目录
01课Cotton Growing棉花种植 (1)
02课Cotton Properties and Uses棉纤维的特性和用途 (2)
04课Wool羊毛 (3)
05课Structure and Properties of Wool羊毛纤维的结构和性能 (5)
06课Silk丝绸 (7)
07课Flax亚麻 (9)
09课Rayon人造丝 (12)
12课YARNS (13)
13课纱线结构和织物外观的关系 (14)
21课精纺和粗纺 (15)
25课络纱 (16)
27课整经 (18)
33 课织机 (24)
40课蓬勃发展的非织造布 (30)
49课染色 (32)
第一课Cotton Growing
棉花种植
Cotton is the world's most widely used fiber. Its popularity stems from both its relative ease of production and its applicability to a wide variety of textile products. The price of cotton yarn, however, is strongly dependent upon the cost of labor, so that in the industrialized nations, where labor is expensive, cotton yarns may be relatively high priced.
棉花是世界上使用最广泛的纤维。它的流行源于它的生产及其在纺织产品广泛适用性相对容易。棉纱价格，然而，强烈地依赖于劳动力成本，因此，在工业化的国家，那里的劳动力昂贵，棉纱可能相对较高的价格。
Until relatively recent times, however, cotton was not as widely used as wool and linen. This was because it was easier to spin wool or flax into yam because of their greater length. In addition, cotton fibers have to be separated from the seeds to which they cling. This procedure was very tedious and time-consuming when done by hand. Early machinery could be used on only the longest staple cotton. So labor costs tended to be very high.
直到最近，然而，棉花是没有广泛用作羊毛和亚麻布。这是因为它容易被毛或亚麻纺成纱由于其更大的长度。此外，棉纤维要从种子中分离出来的，他们依靠。这个过程是非常繁琐和费时的，手工做的。早期的机器可以用在只有长纤维棉花。所以劳动力成本会很高。
The invention of the saw-type cotton gin made possible the exploitation of the short staple fiber, which thrived in the Carolinas and Virginia of the United States. The dramatic increase in productivity, coupled with the low cost of labor in the southern United States, gave cotton a continually expanding portion of the world textile market. Increasing mechanization of fiber and yarn production helped keep the cost of cotton goods low. The, development of the textile machinery enlarged the production base.
的锯片式轧棉机的发明使可能的短纤维的开发，兴盛于美国北卡罗莱纳州和弗吉尼亚州。生产率的急剧增加，加上在美国南部的人工成本低，给棉不断扩大在全球纺织市场部。机械化程度提高，纤维和纱线的生产使棉花的成本低的商品。纺织机械的发展，扩大了生产基地。
Cotton cultivation requires warm climates with a high level of moisture or irrigation. The growing season is from six to seven months long. During this period the seeds sprout and grow, producing a white blossom in about 100 days. The blossom produces a seed pod, which matures during the next two months. When the pod bursts, the cotton fibers are ready for picking.
棉花种植需要温暖的气候和水分或灌溉高水平。生长季节是从六到七个月。这一时期的种子发芽生长，在大约100天，产生白色花。当荚破裂，棉纤维是采摘。
Before yam manufacture, cotton is graded, sorted, and blended to insure uniform yam quality. Cotton is graded on the basis of color, staple length, fineness, and freedom from foreign matter. In the United States, cottons are divided into grades according to length of staple, uniformity, strength, color, cleanness and flexibility. These are compared with a standard supplied by the United States Department of Agriculture. The standard provides 6 grades above and 6 grades below the Middling grade. The most common grades are:
山药生产之前，棉花分级，分类，和混合均匀的纱线质量的保证。棉花是彩色的，依据梯度纤维长度，细度，和外来物质的自由。在美国，棉花分根据纤维的均匀性，强度，颜色，长度为等级，清洁和灵活性。这些都是由美国农业部提供一个标准的比较。本标准规定了6级以上，6级以下的中等。最常见的等级：
(1) Strict good middling.（1）严格的上级。
(2) Good middling. （2）上级。
(3) Strict middling. （3）严格的中等。
(4) Middling. （4）中。
(5) Strict low middling （5）严格的低中等
(6) Low middling. （6）低中等。
(7) Strict good ordinary. （7）严格好普通。
The cotton fiber may be from 0.3 to 5.5 cm long. Under the microscope it appears as a ribbon like structure that is twisted at irregular intervals along its length. The twists, called convolutions, increase the fiber-to-fiber friction necessary to secure a strong spun yarn. The fiber
ranges in color from a yellowish to pure white, and may be very lustrous. However, most cotton dull.
棉纤维可从0.3到5.5厘米长。在显微镜下看起来是一个带状结构，沿其长度不规则的时间间隔扭曲。曲曲折折的，称为卷积，增加纤维间的摩擦力要获得一个强有力的纱。从浅黄色到纯白色的纤维的范围，并可以很有光泽。然而，大多数棉花迟钝。
A cross-sectional view reveals that the fiber is kidney-shaped with central hollow core known as the lumen. The lumen provides a channel for nutrients while the plant is growing. The fiber consists of an outer shell, or cuticle, which surrounds the primary wall. The primary wall, in turn, covers the secondary wall surrounding the lumen. The cuticle is a thin, hard shell which protects the fiber from bruising and damage during growth. In use as a textile fiber, the cuticle provides abrasion resistance to cotton.
管腔提供养分的通道而植物的生长。纤维由外壳，或角质层，围绕初生壁。反过来，包括初生壁，管腔周围次生壁。角质层是薄的，坚硬的外壳保护纤维生长过程中的破碎和损伤。在用作纺织纤维，角质层提供了耐磨抗棉。
第二课Cotton Properties and Uses
棉纤维的特性和用途
A relatively high level of moisture absorption and good wicking properties help make cotton one of the more comfortable fibers. Because of the hydroxyl groups in the cellulose, cotton has a high attraction for water. As water enters the fiber, cotton swells and its cross section becomes more rounded. The high affinity for moisture and the ability to swell when wet allow cotton to absorb about one-fourth of its weight in water. This means that in hot weather perspiration from the body will be absorbed in cotton fabrics, transported along the yarns to the outer surface of the cloth and evaporated into the air. Thus, the body will be aided in maintaining its temperature.
吸湿性和良好的吸湿排汗性能使棉纤维的一个更舒适的一个比较高的水平。因为在纤维素的羟基基团，棉花对水有很强的吸引力。当水进入纤维棉，膨胀，其截面变得更圆。水分和膨胀时湿让棉花吸收水的重量约四分之一的高亲和力的能力。这意味着，在炎热的天气里，身体的汗会吸收棉织品，沿运纱布的外表面和蒸发到空气中。因此，身体会帮助维持其温度。
Unfortunately, the hydrophilic nature of cotton makes it susceptible to water-borne stains. Water-soluble colorants such as those in coffee or grape juice will penetrate the fiber along with the water; when the water evaporates, the colorant is trapped in the fiber. Perhaps the major disadvantage to cotton goods is their tendency to wrinkle and the difficulty of removing wrinkles. The rigidity of cotton fiber reduces the ability of yarns to resist wrinkling. When the fibers are bent to a new configuration, the hydrogen bonds which hold the cellulose chains together are ruptured and the molecules slide in order to minimize the stress within the fiber. The hydrogen bonds reform in the new positions, so that when the crushing force is removed the fibers stay in the new positions. It is the rupture and reformation of the hydrogen bonds that helps to maintain wrinkles, so that cotton goods must be ironed.
不幸的是，棉花的亲水性使得它容易受到水渍。如在咖啡或葡萄汁的水溶性色素会渗入纤维随着水；当水分蒸发，着色剂是困在纤维。也许主要的缺点，棉织品是他们的倾向，皱纹和去除皱纹的困难。棉纤维的刚度降低纱线抗起皱能力。当纤维弯曲的一种新的配置，氢债券持有的纤维素链在一起破裂和分子滑动以减少纤维中的应力。在新的位置的氢键的改革，所以当破碎力去除纤维保持在新的位置。这是氢键，有助于保持皱纹的断裂和改革，使棉织品要熨。
Cotton is a moderately strong fiber with good abrasion resistance and good dimensional stability. It is resistant to the acids, alkalies, and organic solvents normally available to consumers. But since it is a natural material, it is subject to attack by insects, molds and fungus. Most prominent is the tendency for cotton to mildew if allowed to remain damp.
棉花是具有良好的耐磨性和尺寸稳定性好，中等强度的纤维。这是抵抗酸，碱和有机溶剂，通常提供给消费者。但由于它是一种天然物质，它是受攻击的昆虫，霉菌和真菌。最突出的是棉花霉烂的倾向，如果允许存在潮湿。
Cotton resists sunlight and heat well, although direct exposure to constant strong sunlight will cause yellowing and eventual degradation of the fiber. Yellowing may also occur when cotton goods are dried in gas dryers. The color change is the result of a chemical reaction between cellulose and oxygen or nitrogen oxides in the hot air in the dryer. Cottons will retain their whiteness longer when line-dried or dried in the electric dryer.
棉花抗太阳光和热，虽然直接暴露于恒定的强烈的阳光会引起黄的最终降解纤维。变黄时也可能出现在气干燥器干燥棉织品。颜色的变化是一种化学反应的纤维素和氧或氮氧化物之间在热空气中干燥的结果。棉花将保留其白度较长时，线干或在电干燥器中干燥。
Of major interest is the fact that cotton yarn is stronger when wet than when dry. This property is a consequence of the macro-and micro-structural features of the fiber. As water is absorbed, the fiber swells and its cross section becomes more rounded. Usually the absorption of such a large amount of foreign material would cause a high degree of internal stress and lead to weakening of the fiber. In cotton, however, the absorption of water causes a decrease in the internal stresses. Thus, with less internal stresses to overcome, the swollen fiber becomes stronger. At the same time, the swollen fibers within the yarns press upon each other more strongly. The internal friction strengthens the yarns. In addition, the absorbed water acts as an internal lubricant which imparts a higher level of flexibility to the fibers. This accounts for the fact that cotton garments are more easily ironed when damp. Cotton fabrics are susceptible to shrinkage upon laundering.
主要感兴趣的是事实，棉纱时干时湿比。此属性的宏观和微观结构特征的纤维的结果。当水被吸收，纤维膨胀，其截面变得更圆。通常这种大量的外来物质的吸收会导致内部应力较高，导致纤维弱化。然而，棉花，水的吸收导致的内部应力减少。因此，减少内部应力来克服，肿胀的纤维变得更强。同时，在纱线溶胀纤维按对彼此更强烈。的内部摩擦增强纱线。此外，所吸收的水作为一个内部润滑剂，赋予纤维较高水平的灵活性。这说明棉花衣服更容易熨潮湿时。纯棉织物易收缩对洗钱。
Perhaps more than any other fiber, cotton satisfies the requirements of apparel, home furnishings, recreational, and industrial uses. It provides fabrics that are strong, lightweight, pliable, easily dried, and readily laundered. In apparel, cotton provides garments that are comfortable, readily dried in bright, long-lasting colors, and easy to care for. The major drawbacks are a propensity for cotton yams to shrink and for cotton cloth to wrinkle. Shrinkage may be controlled by the application of shrink-resistant finishes. Durable-press properties may be imparted by chemical treatment or by blending cotton with more wrinkle-resistant fibers, such as polyester.
也许比任何其他纤维，棉满足服装，家居家具，休闲的要求，和工业用途。它提供了强大的，面料轻薄，柔软，易干燥，易清洗。在服装，棉提供服装，舒适，容易干燥，在明亮的，持久的色彩，容易照顾。主要的缺点是一种棉纱和棉布收缩起皱的倾向。收缩可以由应用程序的控制防缩整理。免烫性能可以通过化学处理或由棉纤维混纺传授更多的抗皱，如涤纶。
In home furnishings, cotton serves in durable, general-service fabrics. Although they may lack the formal appearance of materials made from other fibers, cotton goods provide a comfortable, homey environment. Cotton fabrics have been the mainstay of bed linens and towels for decades, because they are comfortable, durable, and moisture-absorbent. Polyester/cotton blends provide the modern consumer with no-iron sheets and pillowcases that retain a crisp, fresh feel.
在居家摆设，耐用是棉花，织物一般服务。虽然他们可能缺乏来自其他纤维材料的形式出现，棉织品提供一个舒适，温馨的环境。棉织物一直是几十年来的床单和毛巾的支柱，因为他们是舒适，耐用，和吸湿剂。涤/棉混纺织物提供没有铁的床单和枕套，保持一个清晰的现代消费，新鲜的感觉。
For recreational use, cotton has traditionally been used for tenting and camping gear, boat sails, tennis shoes and sportswear. Cotton is particularly well-suited for tent. A tent fabric must be able to "breath", so that the occupants are not smothered in their own carbon dioxide. Furthermore, exchange of air with the outside atmosphere reduces the humidity within the tent and keeps it from becoming stuffy. Fabrics woven from cotton can be open enough to provide good air permeability for comfort. Tents should also shed water, when wet by rain, cotton yarns swell, reducing the interstices between the yarns and resisting the penetration of water. Today, however, heavy canvas gear is being supplanted by light-weight nylon in tenting equipment.
用于娱乐用途，棉花已被用于帐篷和野营装备，船帆，运动鞋和运动服。棉花是特别适合的帐篷。一个帐篷织物必须能够“呼吸”，让居住者不被自己的二氧化碳。此外，与外界空气交换减少湿度在帐篷和使它变得闷。机织物棉可以打开足够舒适，提供良好的透气性。帐篷也流下的水，当被雨水打湿，棉纱膨胀，降低纱线和抗水渗透之间的间隙。今天，然而，沉重的帆布齿轮被取代的轻质尼龙检测设备。
Cotton cord, twine and ropes are used in industry to bind, hold, and lash all kinds of things, from bales to boats. Cotton yarns are used to reinforce belts on drive motors and in work clothing.
棉绳，绳和绳行业中使用的绑定，持有，鞭笞和各种各样的东西，从包船。棉纱是用来加强对驱动电机和工作服带。
第四课Wool
羊毛
The early history of wool is lost in antiquity. Sheepskin, including the hair, was probably used long before it was discovered that
the fibers could be spun into yarns or even felted into fabric. There is no evidence to support the theory that wool was the first fiber to be processed into fabric, but it seems certain that, as a part of the skin, wool was used for covering and protection by prehistoric peoples long before yarns and fabrics were made.
羊毛的早期历史失传了。羊皮，包括头发，可能很久以前发现的纤维可纺成纱线或织成织物毡。没有证据支持，羊毛被加工成的织物的第一光纤的理论，但似乎肯定的是，作为皮肤的一部分，羊毛被用于覆盖和保护的史前人类早在纱线和织物进行了。
The earliest fragments of wool fabric have been found in Egypt, probably because of the preserving qualities of the climate. These have been dated from 4000 to 3500 B C. The earliest example of wool fabric found in Europe has been dated about 1500 B C; it was unearthed in archeological digs in Germany. Danish sites have yielded excellent fragments of early wool fabrics dated about 1300 to 1000 BC. These fabrics are rough and coarse and contain considerable wild sheep hair.
毛织物最早的碎片已经被发现在埃及，可能是因为保鲜品质的气候。这些已经从公元前4000到公元前3500 。最早的羊毛织物的发现在欧洲已经于约公元前1500 ；这是出土的考古发掘，在德国。丹麦的网站已经取得了优良的片段的早期的羊毛织物约公元前1300至公元前1000年。这些织物粗糙，含有大量的野生绵羊毛。
Wool is a natural fiber of animal origin. Though vegetable fibers were probably the first to be used for spinning and weaving into cloth, animal fibers in the form of skins were the earliest type of clothing worn by man.
羊毛是来自于动物的天然纤维。尽管植物纤维可能被用于纺纱和织布的第一，在动物毛皮纤维最早的人穿的服装类型。
There are indications that, as early as the seventh century BC, people began to sell and buy woolen goods. The supply of wool available to the world every year amounts to about 5000 million pounds. After scouring, this is reduced to about 3000 million pounds of pure wool. The wool crop is insufficient to meet the world needs. Pure wool is often mixed with other type fibers and recovered wool to meet the demand.
有迹象表明，早在公元前第七世纪，人们开始买卖毛织品。羊毛每年向世界供应量的大约500千万磅。冲刷后，这是减少到大约300千万磅的纯羊毛。羊毛的产量不能满足世界的需要。纯羊毛通常与其它纤维的混合和再生毛满足需求。
The qualities of different wools vary greatly. The merino sheep of Australia, South America and South Africa produce very free and soft wool. The quality of wool from these sources depends upon the conditions and heritage of the sheep. Port Philip wool is the finest in Australia and is used to produce the highest quality woolen and worsted fabrics.
不同品种的羊毛在质量上存在较大的差异。澳大利亚细毛羊，南美国和南非产生非常自由和柔软的羊毛。从这些来源的羊毛的质量取决于羊的饲养条件和品种。菲利普港羊毛是澳大利亚最好的，被用于生产粗纺和精纺毛织物质量最高的。
Wool from South Africa is very wavy with a good white color and is used for good quality worsted and woolen goods. South American wool is usually of lower quality than wool from Australia or South Africa. Merino wool has been successfully raised in Germany, France, Spain and the United States and is of high quality.
南非产的羊毛是一个好的白色非常波浪和用于优质的精纺呢绒。南美洲羊毛通常是低质量比从澳大利亚或南非羊毛。美利奴羊毛已在德国，成功地提高了法国，西班牙和美国是高质量的。
To provide the freest-quality wool, production is scientifically controlled. Sheep are inoculated against disease, dipped in chemicals to protect them against insects, and unless on rangeland, fed diet designed to produce healthy animals.
提供最优质的羊毛，生产的科学控制。绵羊接种抵抗疾病，浸泡在化学物质来保护他们免受昆虫，除非在草地，设计生产出健康的动物饲料。
Wool can be sheared from the living animal or pulled from the hide after the animal has been slaughtered for its meat. Sheared wool is called fleece or clip wool and is quality to pulled wool, which is taken from the hides of slaughtered sheep Wool considered superior
剪羊毛可以从活的动物或从隐藏拉后，动物被屠宰后的肉。剪羊毛是羊毛或羊毛和质量夹毛被，这是从宰羊羊毛被认为是优越的隐藏
Shearing is currently done very rapidly with power shears. A good worker can completely shear a sheep in less than one minute, sometimes as short as 20 seconds. Recent developments in Australia have led to a process called chemical or biological shearing. The animal is
fed a chemical similar to that used in the treatment of cancer, which cause the hair to fall out within two weeks. Within very short time following the loss of the hair, it starts to grow again, and the sheep suffer no damage. Fibers obtained in this way are slightly longer than those sheared from the animal, and there appears to be less physical damage to the fibers.
剪切当前功率迅速完成剪。一个好的工人可以完全剪力在不到一分钟，一只羊，有时短为20秒。澳大利亚最近的事态发展导致的过程被称为化学或生物剪。动物喂食化学相似，用于癌症的治疗，导致头发脱落两周内。头发的损失后，在很短的时间内，它又开始生长，和羊不受损害。以这种方式得到的纤维比剪切从动物稍长，似乎有对纤维的物理伤害少。
Usually shearing is done once a year in the early spring, and the fleece is removed in one piece, rolled, packed into bags, and shipped to the nearest processing center. Pulled wool is removed from the hide by one of two methods. It may be treated with a depilatory that loosens the fiber and permits it to be pulled away from the skin without damaging the hide, or it Can be loosened by the action of bacteria on the root end of the fiber. Pulled wool is usually mixed with fleece or clip wool before processing into yarns and fabrics.
通常剪切是一年做一次在早春，和羊毛是一块，删除卷，包装成袋，并运到最近的加工中心。拔毛是由两种方法中的一种从隐藏删除。它可以用脱毛，松开纤维和允许它被拉离皮肤无损伤隐藏处理，或者可以通过细菌对纤维的根端动作放松。拔毛通常与羊毛或羊毛混合前夹加工成纱线和织物。
Preliminary grading of wool fibers is done while they are still in the fleece, because this step is important in determining cost. Factors used in determining the grade of wool include fiber fineness or diameter and length, the age of the animal, the natural color, the breed of the sheep, and the condition under which the animal lived. After grading, fleeces are shipped to the mill, where they are prepared for further processing into yarns and fabrics.
初步的羊毛纤维的分级是还在羊毛做的，因为这一步确定成本是很重要的。用于测定棉纤维细度和品位的因素包括直径和长度，年龄的动物，自然的色彩，羊的品种，和的情况下，动物的生活。评分后，羊毛被运送到工厂，在那里他们准备进一步加工成纱线和织物。
Wool is attacked by hot sulfuric acid and decomposes completely. most other mineral acids of all strengths. Wool will dissolve in caustic soda solutions that would have little effect on cotton.
羊毛是由热硫酸袭击并完全分解。大多数其它不同浓度的无机酸。羊毛会溶解在烧碱的解决方案，将对棉花的影响不大。
第五课Structure and Properties of Wool
羊毛纤维的结构和性能
Under the microscopic observation, the length of the wool fiber shows a scale structure. The size of the scale varies from very small to comparatively broad and large. As many as 700 scales are found in 1 cm of fine wool, whereas coarse wool may have as few as 275 per cm. Fine wool does not have as clear and distinct scales as coarse wool, but they can be identified under high magnification.
显微观察下，羊毛纤维的长度显示了一个规模结构。规模的大小从比较广阔的和大的很小变化。多达700的尺度是羊毛的1厘米，而粗毛可能为每厘米275少。细羊毛没有粗羊毛为清晰明确的尺度，但他们可以在高放大倍数的确定。
A cross section of wool shows three distinct parts to the fiber. The outer layer, called cuticle, is composed of the scales. These scales are somewhat horny and irregular in shape, and they overlap, with the top pointing towards the tip of the fiber; they are similar to fish scales. The major portion of the fiber is the cortex (composed of cortical cells ); this extends toward the center from the cuticle layer. Cortical cells are long and spindle-shaped and provide fiber strength and elasticity. The cortex accounts for approximately 90 percent of the fiber mass. In the center of the fiber is the medulla. The size of the medulla varies and in fine fibers may be invisible. This is the area through which food reached the fiber during growth, and it contains pigment that gives color to fibers.
羊毛的横截面显示三个不同部分的纤维。外层，称为角质层，由刻度。这些鳞片形状有点角质和不规则的，和他们的重叠，与顶端指向尖端的纤维；他们是类似鱼鳞。纤维的主要部分是皮质（由皮层细胞）；这延伸向角质层的中心。皮质细胞长梭形和提供纤维的强度和弹性。约百分之90的纤维质皮层帐户。在光纤的中心是髓质。延髓的尺寸变化和细纤维可能是看不见的。这是通过食品达到纤维在生长过程中的区域，它包含颜料，使色纤维。
Wool fibers vary in length from 3.8 to about 38 cm. Most authorities have determined that fine wools are usually from 3.8 to 12.7 cm; medium wool from 6.4 to 15.2 cm; and long (coarse) wools from 12.7 to 38 cm.
羊毛纤维长度在3.8到38厘米不等。大多数当局已经确定，细羊毛通常从3.8到12.7厘米；中毛从6.4到15.2厘米；长（粗）从12.7到38厘米的羊毛。
The width of wool also varies considerably. Fine fibers such as Merino have an average width of about 15 to 17 microns; whereas medium wool averages 24 to 34 microns and coarse wool about 40 microns. Some wool fibers are exceptionally stiff and coarse; these are called kemp and average about 70 microns in diameter.
羊毛的宽度也有很大的差别。细的纤维，如羊毛具有约15至17微米的平均宽度；而介质羊毛平均为24至34微米和40微米的粗羊毛。一些羊毛纤维非常僵硬和粗糙的；这些都是所谓的肯普和平均直径约70微米的。
The wool fiber cross section may be nearly circular, but most wool fibers tend to be slightly elliptical or oval in shape. Wool fibers have a natural crimp, a built-in waviness. The crimp increases the elasticity and elongation properties of the fiber and also aids in yarn manufacturing. It is three-dimensional in character; in other words, it not only moves above and below a central axis but also moves to the right and left of the axis.
羊毛纤维横截面可为近圆形，但大多数羊毛纤维往往形状略呈椭圆形或椭圆形。羊毛纤维具有天然卷曲，内置的波纹。卷曲增加纤维的弹性和延伸性，也有助于纱线制造。它是三维的性质的；换句话说，它不仅将以上及中心轴的下面也向右移动的轴左。
There is some luster to wool fibers. Fine and medium wool tends to have more luster than very coarse fibers. Fibers with a high degree of luster are silky in appearance.
有光泽的毛纤维。细中羊毛往往比很粗纤维较多的光泽。与光泽程度高纤维的外观光滑。
The color of the natural wool fiber depends on the breed of sheep. Most wool, after scouring, is a yellowish-white or ivory color. Some fibers may be gray, black, tan or brown.
的天然羊毛纤维的颜色取决于羊的品种。冲刷后，大多数毛，是淡黄色的白色或象牙色。一些纤维可能是灰色的，黑色的，褐色或棕色。
The tenacity of wool is 1.0 to 1.7 grams per denier when dry; when wet, it drops to 0.7 to 1.5 g/d. Compared with many other fibers, wool is weak, and this weakness restricts the kinds of yarns and fabric constructions that can be used satisfactorily. However, if yarns and fabrics of optimum weight and type are produced, the end-use product will give commendable wear and retain shape and appearance. Fiber properties such as resiliency, elongation, and elastic recovery compensate for the low strength.
羊毛的强度是1至1.7克/否认干燥时；当湿，它下降到0.7至1.5克/天。与其他许多纤维相比，羊毛是弱的，和这一弱点限制了纱线和织物结构，可满意的种类。然而，如果生产的最佳重量和类型的纱线和织物，最终使用的产品会给值得称道的磨损和保持形状和外观。如弹性纤维，拉伸性能，和弹性恢复补偿低强度。
Wool has excellent elasticity and extensibility. At standard conditions the fiber will extend between 20 and 40 percent. It may extend more than 70 percent when wet. Recovery is superior. After a 2 percent elongation the fiber has an immediate regain or recovery of 99 percent. Even at 10 percent extension, it has a recovery of well over 50 percent, which is higher than for any other fiber except nylon.
羊毛纤维具有优良的弹性和可扩展性。在标准条件下，将20和百分之40之间延伸的纤维。它可能会超过百分之70时，湿。康复优于。百分之2伸长的纤维具有立即恢复或恢复后百分之99。即使在百分之10的延伸，它具有超过百分之50的回收，这比其他任何除了尼龙纤维。
The resiliency of wool is exceptionally good. It will readily spring back into shape after crushing or creasing. However, through the application of heat, moisture and pressure, durable creases or pleats can be put into wool fabrics. This crease or press retention is the result of molecular adjustment and the formation of new cross-linkages in the polymer. Besides resistance to crushing and wrinkling, the excellent resilience of wool fiber gives the fabric its loft, which produces open, porous fabrics with good covering power, or thick, warm fabrics that are light in weight. Wool is very flexible and pliable, so it combines ease of handling and comfort with good shape retention.
羊毛的弹性非常好。它可以恢复原形的粉碎后或压痕。然而，通过应用热，湿度和压力，耐用的折痕或褶皱可以放在毛织物。这种折痕或按保留分子调整的结果和聚合物中的新的交叉链接的形成。除了抗破碎和起皱，羊毛纤维的优良的回弹性赋予织物产生的阁楼，
打开，多孔织物具有良好的遮盖力，或厚，保暖面料，重量轻。羊毛是非常灵活的，柔软的，所以它结合的操控性和舒适性具有良好的保形性缓解。
The standard moisture regain of wool is 13.6 to 16.0 percent. Under saturation conditions, wool will absorb more than 29 percent of its weight in moisture. This ability to absorb is responsible for the comfort of wool in humid, cold atmospheres. As part of the moisture absorption function, wool produces or liberates heat. However, as wet wool begins to dry, the evaporation causes heat to be absorbed by the fiber, and "chilling" may be experienced, though the chilling factor is slowed down as the evaporation rate is reduced. The property of moisture absorption and desorption peculiar to wool and similar hair fibers is called hygroscopic behavior. Wool accepts colors and finishes easily because of its moisture absorption properties.
标准回潮率为13.6～百分之16的羊毛。饱和条件下，毛将吸收更多的水分比在其重量的百分之29。这种吸收能力，负责羊毛在潮湿的舒适，冷空气。作为吸湿功能部分，羊毛产生或释放热量。然而，作为湿羊毛开始干燥，蒸发引起热被纤维吸收，和“冷”，可能是有经验的，尽管寒冷因素减缓蒸发率降低。吸湿和解吸羊毛和类似头发纤维特有的性质称为吸湿行为。毛接受颜色和完成容易因其吸湿性能。
Despite the absorption properties of wool, it has an unusual property of exhibiting hydrophobic characteristics. That is, it tends to shed liquid easily and appears not to absorb moisture. The cause is a combination of factors: interfacial surface tension, uniform distribution of pores, and low bulk density. These moisture properties help make wool very desirable for use in a variety of situations where moisture can be a problem to comfort.
尽管羊毛的吸收性能，它已表现出疏水特性的一种独特的性能。那是，它往往流液容易出现不吸收水分。原因是多种因素的结合：界面表面张力，孔隙分布均匀，与低密度。这些水分特性使羊毛非常理想的使用在各种情况下，水分可以安慰一个问题。
Wool fibers are not dimensionally stable. The structure of the fiber contributes to a shrinking and felting reaction during processing, use and care. This is due, in part, to the scale structure of the fiber. When subjected to heat, moisture, and agitation, the scales tend to pull together and move toward the fiber tip. This property is noticeable in yarns and fabrics and is responsible for both felting and relaxation shrinkage.
羊毛纤维没有尺寸稳定。纤维的结构有助于收缩和缩反应在加工过程中，使用和保养。这是因为，在某种程度上，纤维的鳞片结构。当受到热，湿度，和搅拌，天平倾向于一起拉向光纤尖。此属性是明显的纱线和织物和负责毡缩和松弛收缩。
第六课Silk
丝绸
For approximately 3000 years China successfully held the secret of silk and sericulture and held a virtual monopoly on the silk industry. About AD 300 Japan learned the secret of raising silkworms and reeling the filaments from the cocoons.
约3000年，中国成功举办了丝绸和养蚕的秘密持在丝绸行业垄断。约公元300年日本学习养蚕缫丝的丝茧的秘密。
Throughout history, silk has maintained a position of great prestige and is considered a luxury fiber. It is often called the "queen of fibers" Perhaps one of the most important contributions silk has made in the history of textiles is that it was responsible for investigation into the possible production of man-made fibers. Scientists observed how the silkworm spun the fibers and believed that people could duplicate the art.
纵观历史，丝绸一直保持着巨大的显赫地位，被认为是一个奢侈的纤维。它通常被称为“纤维皇后”也许是最重要的贡献之一的丝绸纺织品的历史是负责为人造纤维的生产调查。科学家们观察到，蚕纺纤维和相信人们可以复制艺术。
Silk is one of the strongest natural fibers used in creating textile products. It has a tenacity of 2.4 to 5.1 grams per denier when dry. Wet strength is about 80 to 85 percent of the dry strength. Silk has good elasticity and moderate elongation, when it is dry, the elongation varies from 10 to25 percent; when wet, silk will elongate as much as 33 to 35 percent. At 2 percent elongation the fiber has a 92 percent elastic recovery.
丝绸是最强的天然纤维用于制造纺织品。它有一个坚韧的2.4到5.1克每否认干燥时。湿强度是约80至百分之85的干强度。蚕丝具有良好的弹性和适度的延伸，当它是干燥的，从10到25 %的伸长率的变化；当湿，丝伸长多达33到百分之35。在百分之2伸长率下的纤维具有百分之92的弹性恢复。
Silk has medium resiliency. Creases will hang out relatively well, but not so quickly or completely as for wool.
蚕丝具有介质弹性。折痕将比较好，但不太快或完全作为羊毛。
The density of specific gravity of silk is cited as 1.25 to 1.34 grams per cubic centimeter, depending on the resource used. Because of the nature of silk, it is possible that the density varies among fibers as well as between the various types of moths that form the fiber. Another source of variation may be due to methods used in determining density. In any case, the density results in the formation of lightweight but strong filaments, yarns and fabrics.
丝绸的比重密度为1.25到1.34克每立方厘米，这取决于所用的资源。由于丝绸的性质，它是可能的，密度不同的纤维以及飞蛾，形成的各种纤维之间。另一个来源的变化可能是由于在密度测定方法。在任何情况下，在轻而坚固的细丝，形成纱线和织物密度的结果。
Silk has a relatively high standard moisture regain of 11 percent. At saturation the regain is 25 to 35 percent. This relatively high absorption is helpful in applying dyes and finishes to silk; however, unlike many fibers, silk also absorbs impurities such as metal salts. These contaminants tend to damage silk by weakening the fiber or causing actual ruptures to occur when the fabric is not handled properly.
蚕丝具有相对高的标准回潮率百分之11。饱和回潮率是25到百分之35。这种相对高的吸收是在应用染料和完成对丝绸有帮助；然而，不像许多纤维，蚕丝也吸收如金属盐杂质。这些污染物会通过削弱纤维或造成实际断裂时的织物处理不当发生丝损伤。
Silk will ignite and continue to burn when there is another source of flame. After removal from the source, it will sputter and eventually extinguish itself. It leaves a crisp, brittle ash and gives off an order like that of burning hair or feathers. It burns similarly to wool.
丝绸会点燃并继续燃烧时火焰的另一个来源。从源头上去除后，它将溅射终将消亡。它的叶子脆，脆灰和发出像燃烧的头发或羽毛的命令。它燃烧同样羊毛。
Like other protein fibers, silk has a lower thermal or heat conductivity than cellulosic fibers. This factor, coupled with certain methods of construction, creates fabrics that tend to be warmer than comparable fabrics of cellulosic fibers.
像其他的蛋白质纤维，蚕丝具有较低的热或热传导率比纤维素纤维。这一因素，加上一定的施工方法，创造物，往往比纤维素纤维与织物的温暖。
Silk is damaged by strong alkalies and will dissolve in heated caustic soda ( NaOH ); however, silk reacts more slowly than wool, and frequently the identity of the two fibers can be determined by the speed of solubility in NaOH. Weak alkalies such as soap and ammonia cause little or no damage to silk unless they remain in contact with the fiber for a long time.
丝绸是由强大的碱受损，将溶解在加热的烧碱（NaOH）；然而，丝绸的反应比羊毛更慢，而且经常对两种纤维的身份可以用NaOH溶解速度确定。弱碱如肥皂和氨导致很少或根本没有损坏丝绸除非他们保持很长一段时间与纤维接触。
Silk protein, like wool, can be decomposed by strong mineral acids. Medium concentrations of hydrochloric acid will dissolve silk, and moderate concentrations of other mineral acids cause fiber contraction and shrinkage, The molecular arrangement in silk permits rapid absorption of acids but tends to hold the acid molecules, so they are difficult to remove. This accounts for some of the acid damage to fibroin that does not occur to keratin. Organic acids do not damage silk and are used in some finishing processes. Some authorities maintain that the scroop of silk—a rustling or crunching sound which used to be considered a natural characteristic, is actually developed by exposure to organic acids.
丝蛋白，如羊毛，可以通过强无机酸分解。盐酸介质中的浓度溶解丝，和中等浓度的其他矿物酸引起纤维的收缩和收缩，在丝的分子排列允许酸吸收迅速但往往把酸分子，所以他们很难去除。这解释了一些要素，不发生蛋白酸损伤。有机酸不损坏丝绸和使用一些整理工艺。一些权威人士认为，silk-a沙沙或运算，曾被认为是一个自然的声音特点的吱吱嘎嘎的响声，实际上是由暴露于有机酸。
Silk has been the queen of fabrics for centuries. As in the past, it is still used for luxury fabrics and for high-fashion items. It is frequently considered to be a sensuous fabric because of its smooth and soft feel, or hand.
丝绸是几个世纪以来织物的女王。在过去，它仍然是用于高档面料、高档时装。这是经常被认为是一个感性的织物由于其光滑和柔软的感觉，或手。
Dry cleaning is the preferred method of care for silk fabrics and products. If handled carefully, however, silk fabrics can be laundered. A mild soap or synthetic detergent in warm, not hot, water should be used, and minimal handling is recommended. Thorough rinsing is required, and the best method for extracting water is to roll the garment in a towel and then hang it in a cool place, out of the sun, to dry. Tumble drying should not be attempted unless a care label specifies that such procedures are acceptable. Silk should be ironed or pressed at medium to low temperatures; steam is acceptable.
干洗是丝绸织物及制品的保健的首选方法。如果小心处理，然而，丝绸织物可以洗的。一个温和的肥皂或合成洗涤剂在温水，不热，应使用水，和最小的处理建议。彻底清洗是必需的，和提取水最好的方法是在毛巾服装滚，然后把它挂在阴凉的地方，避开阳光，干燥。滚筒干燥不应该尝试除非标签指定这样的程序是可接受的。丝绸要烫或压在中低温度；蒸汽是可接受的。
When silk requires bleaching, hydrogen peroxide or perborate bleaches must be used, as chlorine bleaches may destroy the silk.
当丝绸需要漂白，过氧化氢或过硼酸盐必须使用，如含氯漂白剂会破坏丝。
One problem with silk is that body perspiration tends to weaken the fibers and frequently will alter the color. Many deodorants and antiperspirants contain aluminum chloride, which damage silk. It is advisable to wear protective dress shields if perspiration is a serious problem.
丝绸的一个问题是，身体出汗会削弱纤维和经常会改变颜色。许多除臭剂和止汗剂含有氯化铝，从而损害丝。如果出汗是一个严重的问题，最好是穿礼服的盾牌保护。
Several factors are involved in the demand for silk. It offers an incredible variety in fabric and yarn structure. Through dyeing, many beautiful fabrics can be produced. Probably no other fiber is so widely accepted and suitable for various occasions. It is versatile and can be used in almost any type of apparel and in a wide variety of fabrics for home furnishings.
参与丝绸需求的几个因素。它提供了一个令人难以置信的各种纱线与织物结构。通过染色，可以产生许多美丽的织物。也许没有其他纤维被广泛地接受和适用于各种场合。它是通用的，可以用在几乎任何类型的服装和家居用品的各种织物。
Many silk fabrics cost considerably more than similar fabrics for man-made fibers. However, the consumer who has formed an attachment to silk is willing to pay the high price. Because silk combines strength, flexibility, good moisture absorbency, softness, warmth, luxurious appearance, and durability, choice products for the discerning consumer are made of this fiber. Its use, however, is limited primarily to apparel and home furnishings such as draperies and accessories.
许多丝绸面料成本大大超过人造纤维类似物。然而，谁已形成以丝绸附件是愿意支付高价格的消费者。由于丝绸结合强度，灵活性，良好的吸湿性，柔软，温暖，豪华美观，耐用，为挑剔的消费者选择产品是由这种纤维。然而，它的使用是有限的，主要是服装和家具等布料和附件。
第七课Flax
亚麻
Flax is a bast fiber——a woody fiber obtained from the phloem plants. It derives from the stalk or stem of the plant. The flax plant requires a temperate climate with generally cloudy skies and adequate moisture. Bright sunlight and high temperatures are damaging unless alternated with abundant rainfall. Flaxseed is planted in April or May. When the crop is to be used for fiber, the seed is sown close together so that the plants will be closely packed and produce fine plants with long, thin stems. The plants grow to a height of 0.9 to 1.2 meters for fiber use. The blossoms are a delicate pale blue, white, or pink. Flax for fiber is pulled before the seeds are ripe.
亚麻是韧皮纤维——一个木质纤维经韧皮部植物。它来源于植物的茎或茎。麻植物需要一个温带气候与一般多云的天空和充足的水分。明亮的阳光和高温破坏,除非相间过量降雨。亚麻籽是种植在四月和五月。当作物用于纤维、种子播种也接近,这样植物将密集,生产不出优质植物茎长,薄。植物生长的高度0.9 - 1.2米为纤维使用。樱花是一种微妙的淡蓝色,白色,或粉红色。亚麻纤维的拉种子成熟之前。
Flax for fiber is pulled by hand in some countries or by mechanical pullers. It is important to keep the roots intact, as fibers extend below the ground surface. Harvesting occurs in late August when the plant is a brown color. After drying, the plant is ripped; that is, it is pulled through special threshing machines that remove the seed bolls or pods.
亚麻纤维是用手拉在一些国家或机械张力辊。重要的是要保持根完好无损,纤维在地面下表面扩展。发生在8月下旬收获当植物是一个
棕色的颜色。烘干之后,这些植物已经被撕破了;也就是说,它是通过特殊脱粒机械拉删除种子棉桃或豆荚。
To obtain fibers from the stalk, the outer woody portion must be rotted away. This process, known as retting, can be accomplished by any of several procedures.
获得从茎纤维,外层伍迪部分必须腐烂了。这个过程被称为沤麻,可以通过任何的几个程序。
Dew retting involves the spreading of the flax on the ground, where it is exposed to the action of dew and sunlight. This natural method of retting gives uneven results but provides the strongest and most durable linen. It requires a period of 4 to 6 weeks.
露沤麻涉及传播的亚麻在地面上,在那里它被暴露于阳光雨露和的作用。这种自然的方法给了不均匀的结果但提供沤麻最强大、最耐用的亚麻布。它需要一段时间的4至6周。
Pool retting is a process whereby the flax is packed in sheaves and immersed in pools of stagnant water. Bacteria in the water rot away the outer stalk covering. The time required is 2 to 4 weeks.
池沤麻是一个过程,亚麻是用捆,浸入池死水。细菌在水里烂掉外柄覆盖。所需的时间是2到4周。
Tank retting similar to pool retting, utilizes large tanks in which the flax is stacked. The tanks are filled with warm water, which increases the speed of bacterial action. Tank retting requires only a few days. Both pool and tank retting give good-quality flax that is uniform in strength and light in color.
槽浸解类似于池浸解,利用大型坦克,亚麻是堆叠。坦克充满了温暖的水,这就增加了细菌作用的速度。坦克沤麻只需要几天。两个池和坦克沤麻给高质量的亚麻,统一在强度、光的颜色。
Chemical retting is accomplished by stacking the flax in tanks, filling the tanks with water, and adding chemicals such as sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate, or dilute sulfuric acid. Chemical retting can be completed in a matter of hours instead of days or weeks. However, it must be carefully controlled in order to prevent damage to the fiber.
化学浸解可以通过叠加的亚麻在坦克、灌装坦克与水,添加化学物质如氢氧化钠、碳酸钠或稀硫酸。化学浸解可以在几小时内完成,而不是几天或几周。然而,它必须仔细地控制以防止损伤纤维。
After the retting is complete, the flax is rinsed and dried. The stalks are then bundled together and pressed between fluted rollers that break the outer woody covering into small particles. It is then scutched to separate the outer covering from the usable fiber.
浸水后完成,亚麻冲洗和干燥。其茎干然后捆绑在一起,压在槽辊,打破外伍迪覆盖成小颗粒。然后将大麻打成外壳从可用的纤维。
After scutching, the flax fibers are hackled, or combed. This operation separates the short fibers, called tow, from the long fibers, called line. This is accomplished by drawing the fibers between several sets of pins, each successive set finer than the preceding set. This process is similar to the carding and combing operation used for cotton and prepares the flax fibers for the final steps in yarn manufacture. As the fibers are removed from the hackling machine, they are drawn out into a sliver.
在清棉,亚麻纤维梳,或精梳。此操作将短纤维,称为牵引,从长纤维,称为线。这是完成的画几套之间的纤维针,每个连续的组比前面的设置更。这个过程类似于梳理和梳理操作用于棉和亚麻纤维准备最后的步骤在纱线制造。随着纤维移开从栉梳机,他们被吸引到一个条子。
The flax sliver is drawn out into yarn, and twist is imparted. Flax fibers are spun either dry or wet, but wet spinning is considered to give the best quality yarn. The final yarn processing is similar to that used for cotton fiber.
麻棉条抽出成纱、捻是传授。亚麻纤维纺要么干或湿,但湿纺被认为给最优质的纱线。最后的纱处理类似于用于棉花纤维。
Flax fiber is not so fine as cotton; flax cells have an average diameter of 15 to 18 microns and vary in length from 0.63 to 6.35 cm. Bundles of cells form the actual fiber as it is used in spinning into yarns, and these bundles may be anywhere from 12.7 to 50.8 cm long. Line fibers are usually more than 30.5 cm long; tow fibers are shorter.
亚麻纤维是不太好的棉花,亚麻细胞的平均直径15到18微米和不同长度从0.63到6.35厘米。成捆的细胞形成实际的纤维,它是用于纺纱成纱,和这些包可能是任何地方从12.7到50.8厘米长。线纤维通常超过30.5厘米长,拖纤维较短。
The natural color of flax varies from light to ivory to gray. The choice fibers from Belgium are a pale sandy color and require little or no bleaching.
自然色的亚麻不同光的象牙灰色。选择纤维从比利时是一个苍白的沙色,需要很少或没有漂白。
Flax fibers have a high natural luster with an attractive sheen.
亚麻纤维具有较高的自然光泽与一个有吸引力的光泽。
Flax is a strong fiber; the normal tenacity ranges between 5.5 and 6.5 grams per denier. Some fibers of inferior quality may have a tenacity as low as 2.6 g/d, and some top quality fiber may exhibit a tenacity as high as 7.7 g/d. Fabrics of flax are durable and easy to maintain because of the fiber strength. When wet, the fiber is about 20 percent stronger than when dry.
亚麻是一种强大的纤维;正常的韧性范围在5.5和6.5之间克/旦。一些质量低劣的纤维可能有韧性低至2.6 g / d,和一些高质量的纤维可能表现出一种坚韧高达7.7 g / d。亚麻面料耐用,易于维护,因为纤维的强度。当湿,纤维是大约20%比当干。
Most linen fabrics for apparel use have been given various resin finishes to provide consumers with easy-care performance. These finishes reduce the strength of flax so that these fabrics tend to give less durability.
大多数亚麻织物服装使用了各种树脂完成,为消费者提供简单保健性能。这些完成强度的降低亚麻,这样这些面料往往给更少的耐久性。
Flax has low pliability or flexibility, which may result in reduced serviceability in uses where frequent bending is required.
亚麻有低柔软或灵活性,这可能导致减少在应用中,使用可靠性需要频繁弯曲。
Flax has a standard moisture regain of about 12 percent. The saturation regain is comparable to that of other cellulosic fibers. Flax has outstanding wicking properties, which make it possible to move moisture along the fibers and yarns as well as to absorb moisture.
亚麻有标准回潮率约为12%。饱和恢复与其他纤维素纤维。亚麻有杰出的灯芯材料属性,使它能够转移水分沿纤维和纱线以及吸收水分。
Like other cellulose fibers, flax burns quickly. It is highly resistant to decomposition or degradation by dry heat and will withstand temperatures to 150。C for long period with little or no change in properties. Prolonged exposure above 150。C will result in gradual discoloration. Safe ironing temperature may go as high as 260。C as long as the fabric is not held at that high temperature for any length of time. 像其他纤维素纤维、亚麻加速燃烧。它是高度耐分解或降解干热和将承受温度150.摄氏度,长期与很少或没有改变属性。长期暴露超过150. c将导致逐渐变色。安全熨烫温度可能高达260. c只要面料是不举行,高温长时间。
The strength of flax fibers makes it possible to manufacture a wide variety of yarns, from very fine to very heavy, which can be used to make a wide variety of fabrics, from the sheer and loose to heavy and compact. Linen is a frequent choice for table coverings because it wears well, looks extremely attractive and elegant, and when properly finished, lies flat on the table. To achieve this flat effect, a beetling finish is often used.
亚麻纤维的强度可以制造各种各样的纱线,从很细很重,可用于各种织物,从纯粹的和宽松的沉重和紧凑。亚麻是一种常见的选择因为它耐穿桌布,看起来非常有吸引力和优雅,当妥善完成,平躺在桌子上。为实现这一平面效果,一个突出的完成是经常使用。
The natural resistance of flax to chemicals, including detergents, bleaches, other laundry aids, and dry-cleaning solvents, provides a fabric that is easily maintained. Further, these properties, plus resistance to sunlight, inherent fiber strength, and resistance to aging, result in fabrics with along life.
自然阻力的亚麻,化学品,包括洗涤剂、漂白剂、其他洗衣艾滋病,干洗溶剂,提供了一种织物,也易于维护。进一步,这些属性,加上耐阳光、固有的纤维强度,耐老化,导致织物在生活。
When selecting apparel items of linen, consumers prefer fabrics with crease-resistant or durable-press finishes. These may require special care instructions, which should be carefully followed.
在选择服饰的亚麻布,消费者更喜欢面料不起皱褶的或耐久压烫完成。这些可能需要特别的护理指导,应该小心地跟着。
第九课Rayon
人造丝
Rayon is composed of cellulose. Like cotton it is a polymer. The difference in degree of polymerization between cotton and rayon accounts for some of the variance in physical properties between the two.
粘胶纤维是由纤维素。像棉花是一种聚合物。对于一些在两个物理性能之间的差异在棉花和人造丝的帐户之间的聚合程度的差异。
Other causes for the difference between rayon and cotton include the difference in the degree of crystallinity, 60 percent for cotton and 40 percent for rayon, and differences in hydrogen bonding as evidenced by the infrared spectrum of native cellulose and regenerated cellulose.
人造纤维和棉之间的差异的其他原因包括在不同的结晶度，为棉花和人造丝百分之40百分之60，和氢键的差异证明了天然纤维素的红外光谱和再生纤维素。
The mechanisms of formation for natural celluloses are significantly different from man's ability to reform cellulosic structures found in nature. Rayon is structurally different from cotton molecularly, morphologically, and in relation to chain length. Contaminants of various types from the pulp and other materials used in the process introduce significant differences to rayon that are not present in cotton. These differences result in significant differences in properties between cotton and rayon. As a consequence of the technological developments for regeneration of cellulose by man, a much wider range of fiber properties is obtainable from the man-made regenerated cellulose fibers than is possible from native celluloses such as cotton.
对天然纤维素的形成机制是人类进行改革的能力在自然界中发现的纤维素结构差异显著。人造丝是由棉花分子，形态，结构不同和有关的链长度。从过程中使用的纸浆和其他材料的各类污染物的引入显着差异区不存在于棉花。这些差异导致在棉花和人造丝性能之间的显着差异。作为对纤维素的人再生技术发展的结果，更广泛的范围内的纤维的性能可与人工再生纤维素纤维可能比从天然纤维素如棉花。
To a significant extent, molecular orientation can be influenced by conditions used in the viscose rayon process. The current viscose process, however, in all of its variant modes to produce various rayon fibers, gives very little room for changing the crystallinity level of rayon fibers, which is approximately 40 percent, as compared with cotton, which is about 60 percent. Because of the relatively fixed degree of crystallinity in regenerated cellulose, the so-called amorphous areas are also rather constant.
一个显着的程度，可以通过使用在粘胶纤维工艺条件的影响的分子取向。目前粘胶过程，然而，在它的变体形式都以生产各种粘胶纤维，使空间很小改变粘胶纤维的结晶度，这大约是百分之40，与棉花相比，大约是百分之60。由于相对固定程度的再生纤维素的结晶度，所谓的无定形区也相当稳定。
The differences that are obtained in cross sections of rayon fibers and their dyeability are influenced entirely by the process technology for preparing viscose solutions and the manner in which they are spun and subsequently stretched.
那是在粘胶纤维及其染色性能得到截面的差异是完全受工艺技术制备粘胶溶液和在它们旋转，随后延伸的方式。
Along the length or longitudinal direction, regular viscose rayon has a relatively uniform diameter and may also appear to have striations. These striations are the result of light reflection by the irregular surface contour arising from the cross-sectional shape of the fibers. A delustered fiber will have a grainy pitted appearance, while bright fibers appear mainly transparent.
沿长度方向或纵向，普通粘胶纤维具有相对均匀的直径，也可能出现有条纹。这些条纹是由横截面形状的纤维所产生的不规则表面轮廓光的反射效果。消光纤维将有一段坑坑洼洼的外观，而明亮的纤维的出现主要是透明的。
The cross section of regular rayons is highly irregular. Some may even have a bilobal appearance, a kidney bean shape. High wet-modulus types come in several cross-sectional shapes-round, multi-lobal, and off round with a slight protrusion where the inside structure, or core, has penetrated the outside surface, or skin.
普通粘胶纤维的截面高度不规则的。有些人甚至可能是一个双肾豆状外观。高湿模量类型有几种截面形状的圆，多叶，下回合有轻微的突起，其内部结构，或核心，已经渗透的外表面，或皮肤。
Cuprammonium rayon, in the longitudinal view, appears uniform in width, has smooth surfaces, and exhibits no internal markings or striations. The cross section is round or oval, it is relatively clear, and there are no irregularities in the contour. The moisture regain for rayon is slightly higher than for natural cellulosic fibers. Because of this high absorbency, rayon fibers tend to dye and to finish more readily than cotton. The higher absorption is due in part to the lower degree of polymerization; that is, there are more amorphous areas into which water, dyes, and/or fnishes can be absorbed. Rayon fibers are used in apparel and home furnishing fabrics; for industrial use such as reinforcing yarns, tires, and various types of reinforced rubber products, and for a wide range of nonwoven products, including personal care products, medical and surgical products, and a wide variety of wipes.
铜氨纤维，从纵向的角度看，出现宽均匀，具有光滑的表面，并没有表现出内在的斑纹或条纹。横截面为圆形或椭圆形，这是比较明确的，有没有不规则的轮廓。人造纤维回潮率略高于天然纤维素纤维。由于这种高吸收，粘胶纤维的染料，往往比棉更容易完成。更高的吸收是由于部分的聚合程度低；那是，有更多的无定形区域的水，染料，和/或fnishes可以吸收。粘胶纤维是用在服装和家纺面料；工业用如增强纱线，轮胎，以及各种类型的增强橡胶制品，以及非织造产品范围广泛，包括个人护理产品，医疗产品，以及各种各样的湿巾。
Rayon as a reinforcing medium for automotive tires is a premium performing material. It has an important place in the market as a reinforcing fiber, mostly in rubber products. The area of nonwoven applications is a major one for rayon in all developed parts of the world. It is estimated that as much as 40 percent of all the rayon produced today in the United States is consumed by the industry's customers who are engaged in the manufacture and sale of nonwoven products.
人造丝作为汽车轮胎中是一个溢价进行材料的加固。在市场上有一个重要的地方作为增强纤维，大多是在橡胶制品。非织造布的应用领域是在所有的发达世界各地区的主要原因之一。据估计，多达百分之40的所有区在美国生产的今天是由行业的客户从事无纺布产品制造与销售的消耗。
Because it can be processed into either filament of staple form, rayon offers more variety in fabric and yarn construction than do the natural cellulose fibers. Through control of fiber size, yarn number, fabric construction techniques, dyes, and finishes, fabrics can be produced that are sheer to heavy, soft to firm, stiff to limp, in all colors including white. Simple, complex, or textured yarns can be made.
因为它可以加工成纤维形式或丝，人造丝提供了更多不同的纱线与织物结构比天然纤维素纤维。通过对纤维的大小，控制纱线，织物的施工技术，染料，和装饰织物，可以生产完全是沉重的，软公司，僵硬的跛行，在所有的颜色包括白色。简单的，复杂的，或可使变形纱。
Blends or combination fabrics available to the consumer included rayon and polyester; rayon and acrylic; rayon and cotton, rayon and flax. Rayon contributes absorbency and comfort when blended with other fibers; it also contributes styling, ease of dyeing, and softness. Rayon fabrics tend to stretch when wet and shrink upon drying. High wet-modulus rayons have less potential for this than other rayon fibers. Rayon fabrics are stabilized against shrinkage by the use of chemical reactant finishes, or a combination of chemical reactant finishes and mechanical techniques.
混合或组合给消费者提供面料包括粘胶、涤纶丝、腈纶；；人造丝和棉，人造丝和亚麻。区有吸水性和舒适时，与其他纤维混纺；它也有助于造型，易染色，柔软。人造纤维织物拉伸和收缩时倾向于湿干燥后。高湿模量纤维仍然有这比其他纤维较少的潜力。人造纤维织物是通过化学反应完成使用稳定的抗收缩，或结合化学反应物的饰面和机械技术。
十二课YARNS
纺纱是制造纱线最原始的方法。纺纱过程要求一束短纤维排成一线，将他们拉入一对罗拉中，例如粗纱，继续拉伸并加捻粗纱形成纱线。细纱工序的产品是一束具有一定强度和挠曲性的加捻纤维集合体。纱线比其包含的纤维的联合强度要大，因为纤维通过联合作用共同承担外界负荷。单根纱线可能被放在一起加捻以形成更高强力的纱线。这些合股线可能被一次又一次的合股以形成更厚重强力更大的粗绳索。
这些粗绳可能被加上S捻，也可能被加上Z捻。S捻的纱线中的纤维成螺旋状并与字母S中间的斜杠平行。在Z捻的纱线中，纤维与字母Z中间的斜杠平行。纱线通常因为太细使得肉眼很难识别其捻向。然而，当你用左手竖直的拿着一小段纱线，再用右手的拇指和食指夹住纱线的另一头，一边向上拉，一边旋转，这时你就可以测出它的捻向了。如果你用右手顺时针的旋转它，S捻的纱线会越变越紧，Z捻的纱线会越变越松。加捻的方向不会影响纱线的外观。然而，人们习惯性的生产棉和亚麻纱线时用Z捻，生产羊毛和精纺
毛料纱线时用S捻。这种习俗起源于中世纪的消费者保护法；消费者可以仅仅通过退捻纱线，检查纱线捻向，从而轻易地确定布料是
否是真正的羊毛所制。
当纱线被加捻的时候，在捻度的方向上也会相应地形成内应力。这种力被称为扭转力。通常，纱线每转一圈，都会增加相同的扭转力，所以每米具有相同转数的纱线就会具有相同的扭转力。既然扭转力和每米纱线所具有的转数（tpm）近似成正比，因此我们通过数出纱线每米的转数来说明平衡纱线和非平衡纱线的形成原理。以一对200tpm的S捻向的单纱为例。用另外的100tpm的S捻将两个单纱加捻到一起。每根单纱的内部扭转力就达到了300tpm，然而合股线在S捻方向上的扭转力是100tpm。这时纱线则不平衡，将会形成卷曲。如果给相同的两根单纱加上Z方向上100tpm的捻度使它们合成一股时，逆时针方向的加捻则会使单根纱线易于解开，使其在S捻向上的内部扭转力降到100。合股线在Z捻向上的外部扭转力将达到100。内外扭转力之间相互平衡使得纱线保持平衡。对于制造商来说，布料结构中纱线的平衡是相当重要的，因为不平衡的纱线所形成的扭结和卷曲将会被缠在机器里引起产品的瑕疵。这些简单的分析只适合于由两根单纱合股成的纱线。像绳索这些更复杂的结构则需要更精确地探索。
用于家具和服装的大部分纱线都是粗线或稍微细些的线。因此，我们应该把精力放在这种类型的研究上。
首先，织布工人以及其他的纱线使用者需要一个标准的方法去精确的标明各种不同类型的纱线，以便于买卖双方能够达成一个相互的认同。在早期的中世纪，一种测定纱线细度的体系已经被设计出来了。至今仍在使用的这种体系被称作纱线细度或纱线支数。纱线的细度被定义为每一磅纱线的标准纱绞数量。什么是标准纱绞？它因纤维种类不同而有所区别。棉纱和绢丝纱线用840码（768米）纱绞来计量；精纺毛料用560码（512米）纱绞来计量；亚麻和标准羊毛纱线用300码（274米）纱绞来计量。在纱线细度体系被设计的时候，标准纱绞的长度被选择成一个在实际纱线支数使用中有实用价值的数。
通过这种计量体系，一个50支的棉纱是比较细的，即一个重为一磅，长为840码，有50个纱绞的纱线。表明每个纱绞重仅为1／50磅。一个10支的棉纱要求十个纱绞组成一磅，这种纱线是比较粗的。一个1支的棉纱则是相当粗的了。表明纱线支数越大，则纱线越细。
化纤长丝纱线不是通过这种纱线细度体系来计量的，而是通过旦尼尔体系来测定的。旦尼尔是指9000米长的化纤长丝或纱线的重量。因此一个化纤长丝是以它的旦尼尔数和它纱线中的纤维数为特征的。例如一个未加捻的300旦尼尔的纱线包含50根化纤长丝则被记为300／50／0。一个在S捻向上具有100tpm捻度的纱线则被记为300／50／100S。这表明我们可以通过这种记法来计算出纱线中每根长丝的细度。在上面所提到的例子中，每根化纤长丝的细度为300／50=6旦尼尔。
测量纱线细度的体系不只这两种；在不同的国家中，纱线的细度计量体系主要基于每种纤维的标准纱绞数的不同而不同。尽管可以从一个体系转换到另一个体系，但是不同的纱线细度体系的使用能在世界范围内被认可仍然是一个问题。在过去的40年当中，世界上的各个国家试图达成一个标准化的纱线细度体系。目前被普遍采用的是特克斯体系。不论是纺出的丝还是化纤长丝，特克斯的定义都是
1000米纱线的重量。我们期望在不久的将来，特克斯体系能够取代其他的细度体系。
第十三课纱线结构和织物外观的关系
纱线的结构可以改变由这种纱线构成的织物的性质。主要取决于纱线结构的织物特征包含织物外观风格、舒适性、保养性和耐用性。我们称从织物表面反射的光量和反射的途径这两项特征为光泽度。尽管织物结构能够影响光的反射途径，但是最大的影响来源于纱线和纤维。具有高反射率的纤维则会显得非常的有光泽，例如丝绸和尼龙。高度卷曲的纤维则表现得没有光泽，例如羊毛。纱线中的捻回数同样可以调节光的反射途径。如果纱线没有捻度，那么光会在单个纤维之间消散，纱线则会显得比较暗淡。拥有少量的捻回数时，纤维排成一线，光从它们的侧面消散了；这会增加进入观察者眼睛的反射光数量。当捻回数再继续增加的时候，纱线变得更加光滑，反射光的数量也相应增加。然而，当纱线具有强捻的时候，纱线表面则会显示出凸棱。这些凸棱使得光线在观察者眼中消散，同时伴随着织物光泽的消失。
服装的保暖性取决于起隔离热作用的布所用的材料。布的隔热性质起源于纱线内纤维之间所包含的空气。因此，布料保持身体热量的能力取决于织物结构的紧密度和纱线的蓬松性。稀疏的织物结构能够使空气在纱线之间穿过。这种空气的流动增加了外界空气和织物与人体之间所夹空气的热量交换。这种材料的衣服会让人感觉很冷。紧密的织物结构则会阻止空气通过纱线，这种织物则会让人体觉得更温暖些。然而，纱线的性质刚好相反。假设有一件由少量较粗的羊毛纱线做成的粗花呢夹克。和一件用较多量棉纱做成的衬衫相比较。羊毛夹克则会更加温暖些，因为在较粗的羊毛纱线的纤维之间充满了空气。纤维内包含的空气变热了，并且没有风形成，这就
在人体和大气之间形成了一个隔热层。棉的纱线则不会那么粗。它们不能够像羊毛的纱线一样储存那么多空气，因此不能保持一个有效的阻挡层以抵挡热量交换。
影响透湿性的因素和影响隔热性的因素相似。我们的体表都会覆盖一层薄薄的水。正是这层体表水的蒸发使得我们能够调节我们的体温。当水分蒸发到大气中时，人体的热量也被带走。如果周边空气是比较干燥的，或者有一些微风的时候，水分的蒸发会比较快，这时我们也会感觉有点冷。如果气候比较湿热并且空气又是静止的，我们的身体水分不能很快被带走，我们则会感觉到很热。在非常闷热的天气时，我们会觉得身体黏糊糊的，并且很不舒服。
化纤长丝纱线是非常平滑的。这种纱线做成的衣服很容易贴在我们的身上。如果布料很紧密并且紧贴我们的皮肤的时候，就很难使得水分渗透到织物的外面。水分的渗透能力将会下降。然而，纺出的纱线有纤维的绒头伸出纱线表面。这些纤维绒头有助于支撑着织物以减少它与皮肤之间的接触。这样有助于水分的渗透从而使服装感觉起来更舒适。如今的化纤长丝纱线都是质地不平的，就是为了达到近似于纺出的纱的毛羽特性的效果，从而使织物更舒适。
织物保养的容易与否可以通过织物结构中所使用纱线的种类来进行调整。捻度疏松并且较粗的纱线不能够抵制尘土或染色剂的渗透。具有高度加捻的紧密纱线则会快速的阻挡尘土的入侵。另外，越疏松的纱线越容易被熨烫时的机械动作压紧。这会增加织物收缩的倾向。通常，对于一种材料来说，越平滑且捻度越大的纱线越容易获得一个较好的保养特性。
织物的耐用性主要取决于织物结构所使用的纱线。化纤长丝纱线通常都有一个比较高的强力和耐磨性。它们的强力是因为所有的纤维都是等长的，所以每根纱线中纤维所承受的力是一样的。化纤长丝纱线的耐磨性主要是因为它的纤维的高强度。然而，材质较差的化纤长丝纱线如果加上合适的捻度时，则可以承受纤维横向的剪切运动。
化纤长丝纱线的一个主要缺陷是易于钩丝和气球。如果化纤长丝纱线中的一根纤维断头，断头的末端仍然会附着在纱线上。因为它的强力太大，所以不能够被拉出来。通常它的强力太大，从而不容易被清理掉。这种纤维常会自我卷曲成一个小小的球，称为起球，这种球仍然留在织物表面。如果形成了足够多的小球，织物材料会变得不雅观。相对于早期的人造纤维来说，纤维改性则减少了现在的化纤长丝纱线容易起球的现象。
纱线捻度对强度和光泽的影响具有相同的规律。当捻度增加的时候，纱线会变得更加紧密。摩擦力被分配到一定数量的纤维上，而不是少量的纤维，因此要破坏单个纤维则变得更加困难。如果纱线捻度过大的时候，纤维容易遭受较大的内应力，使得它容易被施加的外力破坏。
织物的质地能够影响我们感觉的舒适性。如果织物是平滑的并且如丝质般的，这样的织物会让人感觉很好；如果是滑溜溜如蜡质般的，则会让人感觉不好。毛茸茸的温暖的材质适合做冬天的睡衣，但多毛又粗糙的却让人感觉不舒服。所选纱线的质地必须适合布料的最终使用。毛茸茸并且感觉舒适的羊毛或是质地不平的丙烯酸纤维比较适合做秋冬厚重织物。较细的捻度大的精梳棉纱或亚麻布会产生一种令人愉悦的滑爽表面，这使得它比较适合夏天穿着。滑爽的化纤长丝或醋酯纤维也能产生同样的效果。如果将毛羽较多的纱线用于经面缎纹结构则会显得比较愚蠢，因为经面缎纹容易产生一种重点突出纱线光泽的滑爽表面。在使用过程中，例如衣服衬里，意味着它必须容易穿着和脱去。如果纱线是毛羽较多的，纤维表面则会对光进行漫射，使得织物失去它的光泽。在第二个例子中，由纱线表面突出纤维所引起的增加的摩擦力将会和经面缎纹织物的最初目的相抵消。
21精纺和粗纺
羊毛织物可以是粗纺或者精纺织物。两种织物的不同往往不能被与本行业联系不紧密的人所理解。通常，一件吊牌上标有全羊毛的衣服会被非本行业人士错误地理解为粗纺织物，然而，事实上这种织物更确切地说是精纺织物。希望下面的解释有助于消除读者心中的疑惑。
构成机织物的纱线是由纺织纤维加捻形成的。用于粗纺和精纺织物的基本纤维是羊毛，粗纺纱线中，生产时纤维之间相互平行排列，这赋予纱线和最终的织物一个光洁平滑的外观。然而，纱线中纤维不平行而是交织在各个方向的，是粗纺纱，其表面粗糙有须状毛羽。织物以组成它的纤维命名。粗纺织物手感丰满且蓬松，但精纺织物表面却光洁、平滑、整齐，且每根纱线在组织图案中清晰可见。
粗纺对于外行人来说是个再清楚不过的词了，它表明了和羊毛有关。但令许多人甚至是本行业中的工作者困惑的是，精纺这个词的来源。
Worsted 是对Worstead的有小偏差的误称。Worstead是诺福克郡一个村子的名字，14世纪早期，欧洲大陆由于宗教和政治压迫，许多有经验的织工以难民的身份逃到了英格兰，尤其佛兰德地区的人，最先定居并引入生产比英国在此之前生产的织物更高档更细致的织
物的新方法。从前是繁荣的小镇，现在Worstead是一个农业村庄，没有一个工业用锭子或织机。
只有新羊毛才用于精纺生产。为使精纺纱线有光洁的外观，精纺行业所用羊毛都是精梳羊毛。这个工序使羊毛伸直并除去短纤维，除了一小部分用于地毯和手工针织物的纱线，所有精纺纱线都是由精梳羊毛生产的。在精纺地毯纱线的生产过程中，出于经济的考虑，精梳工序有时可省去，而且这会使短纤维留在纱线中，从而有助于增加地毯最终的重量。这种纺纱系统就是半精纺。所有用于精纺纱生产的机器都是帮助维持纱线的平滑的。
粗纺纺纱机可以用新羊毛，但另一方面，其所纺纱线可能根本不含新纤维。因为除了纯羊毛，在其可选择范围内还有其他许多种纤维材料，包括：
（1）软再生毛纤维材料，它是由撕扯旧的和新的针织服装或密度小的机织物碎布生产的。
（2）硬再生毛的生产类似于软再生毛，但所用碎布由新或旧的结构紧密的，或缩绒织物，或毛毡组成
（3）落毛是纯的短羊毛纤维，是精纺纱生产过程中在精梳工序被除去的短纤维。
（4）棉、人造丝和其他人造短纤
（5）各个纺织生产工序产生的下脚料
羊毛短纤可以用于粗纺行业，事实上，据说低端粗纺能处理任何纤维，无论纤维如何短，总会有两个头端。短羊毛因其长度不适于精梳而被称作粗纺羊毛，并用于粗纺。而被归类于长度适合精梳工序，并用于精纺行业的羊毛被称作精纺羊毛。
精纺比粗纺多好几道工序，那其实是说，纱线生产过程中，从原材料到纱线，精纺需要长达几周的时间，而粗纺生产只需要几个小时。生产粗纺纱时，各组分要先经和毛机混和。混和后的纤维在粗纺梳毛机上形成头道粗纱。最后，头道粗纱在走锭纺纱机或环锭纺纱机上纺成细纱。但在粗纺生产中，羊毛在洗毛和烘毛后，通常进行粗梳，在精梳和针梳后且进行最后纺纱前，紧接着的是牵伸工序。每一道工序都是为了使纤维相互平行排列，以便最终生产出光洁平滑的精纺纱。对精纺纱的一系列工序，需要多达20台机器，而粗纺纱工序只需要3或4台。
机织后，对粗纺织物进行的后整理要比精纺织物多。事实上，可以这么说吧，精纺织物是由织机生产的，而粗纺织物则形成于后整理。通常，下机后的精纺织物与呈现在顾客面前的精纺织物是一样的，但是几乎没有粗纺织物可以这样。事实上，刚下机的粗纺毯子看着就是一根根光秃秃的纱线，而商店中待售的产品则蓬松且手感柔软，这些特征都要归功于后整理工序。
25课络纱
Yarns as manufactured and packaged are not in the optimum condition to be used to form fabrics. After yarn formation, both
spun and continuous filament yarns are not immediately usable in fabric forming systems. Package size, build and other factors make it necessary for the yarn to be further processed to prepare it to be handled efficiently during fabric formation.
生产并卷装好的纱线并没有处在用于生产织物的最佳状态，纱线形成后，短纤纱和长丝都不能立即用于织物编织系统。卷
装的尺寸大小、形状和其他因素让纱线进行进一步加工以便在织造过程中高效传送是有必要的。
For weaving and warp knitting, many yarns are presented simultaneously in the form of a warp sheet. These yarns are taken from packages called beams. Shuttle looms need a ling yarn package, or quill, which fits in the shuttle; while shuttleless looms and weft knitting machines use yarn from large packages called cheeses or cones.
对机织和经编来说，许多纱线以片纱形式同时排列在一起。这些纱线退绕的筒子叫织轴。梭织机需要一个特殊的适合于梭
子的纬纱筒子或纬管，而无梭织机和纬编机所用纱线退绕的大筒子叫扁柱形筒子或圆锥形筒子。
From the above it can be seen that the yarn, packaged as it comes from spinning, is virtually use less. It must be repackaged to meet the particular needs and demands of the fabric forming system in which it is to be used. This, in fact, is one of the functions of yarn preparation, to put the yarn on a suitable package for a particular fabric forming system.
从上文可知，从细纱机纱下机后卷装成形的纱线几乎是没有用的。它必须重新进行卷绕以满足编织系统的要求。这其实
是纱线准备的一个功用，就是使纱线以合适的卷装适应于特殊的编织系统
The first step in yarn preparation for both knitting and weaving is winding
对机织和经编来说，纱线准备的第一步是络纱。
The reasons for winding yarn are ①to produce a package which is suitable for further processing, and②to inspect and clear (remove thick and thin spots) the yarn. To perform the above tasks a winder is divided into three principal zones: ①the unwinding zone,②the tension and clearing zone, and③the winding zone. To rewind the yarn on a new package, it must first be removed from the old package. This is accomplished in the unwinding zone. This zone merely consists of a creel, which holds the Old package in an optimum position for unwinding.
络纱是为了形成一个适合于进一步加工的卷装，检查并清除纱线粗节和细节。
为完成以上任务，一个络纱机可分为三个主要工作区域：退绕区、张力和清纱区、络纱区。
为将纱线重新卷绕成新的卷装，必须将其从旧的筒子上退绕。这个工序在退绕区完成。这个区只是由一个纱架组成，这个纱架用于支持纱筒并使之处在利于退绕的位置。
In side withdrawal, the spool must rotate in order for the yarn to be removed. The advantage of this system is that the yarn does not rotate upon withdrawal and therefore the yarn twist remains constant. Its disadvantage is that the spool must rotate. At high winding speeds, due to inertia, the rotation of the spool may lead to tension variations in the yarn. Furthermore, provision must be made to stop the spool if, for any reason, the winder stops. If this is not done the rotational momentum of the spool will cause it to remain in motion allowing yarn to be unwound without being taken up. Also, upon start-up, higher tensions are developed because the winder must overcome spool inertia 侧向退绕中，筒子必须转动，以便于纱线退绕。这种退绕方式的优点是，退绕过程中纱线不旋转，所以纱线捻度保持不变。缺点是，筒子必须转动。高速络筒时，由于惯性，筒子的转动会导致纱线上的张力波动。另外，如果因某些原因，络筒机停机时必须有使筒子停止运动的装置。如果没有这样的装置，筒子的转动惯量会使它保持转动，纱线退绕而未被卷绕。而且，一旦启动，因为络筒机要克服转动惯量，会产生更大的张力。
In the over-end withdrawal method, the package need not be rotated as the yarn is pulled over the end of the package. This method is the simplest and most common method of yarn withdrawal. There are, however, two factors which must be taken into account when this method of withdrawal
轴向退绕中，纱线从筒子一端退绕时，筒子不必转动。这种退绕方法最简单也最常用，但当使用这种方法退绕时有两个因素必须考虑。
The first of these factors is known as ballooning. As the yarn is unwound from the package a high speed, centrifugal forces cause it to follow a curved path. As the yarn rotates, it gives the illusion of a balloon above the package. This ballooning leads to uneven tensions being produced in the yarn which may or may not alter some of the particular properties of the yarn.
第一个因素是气圈。当纱线以高速从筒子上退绕下来时，离心力使其按弯曲路径行进。当纱线旋转时，它会在筒子上显示一个圈状影像。气圈导致络纱时的张力不匀，从而可能会改变纱线的特定性能。
The second factor for consideration is that for each time one complete wrap of yarn is removed from tide supply package the twist in that length changes by one turn. For most yams this change is insignificant and may be ignored. However, some fabrics are constructed using flat yarns of metal, polymers or rubber. In these cases the yarn must remain flat and even one turn of twist is unacceptable. These yarns can not be unwound using the over-end method and the side method must be used
第二个要考虑的因素是，每次一根完整的经纱从供纱筒退绕下来时，在这段纱线上捻度会增加或减少一捻。对大多数纱线来说，这种改变不重要，可以忽略。但是一些用金属、聚合物或橡胶的扁平长丝织成的织物，纱线必须保持扁平状即使只有一个捻度变化也不行。这些纱线不能用轴向退绕方法退绕，而只能用侧向退绕法。
The next zone is the tension and clearing zone. It is in this zone that the yarn receives the proper tension to provide an acceptable package density and build for further processing. This zone consists of a tension device, a device to detect thick spots, or slubs, in the yarn and a stop motion which causes the winding to stop in the case of yam break or the depletion of a supply package. The yarn is directed into this zone by a guide.
下一个工作区是张力和清纱区。在这个区域中，纱线获得合适张力以保证合适的卷装密度和成形形状，便于进一步加工。
这个区组成为：一个张力装置、一个纱线粗细节检测装置和一个断头自停装置，当纱线断头和供纱筒纱线用完时，它使络纱机
停机，纱线由导纱器引入该区。
Guides fall into two categories: closed, which require a yarn end to thread, and open, which do not. Open guides, however, give
less positive guiding. It is important that guides be kept smooth to prevent damage to the yarn through abrasion, although friction damage
can develop in too smooth a guide. Guides are usually made from hard stainless steel or from ceramics.
导纱器分为两类：封闭式，需要将纱线穿过，而开放式则不需要。但开放式导纱器是消极式导纱器。对导纱器来说，保持表面光滑以防止对纱线的摩擦损伤，但是无论多么光滑，摩擦损伤都会发生。导纱器通常用不锈钢或陶瓷制成。
Following the guide the yam enters a tension device. The purpose of the tension device is to allow the maintenance of proper tension in the yarn in order to achieve a uniform package density. The tension device also serves as a detector for excessively weak spots in the yam which break under the added tension induced by the tension device.
穿过导纱器，纱线进入张力装置。张力装置的目的是使纱线保持合适张力，以保证均匀一致的卷装密度。张力装置也作为
一个纱线弱节的检测装置，它增加的张力会使弱节断开。
Tension devices fall into three categories:①capstan tensioner , ②additive tensioner, and ③combined tensioner.
张力装置分3种：柱式张力器、倍加式张力器和联合式张力器。图4（略）是柱式张力器
The capstan tensioner depends upon the coefficient of friction between the yam and the post, denoted by μ
, and the angle of wrap,
denoted by
θ.If the incoming tension is denoted by Tin and the outgoing tension by TOUTT out then, for the capstan tensioner, the relationship between the incoming and outgoing tensions is given by:
μθ
e
T
T
in
ouut
=
.
柱式张力器取决于纱线和立柱间的摩擦系数，用μ 表示，经纱角度，用θ 表示。如果输入张力用T--in表示，输出张力用Tout 表示，柱式张力器输入与输出张力可表示为：
Tout=T--in 12eμθ（μθ在指数的位置）
Where e is approximately 2.718 , the base of the natural logarithms
这里，e是自然对数的底数，大小约为2.718
The following observations may be made about the capstan tensioner:
下面是有关柱式张力器的结果分析：
(1) Since, μθ
and e are constants, the outgoing tension is merely a constant multiple of the in coming tension, hence the name
multiplicative ten tensioner.
(2) If the .incoming tension is zero so is the outgoing tension.
(3) To vary the tension, at least one of the following must be done:
1.因为μ、θ 和e是常数，输出张力只是输出张力的恒定倍数，因此这种张力器也叫倍积式张力器
2.如果输入为0，则输出也为0
3 要改变张力，至少做以下其中一个事情：通过改变立柱材料或表面性质来改变摩擦系数
a. Change the coefficient of friction by changing the post material or surface characteristics.
b. Change the angle of wrap.
c. Change the number tension.
a改变经纱角
b改变立柱数量
c改变输入张力
It should be noted that some of these changes are, at the least, impractical, Also, because of the multiplier effect, tensions can bulid up to critical levels very rapidly
要指出的是，要是改变其中几个变量是不实际的。由于倍积效应作用，张力很快会达到临街水平
27课整经
If the fabric forming system is weaving or warp knitting, some or all of the yarns forming the fabric are presented in sheet form. It is necessary therefore to remove the yarn from the winding package and arrange the desired number on a package called a beam. The yarns must be parallel and under uniform tension. This, then, is the purpose of warping.
如果织物成形系统是机织或者经编，则成形系统中的部分或者全部纱线将以片纱平行排列，所以有必要将纱线从筒子上退绕并在另外的筒子上安排一定数量的纱线。这个新筒子叫经轴。这些纱线必须平行排列，并处于均匀一致的张力之下。这就是整经。
Before thinking about winding a specified number of yarns on a beam, first consider the problem of positioning the package from which the yarn is taken in such a manner so as to facilitate the removal of yarn. Also keep in mind that the number of yarns per beam is in the hundreds or thousands and that there must, at least, be one supply package for each of these yarns. It is logical, therefore, to build a frame of some sort to hold the supply packages in a manner so as to facilitate warping. To accomplish this purpose creels are equipped with package holders on which the supply packages are placed, tension device to help maintain uniform tension through out the creel, guides to direct the yarn and to help keep the ends apart, antistatic devices to eliminate static charges by the rubbing of the yarn against the various surfaces, and stop motions to detect broken ends and/or empty packages.
在考虑将一定数量的纱线卷绕到经轴之前，要先考虑经轴的安放问题，以便于纱线以此方式退下时利于退绕，而且要记着
每根经轴上的纱线数量是几百或者几千根。每根纱线必须至少有一个供纱筒。要合理安置支撑筒子的支架以利于整经。为达到
这一目的，筒子架都配备有筒子座，以供供纱筒放置，张力装置用于保持纱线通过筒子架时均匀一致的张力，导纱器引导纱线
并帮助纱线保持分离，静电消除装置用来消除纱线与各种表面摩擦时产生的静电，断纱自停装置用来检测断头和空管。
In theory, the size of the creel (and therefore the number of packages it may hold) is unlimited. In practice, and not considering purchase price, the creel size is limited by two factors. The first of these is floor space. A creel must be housed in the building and therefore it necessarily uses some of the facilities of that building. Since the creel produces nothing tangible to offset the cost of housing and maintenance, it is important that it consume as little of these as possible:
理论上，纱架容量是无限制的。实际上，不考虑成本时，纱架容量受两个因素限制。第一是占地面积。纱架必须安装在厂房内，所以它必须利用厂房内的一些设施。因为筒子架不会产生任何实质性的东西来补偿安装和保养费用，所以尽量减少成本是很重要的。
The second factor is the yarn itself. In theoretical discussions, yarn weight, especially for short lengths of yarn, is neglected. In considering a very large creel, it is obvious that some of the supply packages must be very much further away from the point where the beam is being formed than others. Also, the yarn must be supported to keep it from dragging on the floor and tangling. Each support acts as a capstan tension device. Thus, it is important to keep the packages in a distance range where the effect of yarn weight and the effect of supports as tensioners may be neglected. Hence the size and, therefore, the capacity of the creel is limited. In general, maximum creel capacity ranges from about 300 packages for very heavy yarns to 1400 packages for thin yarns. As will be seen later, creel capacity is an important factor in warping.
第二是纱线本身。理论上，尤其是短纤纱，纱线自重可以忽略。考虑到一个很大的筒子架，很明显的是，一些供纱筒比另一些距离经轴形成的地方远的多。而且为避免纱线拖地和相互纠缠，必须将其支撑起来，每个支架都起到了倍积张力装置的作用，这样使纱筒保持在一定距离之内，此时纱线张力和作为张力装置的支架的影响可以忽略。因此，纱架容量和承载能力受到限制。总的来说，纱架最大容量范围从粗纱的300个筒子到细纱的1400个筒子。正如将在后文看到的，纱架的容量是整经的重要因素。
Creels may be classified by the number of creel positions per end supplied. Using this classification, creels are either single or multiple package creels
筒子架可按为每根经纱提供的供纱位置数来分类。按这种分类方法，纱架分为单式筒子架和复式筒子架。
To achieve higher beaming efficiency, single package creels are often used in various combinations. If the winding head, or headstock, is fixed, often non-stationary single end creels are moved in and out of position as required. These creels are called truck creels. Truck creels require that floor space be reserved for the empty creel. A more space efficient set-up results if the headstock is capable of being moved. Creels used in this manner are known as duplicated creels. The advantage of a duplicated creel is the lack of need for any empty creel space in which to moves an expended creel.
为实现更高的整经效率，单式筒子架常常联合使用。如果整经机机头固定，那么通常要配以能从相应位置移进移出的移动单式筒子架。这些筒子架叫做车式筒子架。车式筒子架需要为空筒子架预留一定空间。如果机头可以移动，可以产生一个更大空间的机构配置，用于这种整经的筒子架就是双联整经筒子架。这种筒子架优点是，不需要为空筒子架设置空间。
In one type of multiple package creel , known as a magazine creel, more than one package is provided for each end. The packages are tied head-to-tail so warping can continue when one package is exhausted.
一种复式筒子架就是复式固定筒子架，每根经纱有不止一个筒子为其供纱。筒子上的纱线首尾相连，以此保证当筒子上的
纱线用完时整经连续进行。
Another multiple package creel is known as the traveling package creel. Instead of moving creels or headstock when fresh packages are required, the packages themselves are moved into position. With a traveling package creel, the replacement of empty packages with full ones, or creeling , is done in the center while the packages in use are on the outside.
另一种复式筒子架是复式移行筒子架。需要新筒子时，不用移动筒子架或者机头，筒子会自动移进相应位置。对复式筒子架来说，空筒子移至筒子架中间，而正在使用的筒子位于筒子架外侧。
The yarn is now ready to be put on a beam. The manner in which this is done depends up on the capacity of the creel, the number of ends required in the final beam and the necessity, if any, of maintaining a pattern in the warp, e.g., for warp strips in the fabric.
现在纱线已经准备就绪，可以卷绕至经轴上。整经方式取决于纱架容量、经轴最终要求的经纱根数和保持花纹的必要性，如，织物中的经条纹。
If the creel capacity is sufficiently high and the total number of ends required is sufficiently low or, if creel capacity is not sufficient to supply all the required ends and no distinct yarn pattern is required, then beam warping is generally used. Beam warping is simply the winding of yarns directly from the supply packages onto a beam. This beam is called a section beam since, except for the case in which all the required ends can be put on a single beam, it contains only a section of the warp required.
如果纱架容量很大，而所要求的经纱数量很低，或者纱架容量不能够满足所要求的经纱数，且没有特别的花纹要求，则经常用轴经整
2018年新版八年级上册1 - 10单元 (课文+翻译) 八年级上册1 - 10单元(课文+翻译) Unit 1 Where did you go on vacation? ---------------------------------- P 2 你去哪儿度假了？ Unit 2 How often do you exercise? -------------------------------------- P4 你多久锻炼一次？ Unit 3 I’m more outgoing than my sister. ----------------------------- P6 我比我的姐妹外向。 Unit 4 What’s the best movie theater? ---------------------------------- P8 最好的电影院是哪家？ Unit 5 Do you want to watch a game show? -------------------------- P 10 1
你想看个游戏节目吗？ Unit 6 I'm going to study computer science. ------------------------- P 12我打算学习计算机科学。 Unit 7 Will people have robots? ---------------------------------------- P 14人们将会有机器人吗？ Unit 8 How do you make a banana milk shake? -------------------- P16 你怎样制作香蕉奶昔？ Unit 9 Can you come to my party? ------------------------------------P18 你能来我的聚会吗？ Unit 10 If you go to the party, you’ll have a great time! -------------P20如果你去参加聚会的话，你将会玩得非常高兴！ Unit 1 Where did you go on vacation? 你去哪儿度假了？Section A —1b（P1） Conversation 1（对话1） Xiang Hua: Hey, Tina. Where did you go on vacation? 嘿，蒂娜。你去哪儿度假了？ Tina: I went to the mountains with my family. 我和家人去爬山了。Xiang Hua: Did everyone have a good time? 大家都玩得开心吗？Tina: Oh, yes. Everything was excellent. Where did you go, Xiang Hua? 哦，是的。一切都很棒。你去哪儿了，项华？ Xiang Hua: I went to New York City. 我去了纽约市。Conversation 2（对话2） Girl: Where did you go on vacation, Sally? 莎莉，你去哪儿度假了？Sally: Nothing. I just stayed at home. 没有，我只是呆在家里。Girl: And did you do anything interesting, Bob? 你做了什么有趣的事吗，鲍勃？ Bob: Yes, I visited my uncle. We went fishing, but we didn’t get any fish. 是的，我看望了我叔叔。我们去钓鱼了，但是没钓到鱼。Conversation 3（对话3） Boy: Did you go anywhere on vacation, Tom? 汤姆，假期你去了什么地方吗？ Tom: I went to summer camp. 我去了夏令营。 Boy: Did you go with anyone? 你和别人去的吗？ 2
01 THE ELEMENTS AND THE PERIODIC TABLE 01 元素和元素周期表 The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is referred to as the atomic number, or proton number, Z. The number of electrons in an electrically neutral atom is also equal to the atomic number, Z. The total mass of an atom is determined very nearly by the total number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus. This total is called the mass number, A. The number of neutrons in an atom, the neutron number, is given by the quantity A-Z. 质子的数量在一个原子的核被称为原子序数,或质子数、周淑金、电子的数量在一个电中性原子也等于原子序数松山机场的总质量的原子做出很近的总数的质子和中子在它的核心。这个总数被称为大量胡逸舟、中子的数量在一个原子,中子数,给出了a - z的数量。 The term element refers to, a pure substance with atoms all of a single kind. T o the chemist the "kind" of atom is specified by its atomic number, since this is the property that determines its chemical behavior. At present all the atoms from Z = 1 to Z = 107 are known; there are 107 chemical elements. Each chemical element has been given a name and a distinctive symbol. For most elements the symbol is simply the abbreviated form of the English name consisting of one or two letters, for example: 这个术语是指元素,一个纯物质与原子组成一个单一的善良。在药房“客气”原子的原子数来确定它,因为它的性质是决定其化学行为。目前所有原子和Z = 1 a到Z = 107是知道的;有107种化学元素。每一种化学元素起了一个名字和独特的象征。对于大多数元素都仅仅是一个象征的英文名称缩写形式,一个或两个字母组成,例如: oxygen==O nitrogen == N neon==Ne magnesium == Mg
Unit 1 A Brush with the Law 一个青年发现，在大街上毫无明显目的地游逛会招致警方的责罚。误会一个接一个发生，最终他只得出庭受审…… 与警察的一场小冲突 我平生只有一次跟警方发生纠葛。被捕和出庭的整个过程在当时是一件非常不愉快的事，但现在倒成了一篇很好的故事。这次经历令人可恼之处在于围绕着我的被捕以及随后庭上审讯而出现的种种武断专横的情况。 事情发生在大约12年前，其时正是2月。几个月前我中学毕业了，但上大学要等到10月。当时我还在家中居住。 一天早晨，我来到里士满。这里是伦敦的一个郊区，离我住的地方不远。我在寻找一份临时工作，以便积些钱去旅游。由于天气晴朗，当时又无急事，我便慢悠悠看看橱窗，逛逛公园。有时干脆停下脚步，四处张望。现在看来，一定是这种明显的毫无目的的游逛，使我倒了霉。事情发生在11点半钟光景。我在当地图书馆谋职未成，刚刚走出来，便看到一个人穿越马路，显然是要来跟我说话。我以为他要问我时间，不料他说他是警官，要逮捕我。起先我还以为这是在开玩笑，但又一个警察出现在我的面前，这次是位身着警服的，这一下使我确信无疑了。 “为什么要抓我?”我问道。 “到处游荡，企图作案，”他说。 “作什么案?”我又问。 “偷窃，”他说。 “偷什么?”我追问。 “牛奶瓶，”他板着面孔说道。 “噢，”我说。 事情原来是这样的，在这一地区多次发生小的扒窃案，特别是从门前台阶上偷走牛奶瓶。接着，我犯了一个大错误。其时我年方19，留一头蓬乱的长发，自认为是60年代“青年反主流文化”的一员。所以我想装出一副冷漠的、对这一事件满不在乎的样子。于是我尽量用一种漫不经心的极其随便的腔调说，“你们跟踪我多久啦?”这样一来，在他们眼里，我就像是非常熟悉这一套的了，也使他们更加确信我是一个地地道道的坏蛋。 几分钟后，开来了一辆警车。 “坐到后面去，”他们说。“把手放到前排座位的靠背上，不准挪动。” 他们分别坐在我的两边。这可再也不是闹着玩的了。 在警察局，他们审讯了我好几个小时。我继续装成老于世故、对这种事习以为常。当他们问我在干什么时，我告诉他们在找工作。“啊，”我可以想象他们在想，“果然是个失业的家伙。” 最后，我被正式指控，并通知我下周一到里士满地方法庭受审。随后他们让我离开。 我想在法庭上作自我辩护，但父亲知道这事后，马上请了一位高明的律师。我们星期一出庭的时候，带了各种各样的证人，其中包括我中学的英语老师，做我人品的见证人。但结果法庭没有叫他作证。我的“审判”没有进行到那一步。开庭15分钟，法官就驳回了对我的指控。我无罪获释。可怜的警方败诉，我的律师甚至让法庭责成警方承担了诉讼费用。 这样，我的履历上没有留下犯罪的记录。但当时最令人震惊的，是那些显然导致宣布我无罪的证据。我讲话的口音“表明我教养良好”，到庭的有体面的中产阶级的双亲，有可靠的证人，还有，我显然请得起一名很好的律师。从对我指控的这种捕风捉影的做法来看，我肯定，如果我出身在另一种背景的家庭里，并且真的是失了业的话，我完全可能被判有罪。当我的律师要求赔偿诉讼费时，他公然把辩护的证据建立在我“学业优异”这一事实上。 与此同时，就在审判室外面，一位抓我的警察正在沮丧地向我母亲抱怨，说是又一个小
All things come to those who wait. 苍天不负有心人 Victory won't come to me unless I go to it. ( M. Moore ) 胜利是不会向我们走来的，我必须自己走向胜利。(穆尔) 2017高考我们必胜！ 选修七课文译文 Unit1 （A篇）MARTY’S STORY马蒂的故事 Hi, my name is Marty Fielding and I guess you could say that I am "one in a million".你好。我叫马蒂·菲尔丁。我想你可能会说我是“百万人中才有一个”的那种人。In other words, there are not many people like me. 换句话说，世界上像我这样的人并不多见。You see, I have a muscle disease which makes me very weak, so I can't run or climb stairs as quickly as other people. 你瞧，我的肌肉有毛病，使我的身体非常虚弱，所以我不能像别人那样快跑快步爬楼梯。In addition, sometimes I am very clumsy and drop things or bump into furniture. 再说，有时候我还会笨手笨脚、不小心摔掉东西，或磕碰到家具上。Unfortunately, the doctors don't know how to make me better, but I am very outgoing and have learned to adapt to my disability. 不幸的是，大夫们不知道如何治好我的病，但是我很开朗乐观，学会了适应身体的残疾。My motto is: live one day at a time. 我的座右铭是：活好每一天。 Until I was ten years old I was the same as everyone else. 十岁以前，我跟其他人是一样的。 I used to climb trees, swim and play football. 我常常爬树、游泳、踢足球。In fact, I used to dream about playing professional football and possibly representing my country in the World Cup. 说实在的，我过去常常梦想我会成为职业球员，代表我们的国家参加世界杯足球赛。Then I started to get weaker and weaker, until I could only enjoy football from a bench at the stadium. 后来，我的身体开始变得越来越虚弱，以至于只能坐在体育场的长凳上欣赏足球了。In the end I went into hospital for medical tests. I stayed there for nearly three months. 最后我到医院去做了检查，几乎住了三个月的医院。I think I had at least a billion tests, including one in which they cut out a piece of muscle from my leg and looked at it under a microscope. 我想我至少做过十亿次检查，
Module 1 Unit 1 詹姆斯老师：同学们，欢迎大家返校学习。今天，我们要讨论一下学习英语的好方法。准备好了吗？谁能提些建议？ 玲玲：在课堂上我们应该一直说英语。 詹姆斯老师：好！让我们尽量多说英语吧。 大明：为什么不把错误记在笔记本上呢？ 詹姆斯老师：这是一个好主意。别忘了将正确答案记在错误的旁边。还有什么建议？玲玲：每天拼读并大声地朗读新单词也是一个好办法。 詹姆斯老师：多谢玲玲。听英语广播你们觉得怎么样？ 大明：是的，听英语广播对我们的发音也有好处。但是生词太多了。 詹姆斯老师：你们并不需要听懂每个单词，只要能听懂关键词和主要内容就可以了。大明：阅读也是这样。英语故事很有趣。通过阅读，我能更多地了解世界。 玲玲：我想写作也同样重要。为什么不找些英国笔友呢？我们可以给他们写写信。 詹姆斯老师：太好了！我同意你的观点。 Unit 2 问与答 把你的问题发给语言医生黛安娜。 很多学生请我就如何提高英语水平给出建议。下面是他们提出的三个基本问题 第一个问题是关于如何理解英文电影和英文歌曲的。湖北的李浩写道：“我喜欢看英文电影，听英文歌曲，但我听懂得不多。我该怎么办呢？” 看电影、听歌曲是很好的英语学习方式。多看多听几遍，然后猜猜生词的意思。每一次你都将学到新的东西。我还建议你和朋友谈一谈看过的电影或听过的歌曲。 第二个问题是关于口语的。吉林的王帆写道：“我们学校有一位来自美国的外教。但是我比较腼腆，不敢和她说话，我该怎么办？” 你可以说：“嗨！你好！”“你喜欢中国吗？”这些都是发起话题的好方式。说话
之前，对她笑一笑。记住：别害羞，多尝试。 第三个问题是关于词汇的。安徽的张磊写道：“我把生词写下来，但是很快就忘记 了，我怎么才能记住这些生词呢？” 别担心。忘记生词是正常的！我建议你每天在纸上记下四五个单词，放在房间里。 看到就念一念，并尽量运用这些单词。 Module 2 Unit l 托尼：嗨，大明，周末过得怎样？ 大明：挺不错！我去了深圳。 托尼：深圳在哪儿？ 大明：哦，在临近香港的海边。大约三十年前深圳还是个小村庄，但今天成了个大都市。 托尼：这么说深圳是一个比香港还新的城市？ 大明：是的，深圳是个很新的城市。实际上，深圳到了20世纪80 年代才成为一个重要的城市。现在深圳越来越大，也越来越繁华了。我相信，将来它会和香港一样繁华。 托尼：深圳有多少人口？ 大明：我想超过一千万吧，比中国其他许多城市的人口都要多。它的街道也更宽敞、更干净。 我认为深圳是个美丽的城市。 托尼：有朝一日我也想去那里看看。 大明：那你可要记得去看看地王大厦。它比深圳的其他许多建筑都高。 Unit 2 剑桥，伦敦和英格兰 托尼·史密斯 我来自剑桥，一座位于英格兰东部的美丽城市。剑桥位于康河河畔，有大约十二万人口。我的故乡（剑桥）因其大学学府而名满天下。许多著名人物都在这里学习过，比如艾萨克·牛顿和查尔斯·达尔文。那里有许多古老的建筑和教堂可以参观。学生和游客都很喜欢乘船沿着康河游览。 剑桥距离伦敦80 公里。伦敦位于英格兰南部，泰晤士河畔，拥有约750万人口，所以它比剑桥更大、
Unit 1 Chemical Industry 化学工业 1.Origins of the Chemical Industry Although the use of chemicals dates back to the ancient civilizations, the evolution of what we know as the modern chemical industry started much more recently. It may be considered to have begun during the Industrial Revolution, about 1800, and developed to provide chemicals roe use by other industries. Examples are alkali for soapmaking, bleaching powder for cotton, and silica and sodium carbonate for glassmaking. It will be noted that these are all inorganic chemicals. The organic chemicals industry started in the 1860s with the exploitation of William Henry Perkin‘s discovery if the first synthetic dyestuff—mauve. At the start of the twentieth century the emphasis on research on the applied aspects of chemistry in Germany had paid off handsomely, and by 1914 had resulted in the German chemical industry having 75% of the world market in chemicals. This was based on the discovery of new dyestuffs plus the development of both the contact process for sulphuric acid and the Haber process for ammonia. The later required a major technological breakthrough that of being able to carry out chemical reactions under conditions of very high pressure for the first time. The experience gained with this was to stand Germany in good stead, particularly with the rapidly increased demand for nitrogen-based compounds (ammonium salts for fertilizers and nitric acid for explosives manufacture) with the outbreak of world warⅠin 1914. This initiated profound changes which continued during the inter-war years (1918-1939). 1．化学工业的起源 尽管化学品的使用可以追溯到古代文明时代，我们所谓的现代化学工业的发展却是非常近代（才开始的）。可以认为它起源于工业革命其间，大约在1800年，并发展成为为其它工业部门提供化学原料的产业。比如制肥皂所用的碱，棉布生产所用的漂白粉，玻璃制造业所用的硅及Na2CO3. 我们会注意到所有这些都是无机物。有机化学工业的开始是在十九世纪六十年代以William Henry Perkin 发现第一种合成染料—苯胺紫并加以开发利用为标志的。20世纪初，德国花费大量资金用于实用化学方面的重点研究，到1914年，德国的化学工业在世界化学产品市场上占有75%的份额。这要归因于新染料的发现以及硫酸的接触法生产和氨的哈伯生产工艺的发展。而后者需要较大的技术突破使得化学反应第一次可以在非常高的压力条件下进行。这方面所取得的成绩对德国很有帮助。特别是由于1914年第一次世界大仗的爆发，对以氮为基础的化合物的需求飞速增长。这种深刻的改变一直持续到战后（1918-1939）。 date bake to/from: 回溯到 dated: 过时的，陈旧的 stand sb. in good stead: 对。。。很有帮助
Lesson Five 第五课 Structure and Properties of Wool 羊毛纤维的结构和性能 Under the microscopic observation, the length of the wool fiber shows a scale structure. The size of the scale varies from very small to comparatively broad and large. As many as 700 scales are found in 1 cm of fine wool, whereas coarse wool may have as few as 275 per cm. Fine wool does not have as clear and distinct scales as coarse wool, but they can be identified under high magnification. 显微观察下，羊毛纤维的长度显示了一个规模结构。规模的大小从比较广阔的和大的很小变化。多达700的尺度是羊毛的1厘米，而粗毛可能为每厘米275少。细羊毛没有粗羊毛为清晰明确的尺度，但他们可以在高放大倍数的确定。 A cross section of wool shows three distinct parts to the fiber. The outer layer, called cuticle, is composed of the scales. These scales are somewhat horny and irregular in shape, and they overlap, with the top pointing towards the tip of the fiber; they are similar to fish scales. The major portion of the fiber is the cortex (composed of cortical cells ; this extends toward the center from the cuticle layer. Cortical cells are long and spindle-shaped and provide fiber strength and elasticity. The cortex accounts for approximately 90 percent of the fiber mass. In the center of the fiber is the medulla. The size of the medulla varies and in fine fibers may be invisible. This is the area through which food reached the fiber during growth, and it contains pigment that gives color to fibers. 羊毛的横截面显示三个不同部分的纤维。外层，称为角质层，由刻度。这些鳞片形状有点角质和不规则的，和他们的重叠，与顶端指向尖端的纤维；他们是类似鱼鳞。纤维的主要部分是皮质（由皮层细胞）；这延伸向角质层的中心。皮质细胞长梭形和提供纤维的强度和弹性。约百分之90的纤维质皮层帐户。在光纤的中心
1.必修一MODULE 1 My First Day at Senior High升入高中的第一天 My name is Li Kang. I live in Shijiazhuang, a city not far from Beijing.我叫李康,住在离北京不远的石家庄市,它是河北省的首府。It is the capital city of Hebei Province. Today is my first day at Senior High school and I'm writing down my thoughts about it.今天是我升入高中的第一天,现在我就写写我这一天的感想。My new school is very good and I can see why. The teachers are very enthusiastic and friendly and the classrooms are amazing.我的新学校非常好,理由如下,老师们很热情、很友好,而且教室很棒。Every room has a computer with a special screen, almost as big as a cinema screen. 每间教室部配备有一台电脑,电脑屏幕是像电影院屏幕大小差不多的特殊屏幕。The teachers write on the computer, and their words appear on the screen behind them.老师在电脑上写字,这些字就出现在老师身后的屏幕上。The screens also show photographs, text and information from websites. They're brilliant!屏幕也能显示照片、文本以及网站下载的信息。真是太棒了! The English class is really interesting.英语课很有趣。The teacher is a very enthusiastic woman called Ms Shen.老师是一位姓沈的非常热心的女士。We're using a new textbook and Ms Shen’s method of teaching is nothing like that of the teachers at my Junior High school.由于我们使用的是新课本,沈老师的教学方法跟初中老师完全不一样。She thinks that reading comprehension is important, but we speak a lot in class, too. 她认为阅读理解很重要,而我们在课堂上说得也很多。And we have fun. I don't think I will be bored in Ms Shen's class!我们过得很快乐。我认为上沈老师的课我是不会感到厌倦的! Today we introduced ourselves to each other. We did this in groups. 今天我们以小 组的形式互相作了自我介绍。Some students were embarrassed at first but everyone was very friendly and it was really nice.有些同学开始还有些难为情,不过大家都很友好,真是太好了。Ms Shen gave us instructions and then we worked by ourselves.沈老师给了我们一些指导,然后我们自己活动。
Module 1 怎样学英语 Unit 1 让我们尽可能多的讲英语 詹姆斯老师：同学们，欢迎回来！今天，我们打算谈论一下学习英语的好方法。准备好了吗？谁有一些建议？ 玲玲：在课堂上我们应该总是讲英语。 詹姆斯老师：好！让我们尽可能多地讲英语。 大明：为什么不在我们笔记本上记下我们的错误呢？ 詹姆斯老师：那是个好主意，而且不要忘记在错误旁边写下正确的答案，还有什么其它的建议？ 玲玲：每天拼写并大声朗读新单词是个好主意。 詹姆斯老师：非常感谢，玲玲，听广播怎么样？ 大明：是的，那也有益于我们的发音。但有很多生词。 詹姆斯老师：你（们）不必理解每个单词（的含义）。你（们）只需要听关键词和主要意思。 大明：阅读也一样。英语故事很有趣。通过阅读我逐渐了解了世界上的许多事情。 玲玲：我认为写作也很重要。我们为什么不尽量去找些英语笔友呢？我们可以给他们写信。 詹姆斯老师：太棒了！我同意你的提议。 Unit 2 你应该向她微笑 把你的问题发送给语言博士黛安娜。 很多学生请求给予如何提高他们的英语水平的建议。这儿是三个基本问题。 第一个问是关于（如何）理解英文电影和歌曲。来自湖北的李浩写道：我喜欢看英文电影和听英文歌曲，但我理解的不多。我该怎么办呢？ 看电影和听歌曲是学习英语很好的方式！看和听几遍，并猜测生词的含义。每一遍你都会学到新东西。我还建议你和朋友们谈论一下这些电影或歌曲。 第二个问题是关于口语的。来自吉林的王帆写道：“我们学校有一位来自美国的老师。我很腼腆，不敢与她说话。我该怎么办？” 你可以说：“嗨！你好吗？”“你喜欢中国吗”这些都是展开交谈的好方式。在你开始（讲英语）前，你应该
第二课棉纤维的性能及其应用 内容提要： 本文从吸水性、强度、耐用性等方面来描述棉纤维。并在课文的最后，介绍了棉纤维的应用。 棉纤维的性能
棉纤维的性能和应用 课文翻译： 吸湿性和良好的吸湿排汗性能使棉纤维的成为一种更舒适的纤维。棉纤维具有较高的吸水性能，是由于其纤维素的亲水的羟基基团。当水进入棉纤维内部，纤维发生溶胀，其截面变得更圆。受潮后的亲水性能和溶胀使棉花可以吸收其重量约四分之一的水。这意味着，在炎热的天气里，身体的汗会被棉织品吸收，并沿棉纱传送到织物的外表面并蒸发到空气中。因此，（棉纤维的这种性质）可帮助身体维持其温度。 不幸的是，棉花的亲水性使得它容易受到水渍。如在咖啡或葡萄汁的水溶性色素会随着水渗入纤维；当水分蒸发，着色剂被困在纤维内部。棉织品是他们容易起皱并很难除皱，也许是它们的主要缺点。 棉纤维的刚度可以降低织物的抗起皱能力。当纤维弯曲到一种新的形态，纤维素大分子内发生一些氢键断裂和分子滑动以减少纤维内部应力。在新的位置氢键重组，所以当外力去除后，纤维保持了这一形状。氢键的断裂和重组保持了皱纹，因而若要消除皱纹，需要熨烫。 棉纤维具有中等强度，是具有良好的耐磨性和尺寸稳定性，能够抵抗日常的酸，碱和有
机溶剂。但由于它是一种天然物质，容易受昆虫，霉菌和真菌的攻击。最突出的是棉花在潮湿的环境下有霉烂的倾向。 棉花抗太阳光和热，但是直接长期暴露于强烈的阳光下棉纤维会泛黄，并最终降解。煤气烘燥也可使棉织品变黄。颜色的变化是纤维素和氧或氮氧化物之间的化学反应，尤其在热空气中。为使棉花保留其白度较长时间，需用滴水晾干或在电干燥器中干燥。 另一感兴趣的事实是，棉纱湿强度大于干强度。这是由于纤维内部宏观和微观结构。当水被吸收，纤维溶胀，其截面变得更圆。通常这种大量的外来物质的吸收会导致内部应力较高，导致纤维弱化。然而，棉纤维吸水导致内部应力减少。在内部应力减小的情况下，肿胀的纤维变得更强。同时，在纱线溶胀纤维之间挤得更紧，增强了纱线内部纤维摩擦力。此外，所吸收的水作为一个内部润滑剂，赋予纤维更好的灵活性。这也是为什么棉花衣服潮湿时更容易熨。纯棉织物易收缩不利于洗涤。 也许比任何其他纤维，棉满足服装，家居家具，休闲的要求，和工业用途。它提供了强度，面料轻薄，柔软，易干燥，易清洗。在服装，棉提供服装，舒适，容易干燥，在明亮的，持久的色彩，易护理。主要的缺点是棉纱和棉布容易收缩起皱。收缩可以由防缩整理的装置进行控制。免烫性能可以通过化学处理或由棉纤维同更多的纤维混纺，如涤纶。 在居家摆设，棉纤维提供耐用的、一般性的使用面料。虽然棉纤维可能缺乏来自其他纤维材料的外观效果，但能提供一个舒适，温馨的环境。棉织物一直是几十年来的床单和毛巾的支柱，因为它们舒适，耐用和吸湿。涤/棉混纺织物提供免烫的床单和枕套，提供一种清新、挺爽的感觉。 用于休闲用途，棉花已被用于帐篷和野营装备，船帆，运动鞋和运动服。棉是适合做帐篷的材料。一个帐篷织物必须能够“呼吸”，让居住者不被自己的二氧化碳闷着。与外界空气交换减少，湿度在帐篷和使它变得闷。棉机织物可以打开足够舒适，提供良好的透气性。帐篷也可以阻隔并使雨水流下，当被雨水打湿，棉纱膨胀，降低纱线和抗水渗透之间的间隙。今天，沉重的棉帆布被轻质尼龙所取代。 棉线，细绳和粗绳可以绑定，固结，捆绑各种各样的东西，从大包到更大的包。棉纱可用来增强驱动电机的传送带。 第五课羊毛的结构和性能 图1 羊毛的结构
1.选修九Unit1 Breaking records-Reading打破记录 "THE ROAD IS ALWAYS AHEAD OF YOU"“路永在前方” Ashrita Furman is a sportsman who likes the challenge of breaking Guinness records. 阿什里塔·弗曼是一位热 衷挑战并想争创吉尼斯世界纪录的运动员。Over the last 25 years, he has broken approximately 93 Guinness records. 在过去的25年中，他大约已经打破了93项吉尼斯世界纪录。More than twenty of these he still holds, including the record for having the most records. 至今，他仍然是其中20多项纪录的保持者，还包括拥有最多的吉尼斯纪录这一项。But these records are not made in any conventional sport like swimming or soccer. Rather Ashrita attempts to break records in very imaginative events and in very interesting places. 但是这些纪录并不是像游泳或足球等一般运动项目那样创建的，而是阿什里塔试图在非常有趣的地点，在富有想象力的运动项目中打破的。 Recently, Ashrita achieved his dream of breaking a record in all seven continents, including hula hooping in Australia, pogo stick jumping under water in South America, and performing deep knee bends in a hot air balloon in North America. 最近，阿什里塔完成了他的梦想：在所有的七大洲中都破一项纪录，其中包括在澳洲玩呼啦圈，在南美洲的水下做弹簧单高跷游戏，在北美洲的热气球中做膝部深弯曲运动。While these activities might seem childish and cause laughter rather than respect, in reality they require an enormous amount of strength and fitness as well as determination. 虽然这些活动看起来孩子气且令人发笑而不是让人肃然起敬，但实际上，完成这些活动需要强大的力量、健康的体格和坚定的决心。 Think about the fine neck adjustments needed to keep a full bottle of milk on your head while you are walking. 想想吧，你一边走路一边还要把满满一瓶牛奶定在头上，你的脖子需要有多好的适应力。You can stop to rest or eat but the bottle has to stay on your head. 你可以停下来休息或者吃东西，但瓶子必须呆在你的头顶上。While Ashrita makes standing on top of a 75 cm Swiss ball look easy, it is not. 当阿什里塔站在高75公分的瑞 士气球上时，看起来虽然很轻松容易，其实不然。It takes a lot of concentration and a great sense of balance to
八上英语课文M1-5翻译 M1 U1让我们尽可能多说英语。 听力和词汇 詹姆斯女士：欢迎大家回来。今天，我们将要讨论学习英语的好方法。准备好了吗？ 谁有一些建议呢？ 玲玲：我们在课堂上应该总是说英语。 詹姆斯女士：好，让我们尽可能多说英语。 大明：为何不把错误都记在我们的笔记本上呢？ 詹姆斯女士：那是一个好主意。不要忘了把正确答案写在错误的旁边。不有什么？ 玲玲：每天大声地拼读新单词是一个好主意。 詹姆斯女士：非常感谢，玲玲。听广播怎么样？ 大明：不错，那对我们的发音也很有用。但是有很多生词。 詹姆斯女士：你不必要去听懂每一个单词。你只需听懂关键词语和主要思想。 大明：对于阅读来说也是一样。英语故事非常有趣。通过阅读我可以了解许多关于这个世界的知识。 玲玲：我认为写作也很重要。为何我们不尽力找一些英语笔友呢？ 我们可以写信给他们。 詹姆斯女士：好极了。我同意你。 U2 Youshouldsmileather! 很多学生寻求关于提高英语水平的建议。 这里有三个基本的问题。 第一个是关于理解英语电影和歌曲的问题。来自湖北的李浩写道，“我喜欢看英语电影，听英语歌曲，但我仅仅只能懂得一点点。我能做什么？” 看电影和听歌曲是很好的学英语的方法！ 多看，多听几次，然后猜测新单词的意思。 每一次你都会学到一些新的东西。 我也建议你与你的朋友们计论下所看的电影和所听的歌曲。 第二个是关于说英语的问题。 来自吉林的王帆写到，“我们学校有一名来自美国的老师。我很害羞，不敢与她讲话。 我该怎么办呢？” 你可以说：“你好，你好吗？”“你喜欢中国吗？” 这些都是开始一段对话的好方法。 在你开始对话之前，你应当对她微笑！ 记住这一点：不要害羞。只管去尝试。 第三个是关于词汇的问题。 来自安徽的张磊写道，“我写下新的单词，但是我很快就把它们忘了。我怎样才能记住它们？” 不要担心。忘记新单词是很自然的事情！ 我建议你每天把在纸下写下四个或到五个单词写，然后把它们放在你的房间里。 当你看到这些单词时就读出来，并且试着去使用它们 U3 第三单元语言运用 世界各地 在线英语 除了英语杂志，报纸和广播以外，还有各种种类的英语学习网站。 【MeiWei81-优质实用版文档】
1 Unit5元素周期表 As our picture of the atom becomes more detailed 随着我们对原子的描述越来越详尽，我们发现我们陷入了进退两难之境。有超过100多中元素要处理，我们怎么能记的住所有的信息？有一种方法就是使用元素周期表。这个周期表包含元素的所有信息。它记录了元素中所含的质子数和电子数，它能让我们算出大多数元素的同位素的中子数。它甚至有各个元素原子的电子怎么排列。最神奇的是，周期表是在人们不知道原子中存在质子、中子和电子的情况下发明的。Not long after Dalton presented his model for atom( )在道尔顿提出他的原子模型（原子是是一个不可分割的粒子，其质量决定了它的身份）不久，化学家门开始根据原子的质量将原子列表。在制定像这些元素表时候，他们观察到在元素中的格局分布。例如，人们可以清楚的看到在具体间隔的元素有着相似的性质。在当时知道的大约60种元素中，第二个和第九个表现出相似的性质，第三个和第十个，第四个和第十一个等都具有相似的性质。 In 1869,Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev,a Russian chemist, 在1869年，Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev ,一个俄罗斯的化学家，发表了他的元素周期表。Mendeleev通过考虑原子重量和元素的某些特性的周期性准备了他的周期表。这些元素的排列顺序先是按原子质量的增加,,一些情况中, Mendeleev把稍微重写的元素放在轻的那个前面.他这样做只是为了同一列中的元素能具有相似的性质.例如,他把碲(原子质量为128)防在碘(原子质量为127)前面因为碲性质上和硫磺和硒相似, 而碘和氯和溴相似. Mendeleev left a number of gaps in his table.Instead of Mendeleev在他的周期表中留下了一些空白。他非但没有将那些空白看成是缺憾，反而大胆的预测还存在着仍未被发现的元素。更进一步，他甚至预测出那些一些缺失元素的性质出来。在接下来的几年里，随着新元素的发现，里面的许多空格都被填满。这些性质也和Mendeleev所预测的极为接近。这巨大创新的预计值导致了Mendeleev的周期表为人们所接受。 It is known that properties of an element depend mainly on the number of electrons in the outermost energy level of the atoms of the element. 我们现在所知道的元素的性质主要取决于元素原子最外层能量能级的电子数。钠原子最外层能量能级（第三层）有一个电子，锂原子最外层能量能级（第二层）有一个电子。钠和锂的化学性质相似。氦原子和氖原子外层能级上是满的，这两种都是惰性气体，也就是他们不容易进行化学反应。很明显，有着相同电子结构（电子分布）的元素的不仅有着相似的化学性质，而且某些结构也表现比其他元素稳定（不那么活泼） In Mendeleev’s table,the elements were arranged by atomic weights for 在Mendeleev的表中，元素大部分是按照原子数来排列的，这个排列揭示了化学性质的周期性。因为电子数决定元素的化学性质，电子数也应该（现在也确实）决定周期表的顺序。在现代的周期表中，元素是根据原子质量来排列的。记住，这个数字表示了在元素的中性原子中的质子数和电子数。现在的周期表是按照原子数的递增排列，Mendeleev的周期表是按照原子质量的递增排列，彼此平行是由于原子量的增加。只有在一些情况下（Mendeleev注释的那样）重量和顺序不符合。因为原子质量是质子和中子质量的加和，故原子量并不完全随原子序数的增加而增加。原子序数低的原子的中子数有可能比原子序数高的原