写摘要主要包括三个步骤：（1）阅读；（2）写作；（3）修改成文。 第一步：阅读 A．认真阅读给定的原文材料。如果一遍不能理解，就多读两遍。阅读次数越多，你对原文的理解就越深刻。 B．给摘要起一个标题。用那些能概括文章主题思想的单词、短语或短句子作为标题。也可以采用文中的主题句作为标题。主题句往往出现在文章的开头或结尾。一个好标题有助于确定文章的中心思想。C．现在，就该决定原文中哪些部分重要，哪些部分次重要了。对重要部分的主要观点进行概括。 D．简要地记下主要观点——主题、标题、细节等你认为对概括摘要重要的东西。 第二步：动手写作 A. 摘要应该只有原文的三分之一或四分之一长。因此首先数一下原文的字数，然后除以三，得到一个数字。摘要的字数可以少于这个数字，但是千万不能超过这个数字。 B. 摘要应全部用自己的话完成。不要引用原文的句子。 C. 应该遵循原文的逻辑顺序。这样你就不必重新组织观点、事实。 D. 摘要必须全面、清晰地表明原文所载的信息，以便你的读者不需翻阅原文就可以完全掌握材料的原意。 1 / 19
E. 写摘要时可以采用下列几种小技巧： 1) 删除细节。只保留主要观点。 2) 选择一至两个例子。原文中可能包括5个或更多的例子，你只需从中筛选一至二个例子。 3) 把长段的描述变成短小、简单的句子。如果材料中描述某人或某事用了十个句子，那么你只要把它们变成一两句即可。 4) 避免重复。在原文中，为了强调某个主题，可能会重复论证说明。但是这在摘要中是不能使用的。应该删除那些突出强调的重述句。 5) 压缩长的句子。如下列两例： “His courage in battle might without exaggeration be called lion-like.” 可以概括为：”He was very brave in battle.” “He was hard up for money and was being pressed by his creditor.” 可以概括为：“He was in financial difficulties.” 6) 你还可以使用词组代替整句或者从句。请看下面的例子：“Beautiful mountains like Mount Tai, Lushan Mountain, and Mount Huang, were visited by only a few people in the past. Today, better wages, holidays with pay, new hotels on these mountains, and better train and bus services, have brought them within reach of many who never thought of visiting them ten years ago.” 2 / 19
英文s u m m a r y写作范 例
Article Children Must be Taught to Tell Right from Wrong William Kilpatrick Many of today’s young people have a difficult time seeing any moral dimension (道德层面) to their actions. There are a number of reasons why that’s true, but none m ore prominent than a failed system of education that eschews (回避) teaching children the traditional moral values that bind Americans together as a society and a culture. That failed approach, called “decision-making,” was introduced in schools 25 years ago. It tells children to decide for themselves what is right and what is wrong. It replaced “character education. (品格教育)” Character education didn’t ask children to reinvent the moral wheel (浪费时间重新发明早已存在的道德标准); instead, it encouraged them to practice habits of courage, justice and self-control. In the 1940s, when a character education approach prevailed, teachers worried about students chewing gum; today they worry about robbery and rape. Decision-making curriculums pose thorny (棘手的) ethical dilemmas to students, leaving them with the impression that all morality is problematic and that all questions of right and wrong are in dispute. Youngsters are forced to question values and virtues they’ve never acquired in the first place or upon which they have only a tenuous (薄弱的) hold. The assumption behind this method is that students will arrive at good moral conclusions if only they are given the chance. But the actual result is moral confusion. For example, a recent national study of 1,700 sixth- to ninth-graders revealed that a majority of boys considered rape to be acceptable under certain conditions. Astoundingly, many of the girls agreed. This kind of moral illiteracy is further encouraged by values-education (价值观教育) programs that are little more than courses in self-esteem (自尊). These programs are based on the questionable assumption that a child who feels good about himself or herself won’t want to do anything wrong. But it is just as reasonable to make an opposite assumption: namely, that a child who has uncritical self-regard will conclude that he or she can’t do anything bad. Such naive self-acceptance results in large part from the non-directive (无指导性的), non-judgmental (无是非观的), as-long-as-you-feel-comfortable-with-your-choices mentality (思想) that has pervaded (渗透) public education for the last two and one-half decades. Many of today’s drug education, sex education and values-education courses are based on the same 1960s philosophy that helped fuel the explosion in teen drug use and sexual activity in the first place. Meanwhile, while educators are still fiddling with (胡乱摆弄) outdated “feel-good” approaches, New York, Washington, and Los Angeles are burning. Youngsters are leaving school believing that matters of right and wrong are always merely subjective. If you pass a stranger on the street and decide to murder him because you need money—if it feels right—you go with that feeling. Clearly, murder is not taught in our schools, but such a conclusion—just about any conclusion—can be reached and justified using the decision-making method. It is time to consign (寄出) the fads (风尚) of “decision-making” and “non-judgmentalism” to the ash heap of failed policies, and return to a proved method. Character education provides a much more realistic approach to moral formation. It is built on an understanding that we learn morality not by debating it but by practicing it.
2019级高一英语学案 新高考英语作文新题型——概要写作 一. 概要写作题型特点 概要写作（summary），《牛津高阶英语词典》（第8 版）对它的定义如下:“A summary is a brief statement that gives only the main points of something not the details”。也就是要求考生在整体把握原文的前提下，用自己简洁、精练的语言，对原文的主旨大意进行高度的浓缩，写出一篇语义连贯的短文，也可称之为摘要。这一题型一方面考查学生通过阅读获取文章主旨大意和关键词的能力，另一方面也考查学生的写作能力即用简洁的语言概括文章重要信息的能力以及对文章整体结构的把握能力。因此，概要写作是基于阅读理解和书面表达的，是二者的有机结合体，是阅读理解和书面表达的沟通桥梁。 从《考试说明》上对概要写作的评分原则以及各档次的给分范围和要求的规定中，我们可以发现概要写作有以下特点： 客观性：概要写作其实是一种客观的复述，在正确理解原文的基础上，用自己的语言忠实地再现作者的思想，写作内容要全面，既不能漏掉任何要点，也不能随意增加内容；写作时要尽可能避免使用原文中的字句。考生应通过释义的方式，用自己的语言呈现原文主要内容。需要注意的是，考生不能对原文进行解释和评论，也不能掺杂任何个人想法，或做出任何评判，因此不能出现“I believe”, “I think”等字句。 简洁性：简洁是概要写作的一个显著特点。概要写作是一种对原文“浓缩”后产生的新语篇，通过删除原文中的细节减少例证，简化描述内容以及去除重复来实现语言的简洁性，但是简洁的同时还要做到意义的完整。 连贯性：概要写作并不是写提纲那样只是要点的罗列。写概要时，必须在各要点之间增加一些体现逻辑的关系词，使概要衔接紧密、脉络清晰。写出的概要读起来要完整连贯、独立成篇。 二. 评分原则 《考试说明》中关于概要的评分原则中第一条：本题总分为25分，按5个档次给分；评分时，先根据所写概要的内容和语言初步确定其所属档次，然后以该档次的要求衡量、确定或调整档次，最后给分。其中最高档次第五档（21-25分）的给分描述如下：理解准确，涵盖全部要点；能准确使用相应的语法结构和词汇；有效地使用了语句间的连接成分，使所完成的概要结构紧凑；完全使用自己的语言。 三. 解题思路 1. 通读全文，确定文体，明确文章结构，标出关键信息。（注意区分事实和观点，重要和次要，普遍与特殊，相关和不相关信息，原因和结果等逻辑关系） 2. 改写，重组关键词。用同义表达替换；分词短语，从句，语态转换整合信息；关键词可以不变。（注意语言简练，客观） 3. 润色全文，连句成篇。（尽可能恰当使用功能连接词） 从不同文体入手，解题思路如下： 记叙文： 1. 通读全文，寻词，摘句，定要素。 把握六要素who,when,where,what,how,why (5w1h) 和故事情节plot (引入---发展---高潮---结局---尾声) 引入（Exposition）: 作为故事的开端，主要交代故事的背景（时间，地点，人物，矛盾冲突）； 发展（Rising action）: 故事矛盾不断变化发展的过程； 高潮（Climax）：故事矛盾冲突的转折点，故事最紧张的部分; 结局（Falling action）: 故事发展的结局，矛盾最终的解决； 尾声（Resolution）: 故事结局的影响以及作者的总结思考。尾声不是情节发展的必要部分，并非所有文章都必备。
Children Must be Taught to Tell Right from Wrong William Kilpatrick Many of today’s young people have a difficult time seeing any moral dimension (道德层面) to their actions. There are a number of reasons why that’s true, but none more prominent than a failed system of education that eschews (回避) teaching children the traditional moral values that bind Americans together as a society and a culture. That failed approach, called “decision-making,” was introduced in schools 25 years ago. It tells children to decide for themselves what is right and what is wrong. It replaced “character education. (品格教育)” Character education didn’t ask children to reinvent the moral wheel(浪费时间重新发明早已存在的道德标准); instead, it encouraged them to practice habits of courage, justice and self-control. In the 1940s, when a character education approach prevailed, teachers worried about students chewing gum; today they worry about robbery and rape. Decision-making curriculums pose thorny (棘手的) ethical dilemmas to students, leaving them with the impression that all morality is problematic and that all questions of right and wrong are in dispute. Youngsters are forced to question values and virtues they’ve never acquired in the first place or upon which they have only a tenuous (薄弱的) hold. The assumption behind this method is that students will arrive at good moral conclusions if only they are given the chance. But the actual result is moral confusion. For example, a recent national study of 1,700 sixth- to ninth-graders revealed that a majority of boys considered rape to be acceptable under certain conditions. Astoundingly, many of the girls agreed. This kind of moral illiteracy is further encouraged by values-education (价值观教育) programs that are little more than courses in self-esteem (自尊). These programs are based on the questionable assumption that a child who feels good about himself or herself won’t want to do anything wrong. But it is just as reasonable to make an opposite assumption: namely, that a child who has uncritical self-regard will conclude that he or she can’t do anything bad. Such naive self-acceptance results in large part from the non-directive (无指导性的), non-judgmental (无是非观的), as-long-as-you-feel-comfortable-with-your-choices mentality (思想) that has pervaded (渗透) public education for the last two and one-half decades. Many of today’s drug education, sex education and values-education courses are based on the same 1960s philosophy that helped fuel the explosion in teen drug use and sexual activity in the first place. Meanwhile, while educators are still fiddling with (胡乱摆弄) outdated “feel-good” approaches, New York, Washington, and Los Angeles are burning. Youngsters are leaving school believing that matters of right and wrong are always merely subjective. If you pass a stranger on the street and decide to murder him because you need money—if it feels right—you go with that feeling. Clearly, murder is not taught in our schools, but such a conclusion—just about any conclusion—can be reached and justified using the decision-making method. It is time to consign (寄出) the fads (风尚) of “decision-making” and “non-judgmentalism” to the ash heap of failed policies, and return to a proved method. Character education provides a much more realistic approach to moral formation. It is built on an understanding that we learn morality not by debating it but by practicing it.
上册两篇 Unit Two Text A Recession-proofing your career Introductory remarks In the text, Dr. Barbara Moses describes a new career development paradigm for today’s employees, that is, guaranteed jobs have already become history and it’s high time to engage in a lifelong, self-monitored process which can help to promote and prepare oneself for a change, esp. during periods of recession. She then suggests some skills which are indispensable when responding to new work trends. She recommends discovering both your overt and covert talents, making sure a wide range of positions are available to you, and never committing to any “hot job” which exceeds either your interest or talent. Moreover, being skilled or qualified is not the only criteria. You must be able to “market” yourself, to convince the employer that you are the most suitable candidate for the job, for which purpose you have to establish a social network that can help you make your career decisions “both inside and outside of your professions.” Always follow work trend s. Finally, psychological elements are also important, so never let yourself down and find a balance between the ambitious Type A and more relaxed Type B. In a word, don't be under the misconception that your job is always secure and if you work hard you’ll surely get a good job. You must be fully responsible for the future prospects of your chosen career. Unit Three Text A Lies Introductory Remarks People usually have very negative views regarding lies. Liars are frequently criticized, even cursed. Yet this passage exemplifies a different perspective, one which cruelly reveals the fact that everyone tells lies and that lies are indispensable for happiness, perhaps even our very survival. According to the author, lies are consoling elements that can soothe dying patients and help consolidate the requirements of a society. Lies make us feel superior to other species and disguise our mortal doom. Religions abound with myths and tales, which are basically lies that provide human beings with a sense of safety. People need big lies, though they are occasionally taken advantage of, because lying disguises our mortality, our inadequacies, our fears and anxieties, our loneliness in the midst of the crowd.