Revision Exercises for Sociolinguistics
I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:
1. Sociolinguistics is the sub-discipline of linguistics that studies social contexts。
2. Language as a means of social communication is a homogeneous system with a homogeneous group of speakers。
3. Language use varies from one speech community to another, from one regional group to another, from one social group to another, and even from one individual to another.
4. The goal of sociolinguistics is to explore the nature of language variation and language use among a variety of speech communities and in different social situations.
5. The linguistic markers that characterize individual social groups may serve as social markers of group membership.
6. From the sociolinguistic perspective, the term “speech variety ” can not be used to refer to standard language, vernacular language, dialect or pidgin。
7.Functional speech varieties are known as regional dialects。
8. The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its grammar and uses of vocabulary。
9.Geographical barriers are the only source of regional variation of language。
10. A person’s social backgrounds do not exert a shaping influence on his choice of linguistic features。
11.Two speakers of the same language or dialect use their language or dialect in the same way。
12. Every speaker of a language is, in a stricter sense, a speaker of a distinct idiolect.
13. The standard language is a better language than nonstandard languages。
14. A lingua franca can only be used within a particular country for communication among groups of people with different linguistic backgrounds。
15.Pidgins are linguistically inferior to standard languages。
16. A pidgin usually reflects the influence of the higher, or dominant, language in its lexicon and that of the lower language in their phonology and occasionally syntax. 17.The major difference between a pidgin and a Creole is that the former usually has its native speaker s while the latter doesn’t。
18.Bilingualism and diglossia mean the same thing。
19. The kind of name or term speakers use to call or refer to someone may indicate something of their social relationship to or personal feelings about that individual. 20.The use of euphemisms has the effect of removing derogatory overtones and the disassociative effect as such is usually long-lasting。
II. Fill in each of the blanks below with one word which begins with the letter given:
21. The social group isolated for any given study is called the speech
c________.
22. Speech v_________ refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a
speaker or group of speakers.
23. From the sociolinguistic perspective, a speech variety is no more than a
d__________ variety of a language.
24. Language standardization is also called language p_______.
25. Social variation gives rise to s_________ which are subdivisible into smaller
speech categories that reflect their socioeconomic, educational, occupational background, etc.
26. S_______ variation in a person’s speech or writing usually ranges on a
continuum from casual or colloquial to formal or polite according to the type of communicative situation.
27. A regional dialect may gain status and become standardized as the national
or o________ language of a country.
28. The standard language is a s_________, socially prestigious dialect of
language.
29. Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard, or
v_______ languages.
30. A pidgin typically lacks in i_______ morphemes.
31. Linguistic taboo reflects s_________ taboo.
32. The avoidance of using taboo language mirrors social attitudes, emotions and
value judgments and has no l_________ basis.
III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:
33. _______ is concerned with the social significance of language variation and language use in different speech communities.
A. Psycholinguistics
B. Sociolinguistics。
C. Historical linguistics
D. General linguistics
34. The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its _____.
A. use of words
B. use of structures
C. accent 。
D. morphemes
35. ____ is speech variation according to the particular area where a speaker comes
from.
A. Regional variation。
B. Language variation
C. Social variation
D. Register variation
36. _______ are the major source of regional variation of language.
A. Geographical barriers 。
B. Loyalty to and confidence in one’s native speech
C. Physical discomfort and psychological resistance to change
D. Social barriers
37. _________ means that certain authorities, such as the government choose, a particular speech variety, standardize it and spread the use of it across regional boundaries.
A. Language interference
B. Language changes
C. Language planning 。
D. Language transfer
38. _________ in a person’s speech or writing usually ranges on a continuum from
casual or colloquial to formal or polite according to the type of communicative situation.
A. Regional variation
B. Changes in emotions
C. Variation in connotations
D. Stylistic variation 。
39. A ____ is a variety of language that serves as a medium of communication
among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds .
A. lingua franca 。
B. register
C. Creole
D. national language
40. Although _______ are simplified languages with reduced grammatical features,
they are rule-governed, like any human language.
A. vernacular languages
B. creoles
C. pidgins 。
D. sociolects
41. In normal situations, ____ speakers tend to use more prestigious forms than their
____ counterparts with the same social background.
A. female; male 。
B. male; female
C. old; young
D. young; old
42. A linguistic ____ refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by
the "polite" society from general use.
A. slang
B. euphemism
C. jargon
D. taboo。
IV. Define the following terms:
43. sociolinguistics 44. speech community 45. speech variety
46. language planning 47. idiolect 48. standard language 49. nonstandard language 50. lingua franca 51. pidgin
52. Creole 53. diglossia 54. Bilingualism
55. ethnic dialect 56. Sociolect 57. register
58. slang 59. taboo 60. euphemism
V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:
61.Discuss with examples that the speech of women may differ from the
speech of men.
62.Discuss with examples some of the linguistic differences between
Standard English and Black English.
63.What is a linguistic taboo? What effect does it have on our use of
language?
64. How would you describe the diglossic situation in China?
65. What is the basic idea of Sapir-Whorfian Hypothesis?
66. How do you understand “Dialects of the same language sometimes are not mutual ly intelligible.”?
67.Explain the differences between pidgin and Creole and then specify their linguistic features respectively.
68 Explain Dell Hymes’ ethnographical framework (SPEAKING).
Reference answers
Sociolinguistics
I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:
l.F 2.F 3.T 4.T 5.T 6.F 7.F 8.F 9.F 10.F
11. F 12. T 13. F 14. F 15.F 16. T 17. F 18. F 19. T 20. F
II. Fill in each of the blanks below with one word which begins with the letter given: 21. community 22. variety 23. dialectal 24.planning 25. sociolects 26. Stylistic 27. official 28. superposed 29. vernacular
30. inflectional 31. social 32. linguistic
III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:
33. B 34. C 35. A. 36. A. 37. C 38.D 39.A 40. C 41. A 42. D
IV. Define the following terms:
43. sociolinguistics: Sociolinguistics is the study of language in social contexts.
44. speech community: The social group isolated for any given study is called the
speech community or a speech community is a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of language. The important characteristic of a speech community is that the members of the group must, in some reasonable way, interact linguistically with other members of the community. They may share closely related language varieties, as well as attitudes toward linguistic norms.
45. speech variety:Speech variety,also known as language variety, refers to any
distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers. The dis-tinctive characteristics of a speech variety may be lexical, phonological,
morphological, syntactic, or a combination of linguistic features.
46. language planning: language standardization is known as language planning.
This means that certain authorities, such as the government or government agency of a country, choose a particular speech variety and spread the use of it, including its pronunciation and spelling systems, across regional boundaries.
47. Idiolect: An idiolect is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines
aspects of all the elements regarding regional, social, and stylistic variation, in one form or another. In a narrower sense, what makes up one’s idiolect includes also such factors as voice quality, pitch and speech rhythm, which all contribute to the identifying features in an individual' s speech.
48. standard language : The standard language is a superposed, socially prestigious
dialect of language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system, used by the mass media, and taught in educational institutions, including school settings where the language is taught as a foreign or second language.
49. nonstandard language: Language varieties other than the standard are called
nonstandard languages
50. lingua franca: A lingua franca is a variety of language that serves as a medium of
communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds.
51. pidgin: A pidgin is a variety of language that is generally used by native speakers
of other languages as a medium of communication.
52. Creole: A Creole language is originally a pidgin that has become established as a
native language in some speech community.
53. diglossia : Diglossia usually describes a situation in which two very different
varieties of language co-exist in a speech community, each with a distinct range of purely social function and appropriate for certain situations.
54. Bilingualism: Bilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard
languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation.
55. ethnic dialect: Within a society, speech variation may come about because of
different ethnic backgrounds . An ethnic language variety is a social dialect of a language, often cutting across regional differences. An ethnic dialect is spoken
mainly by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation, such as racial discrimination or segregation.
56. Sociolect: Social dialects, or sociolects, are varieties of language used by people
belonging to particular social classes.
57. register: Registers are language varieties which are appropriate for use in partic-
ular speech situations, in contrast to language varieties that are associated with the social or regional grouping of their customary users. Format reason, registers are also known as situational dialects .
58. Slang: Slang is a casual use of language that consists of expressive but
non-standard vocabulary, typically of arbitrary, flashy and often ephemeral coinages and figures of speech characterized by spontaneity and sometimes by raciness.
59. taboo : taboo, or rather linguistic taboo, denotes any prohibition by the polite
society on the use of particular lexical items to refer to objects or acts.
60. euphemism: A euphemism, then, is a mild, indirect or less offensive word or
expression substituted when the speaker or writer fears more direct wording might be harsh, unpleasantly direct, or offensive.
V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:
61. Discuss with examples that the speech of women may differ from the speech of men.
In normal situations, female speakers tend to use more prestigious forms than their male counterparts with the same general social background. For example, standard English forms such as "I did it" and "he isn’ t" can be found more often in the speech of females, while the more colloquial "I done it" and "he ain' t" occur more frequently in the speech of males.
Another feature often associated with so-called women' s language is politeness.
Usually, tough and rough speeches have connotations of masculinity and are not considered to be desirable feminine qualities. In general, men's language is more straightforward, less polite, and more direct, and women's language is more indirect, less blunt, and more circumlocutory.
This phenomenon of sex-preferential differentiation is also reflected in the relative frequency with which males and females use the same lexical items. For example, certain words that are closely associated with women may sound typically feminine as a result of that association. For example, some English adjectives like
"lovely", "nice", "darling" and "cute" occur more often in female speeches and therefore cause feminine association. Females have also been shown to possess a greater variety of specific color terms than males, in spite of the fact that men do not necessarily possess less acute color perception than women. On the other hand, males have the reputation of possessing a larger vocabulary in traditionally male-dominated domains such as sports, hunting and the military.
A request in English such as " Close the door when you leave" can be phrased in
a number of ways ranging from a harsh command to a very polite request:
a. Close the door when you leave.
b. Please close the door when you leave.
c. Would you please close the door when you leave?
d. Could you close the door when you leave?
Although the above options are all available to both men and women, it is usually the more polite forms that are selected by female speakers. In general, females are found to use more questions than declarative statements in comparison with males.
62. Discuss with examples some of the linguistic differences between Standard English
and Black English.
One of the most prominent phonological characteristics of Black English is the frequent simplification of consonant clusters at the end of words when one of the two consonants is an alveolar /t/, /d/, /s/, or /z/. The application of this simplification rule may delete the past - tense morpheme, so "past "and "passed "are both pronounced like "pass."
Another salient（显著的）characteristic of Black English phonological system concerns the deletion of some word-final stop consonants in words like "side" and "borrowed.”Speakers of Black English frequently delete these word-final stops, pronouncing “side” like “sigh” and “borrowed” like “borrow.”
One prominent syntactic feature is the frequent absence of various forms of the copula "be" in Black English, which are required of Standard English. Compare the following expressions in Black English and Standard English:
(1) Black English Standard English
They mine. They' re mine.
You crazy. You re crazy.
Another distinctive syntactic feature of Black English is the systematic use of die expression "it is" w here Standard English uses "there is " in the sense of “there exists” :
Is it a Mr. Johnson in this office?
Another aspect of Black English is the use of double negation constructions.
Whenever the verb is negated, the indefinite pronouns "something", "somebody", and "some" become the negative indefinites "nothing", "nobody", and "none", for example:
He don't know nothing. (He doesn't know anything.)
63. What is a linguistic taboo? What effect does it have on our use of language?
A linguistic taboo refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the "polite"
society from general use. Obscene, profane, and swear words are all taboo words that are to be avoided entirely, or at least avoided in mixed company.
In sociolinguistics, a linguistic taboo, denotes any prohibition on the use of particular lexical items to refer to objects or acts. As language use is contextualized in particular social settings, linguistic taboo originates from social taboo. When an act is taboo, reference to this act may also become taboo. Taboo words and expressions reflect the particular social customs and views of a particular culture.
As linguistic taboo reflects social taboo, certain words are more likely to be avoided, for examples, the words related to sex, sex organs and excrement in many cultures. The avoidance of using taboo language mirrors social attitudes, emotions and value judgments, and has no linguistic basis.
The avoidance of using taboo language has led to the creation of euphemisms. A euphemism is a mild, indirect or less offensive word or expression substituted when the speaker or writer fears more direct wording might be harsh, unpleasantly direct, or offensive. For example, we say "portly" instead of "fat".
In many cultures, people avoid using direct words that pertain to death or dying because it is the subject that everyone fears and is unpleasant to talk about. In the English-speaking world, for example, people do not “die” , but “pass away”.
Euphemisms involve a wide range of fields. Although the use of euphemisms has the effect of removing derogatory overtones（暗示）, the disassociative effect is never long-lasting . Often when the negative connotation of a word is recognized in its euphemistic form, a new euphemism will have to be sought for. However, an excessive use of euphemism may have negative effects. As a matter of fact, many euphemisms
have become clichés that are to be avoided in formal speech and writing. They also tend to be wordy and to give writing a timid quality. In addition, euphemism can be evasive or even deceitful. Because they are often improperly used to obscure the intended meaning, many people find them offensive and prefer plain language.
社会语言学的研究对象 （一）定义和解释 社会语言学（sociolinguistics）是联系社会各种因素对语言进行的研究，探讨语言在社会环境中的变化、功能及其使用的一般规律。 概括来说对语言的研究大致有四个角度：部研究、外部研究、比较研究、应用研究。 社会语言学属于对语言的外部研究，但并不是纯粹的外部研究。 （二）研究对象的不同界定 1.布莱特（美国）1964 （1）说话人的身份； （2）听话人的身份； （3）言语事件的社会环境； （4）社会方言的分析； （5）言语行为的社会评价； （6）语言变异的程度； （7）社会语言学的实际应用。 2.礼德（英国） （1）语言宏观社会学、语言人口统计学； （2）双语、多语、多方言研究； （3）语言规、语言发展和规化； （4）语言混合； （5）社会方言； （6）社会语言学和教学； （7）言语的人种史、语言环境； （8）语域和言语能力； （9）语言变化的社会因素； （10）语言和社会化及其传播； （11）社会语言学的方法； （12）语言体系的功能理论； （13）语言相对性； （14）话语理论； （15）人种方法论的语言学。 3.祝畹瑾《社会语言学概论》（1992） 总的来说，社会语言学研究的对象主要包括五个方面： （1）一个国家或地区的语言状况如双语、多语或多方言状况，以及各类言语共同体使用语言的状况和特征； （2）各类语言变体的构造特点及其社会功能； （3）社会以及不同集团对各种语言或语言变体的评价和态度以及由此产生的社会效应；（4）由于社会、文化、经济、政治等原因以及语言接触所引起的语言变化的方式和规律；（5）交际情景与选择语码之间的关系以及语码选择与人际关系的相互作用。 4.戴庆厦《社会语言学概论》（2004） （1）社会因素（阶级、阶层、职业等）对语言结构的影响； （2）个人因素（年龄、性别、性格等）对语言的影响； （3）语言政策、双语等； （4）社会因素引起的语言关系，如语言接触、语言融合；
社会语言学研究的新角度：公众语感 定性研究和定量研究相结合在语言研究中占有方法论上的优势。本文从研究方法和研究角度两个方面对《汉语词的社会语言学研究》展开评述。调查统计、定量分析的研究方法和立足于大众语感的研究角度是该书的一大亮点，对汉语词的研究很有价值。 标签：汉语词研究方法研究角度公众语感 近读江汉大学王立教授的《汉语词的社会语言学研究》（商务印书馆，2003年8月出版。以下简称《汉语词》），感觉耳目一新。虽然此书出版已近五年，但仍有进一步推介的必要。这本著作用社会语言学的研究方法、从语感角度对汉语词进行了相关调查和研究。对汉语的基本单位“词”的研究，正如胡明扬先生所言，“是一个众说纷纭、莫衷一是的老大难问题”[1]。虽然我们已把“词”作为汉语语法的基本分析单位和基本应用单位，但对词的概念界定始终没有完全明晰起来。王立先生用社会语言学的研究方法，从一个新的角度——公众语感，为汉语词研究提供了一个全新的研究模式，也成为社会语言学研究本土化的一个成功尝试。 全书共八章。第一章采用文献研究法，将汉语词的百年研究历程分为“汉语词观念的萌发——形成——确立——传播——深化”5个时期进行考察。第二章简要阐述了“从语感的角度认识汉语的词”的研究思想是如何获得的，对“语感”“语感测量”等概念进行了界定，并结合5次语感测量的实例，着重介绍了语感测量的工作程序。第三章至第七章是整个研究过程的全面展开，是语感测量的整个研究过程，向我们展示了社会语言学的研究理念和研究方法在解决语言问题上的独特价值，可谓本书的精华部分。第八章是结语部分，主要阐述从社会语言学视角研究汉语的“词”会得到一个怎样的结果，这一结果将带给汉语研究一个怎样的启示。 这部研究汉语词的学术专著，在研究方法和研究角度上是很应该引起注意的，即调查分析、定量研究的研究方法和立足大众语感的研究角度。 一、可取的研究方法——调查分析、定量研究 对于语言本体研究来讲，不同的方法论反映了不同的语言观。社会语言学研究方法的主要特点是调查分析、定量研究，是多视角的、动态的。对汉语语法进行多视角、动态的研究是当代语法学的一个明显特征，并成为当今语法学界所致力探讨的热门话题。社会语言学奠基人拉波夫提出的定量研究模式一直是社会语言学的主要研究方法并影响至今，而调查分析就是对定量研究模式的实践。拉波夫主张把语言放在语言集团的场景中进行研究，语法问题也不例外。例如，他认为对变项X属于语法Y还是语法Z的问题，要根据整个言语群体而不是根据言语个体进行判别。《汉语词》就很好地实践了这一研究模式。正如王立在书中所言，“对词的理解是一个复杂的社会心理过程，把寻求汉语基本结构单位的研究放到汉语使用的大背景中去进行，看看存在于汉语社团成员头脑中的基本语言单
文化研究
告语“天地之气、男人品味、精品郎酒、精彩演绎”“天地之气”，体现了男人的气概与胸怀，树立了男人潇洒成功，气度非凡的形象。这是万千男人心中的理想。 三、广告语言的年龄差异 社会语言学家认为不同年龄阶段的人所使用的语言存在一定的差异性，各有特点。而广告语言，特别是针对不同年龄阶段的商品广告所使用的语言也存在差异，抓住每个年龄阶段的心理特征，以及表现在语言上的语言特征，并采取相应的广告策略才能使广告行之有效，为广告主带来更大的利益。儿童天真纯洁，受他人影响大，别的小朋友有的，自己也想有，对世界充满新奇感，对食物的欲望强，抗拒力弱。 (5)在看我，在看我，还在看我，再看我就把你喝掉！（旺仔牛奶） (6)今天你喝了没有？我们都喝乐百氏牛奶！（乐百氏牛奶） (7)妈妈我爱喝。（娃哈哈牛奶） (8)旺仔QQ糖，你也要来一颗吗？（旺仔QQ糖） 上面的这些儿童广告都非常的有趣生动，小孩爱看，大人也爱看。（5）中的小男孩眼巴巴的盯着一罐旺仔牛奶，明明是自己很想喝在目不转睛的看着牛奶却偏要说牛奶上的小人儿在看他，最后终于抗不住美味的诱惑找到了个不是理由的理由把牛奶美美地喝掉了。（6）中看似普通询问的“今天你喝了没有？”却勾起很多小朋友的馋虫。（7）中，小孩对妈妈说“妈妈我爱喝”，电视机前的小朋友可能也会对妈妈说：“妈妈，我也爱喝”。（8）中爱吃QQ糖的小朋友，肯定想要来一颗。这些广告语言考虑到广告受众为小朋友，用语简单，但却很有煽动性。 青少年正处于成长阶段，好奇心强，比较喜欢追赶潮流、时尚，注重个性突出，语言的灵感度高，变化快，喜欢新词新语。 (9)你out了！（啤儿茶爽） （10)麦辣鸡腿汉堡，不辣不给力。（广州麦当劳） 青少年追求时尚，谁也不愿被“out”。啤儿茶爽抓住年轻人的这一特点推出了这则广告语，事实证明，收效很好。在中国麦当劳的消费主体是小孩和年轻人，“给力”是2010年强劲流行的一个词语，麦当劳用这样的词语时尚、前沿，让人耳目一新，迎合了青少年的兴趣点。 人由于生活经验丰富，老年人则更关注亲人的健康及生活的幸福，以家庭为核心，期盼团圆。有些广告就抓住了消费者的这种心理。 （11）团团圆圆，达利园。 （12）中秋团圆，金六福酒。 （13）常回家看看，椰岛鹿龟酒。 期盼家人健康和全家团圆是老人家最大的心愿，每逢过年过节，这几则广告不知道出多少父母的心声。 从上面举的这些例子可以看出，广告语言能够反映出年龄的差异。因此，广告人设计广告语言时，需要考虑到处于不同年龄阶段的消费者具有不同的消费心理状态，从而赢得更多消费者的兴趣和信任。 四、广告语言的层级差异 社会语言学认为语言无阶级性，但一个社会阶层所使用的语言会有一定的特点。针对不同团体、不同阶层的消费者，广告语言也表现出差异性。在屈哨兵的《广告语言方 略》中把消费者分为“需要驱策者”、“他向消费者”和“我向消费者”。“我向消费者”生活形态的主要特点是我行我素，大多是年轻人，好表现，比较关心自我的实现。“需要驱策者”生活形态的主要特点是经济收入都不甚丰厚，他们的购买多出于生活的基本需要。如果按社会层级来分的话，这一阶层的人包括城镇的退休人员，中、低薪（或无薪）阶层以及中国农村大部分地区的居住人口。“他向消费者”都有稳定丰厚的经济收入，在社会上较有身份和地位，注重名誉和别人对自己的评价。这一阶层的人包括沿海和内地的私营企业主、个体户、影星、歌星，还包括高新阶层和有丰厚收入的公民等等（屈哨兵，1997）。 广告语言应该根据不同层级消费者的特征来设置广告语言。“需要驱策者”这一阶层的成员，他们更注重商品的实用性，求实性广告语言将取得更好的广告效果。 （14）加量不加价，还是三块九哦。快来买吧。（佳洁士牙膏） （15）泻痢停，泻痢停，痢疾拉肚，一吃就停。（哈尔滨制药六厂） （16）样板运动鞋，原价95，现价50。（广州北京路某商店） （14）用平实得语言标明佳洁士“好用还不贵”。（15）介绍产品的功能，药道病除。（16）在价格便宜上做文章。 “仓廪而知礼节”、“温饱思淫欲”。“他向消费者”不缺少基本生活的必须品，他们强调的是商品的品牌，格调，气质等。 （17）爱她，就请她吃哈根达斯。（哈根达斯广告） （18）得意非凡，三星海霸。（三星海霸豪华车） （19）“尊贵典雅”比亚迪F6。（比亚迪汽车） （20）影音经典，超优越四原色高传真彩视，献给金字塔顶端少数人士的影音极品。（日本夏普彩电） 上面的这些广告语与求实性广告语不一样，都属于求名性广告语。（17）中和心爱的人坐在哈根达斯华丽的卡座上，听着优雅的音乐细细品尝冰激凌中的极品哈根达斯，是一种奢侈享受。（18）、（19）突出品牌，（20）突出广告商品的档次“极品”，并对消费者进行了选择“金字塔顶端的少数人”。 五、结语 语言和社会都不是相互独立的，社会语言和广告语言因为一些共同的特征而紧密相连，从广告语言学的角度来研究社会语言学，为社会语言学带来了新的活力，注入了新鲜的血液，丰富了社会语言学的成果。从社会语言学的角度来研究广告语言学，社会语言为广告语言学提供了研究方法和已有研究成果。广告语言要取得成效，就不得不将社会因素纳入考虑的范围之内，将广告和社会生活相结合，有助于广告人更好地理解社会，更好地确定广告语言的诉求定位，使广告语言更加行之有效。 参考文献： [1]戴庆夏.社会语言学概论[M].北京:商务印书馆,2004. [2]郭熙.中国社会语言学[M].南京:南京大学出版社,1999. [3]戴庆夏.社会语言学教程[M].北京:中央民族学院出版社,1993. [4]屈哨兵.广告语言方略[M].北京:科学普及出版社,1997. [5]屈哨兵.广告语言跟踪研究[M].广州:暨南大学出版社,2009. (责任编辑/宋伯伟)
从社会语言学角度看网络语言 内容摘要：网络语言是随着网络的兴起而出现的一种网络交际语言,是信息化发展下的产物，它和社会有着密不可分的联系。文章从社会语言学为理论基础，分析网络语言出现的源头及其产生的形式，网络语言的社会影响和由混乱的语言现象而产生的担忧，从而预测网络语言的生命力。 关键词：社会语言学网络语言流行语 在信息社会迅速发展的今天，网络已经被大多数人所熟练运用。中国互联网信心中心发布的《第27次中国互联网发展状况统计报告》显示，截至2010年12月底，我国网民规模达到4.57亿，我国手机网民规模达3.03亿，是拉动中国总体网民规模攀升的主要动力；网络购物用户年增长48.6％，是用户增长最快的应用，预示着更多的经济活动步入互联网时代。网络已经深入地影响人们的日常生活、学习、娱乐，网络中。网民已然成为一个特殊的社区群体，在网络社区里，人们有自己的语言习惯，有自己的名称地位，有自己的权利自由。 一、网络语言产生的源头及形式 “语言是一种社会现象”，“语言是伴随着人类社会的形成而产生的，而且跟随着社会的变化而发展”。网络语言是伴随着网络这一新型传播方式的发展而出现的不同于传统书写使用的语言。它是在网络这种特定的语境下产生的一种语言变体，是在网络这种特殊的场景下用来交际的语言。如今，这种语言的使用不再局限于网络社区，正潜移默化地影响着我们日常的社会生活。 一种语言的出现，并不是凭空出现的，有着其源头和原因的。 “给力”一词的出现至今有两派观点。一派认为它的来源是东北或闽南方言，有“很棒”的意思。还有一派认为它是网络上恶搞现象引发的。网络语言的出现不是一蹴而就的，它是由于社区群体表情达意、信息传递的需要而产生的。它的源头可能是热点新闻，如“我爸是李刚”；可能是网络恶搞，如“神马都是浮云”；”；可能是电影台词，如“大哥，你是懂我的”。而近年的网络语言特点，可以归为以下几种形式： (一)方言形式 方言也是语言的一种变体，它一般可以分为地域方言和社会方言。地域方言是语言因地域之间的差别而形成的变体，是由于语言发展在地域上的不平衡性导致，像粤方言、吴方言等各大方言区可以理解为地域方言。社会方言是指在同一地域内部的社会成员因为身份、地位、受教育程度不同等方面的社会差异而形成的语言变体。虽然现在的普通话很普及，但是同属于一个方言区的人还是习惯用方言来进行交流，这种习惯也会蔓延到网络空间。中国的有些地区如四川，它的方言中唇齿清擦音“f”和舌根清擦音“h”不分，闽南语中的前鼻音韵母“en”和后鼻音韵母“eng”不分，在网络上悄然兴起的“灰常(非常)”、“小盆友(小朋友)”便是以方言形式出现的网络流行语。 (二)简写形式 网络语言中的缩语是为了适应快节奏的生活而出现的。网络语言中的缩语有三种：1、图片式。人们在聊天的时候会考虑娱乐心理，往往不会输入许多的字来表现情感，而是用简单的图像来代替文字或者心情。这些表情符号“使原本冰冷的网络世界披上了一层温情，这种幽默的表情打消了现实生活中人与人之间对话时的某些顾虑”。2、数字式。例如，很早就在网络聊天中出现的“88”“9494”分别是“拜拜”和“就是就是”的简写形式。用数字
1. What is the scope of Sociolinguistic research? 问：什么是社会语言学研究的范围？ 答：广义的把从不同角度去考察语言的都看成社会语言学等等范围，如社会学、人类学、民族学、心理学、地理学、历史学、哲学等等。狭义的是研究语言使用中的变异现象与社会环境之间的相互关系。变异指语言运用上的变化和差异，通过使用各种不同的语言上的变体表现出来。具体来说，社会语言学的研究范围包括：1）一个国家或地区的语言状况如双言制、双语、多语或多方言状况； 2）各种语言变体包括地域方言和社会方言、标准语和土语、正式语体和非正式语体等构造特点及其社会功能； 3）交谈情景与选择语码之间的关系以及语码选择与人际关系的相互作用； 4）社会以及不同的集团对各种语言或语言变体的评价和态度以及由此产生的社会效应； 5）由于社会的、文化的、经济的、政治的种种原因以及语言接触所引起的语言变化的方式和规律，等。 最后，社会语言学的研究范围也在不断的延伸，相信在今后的发展中社会语言说的研究会取得更大更多的成就，同时也对我们社会的发展起到巨大的作用。 Generalized to study from different angles to the language areas are regarded as social linguistics, etc。Such as sociology,
anthropology, ethnology, psychology, geography, history, philosophy and so on. Narrow the variation in use of language phenomena and the relationship between the social environments. Variability refers to the change in language and differences, through the use of different language variants shown. Specifically, social linguistics includes: (1) The language of a country or region, such as two-word system status, bilingual, multi-lingual or multi-dialect situation; (2) variations in various languages, including regional dialects and social dialects, standard language and dialect, formal and informal language body language body characteristics such as structure and social function; (3) The conversation scenarios and selection of the relationship between the Code and the Code Selection and interpersonal interactions; (4) Social and different languages or language groups on evaluation and attitude variations and the resulting social effects; (5) The social, cultural, economic and political reasons, as well as language contact caused by changes in the way of language and law, and so on. In conclusion, the development of social linguistics is constantly extending the scope; I believe in the future development
北京语言大学网络教育学院 《社会语言学》模拟试卷一 注意： 1.试卷保密，考生不得将试卷带出考场或撕页，否则成绩作废。请监考老师负责监督。 2.请各位考生注意考试纪律，考试作弊全部成绩以零分计算。 3.本试卷满分100分，答题时间为90分钟。 4.本试卷分为试题卷和答题卷，所有答案必须答在答题卷上，答在试题卷上不给分。 一、单项选择题(本大题共20小题，每小题1分，共20分)在每小题列出的四个选项中只有一个选项是符合题目要求的，请将正确选项前的字母填在答题卷相应题号处。 1、社会语言学是（）的重要分支之一。 [A] 社会学[B] 语言学[C] 人类学[D] 文字学 2、社会语言学研究中的社会因素不包括（）。 [A] 阶级[B] 阶层[C] 职业[D] 受教育程度 3、美国语言学家拉波夫对（）音分层的研究是社会语言学运用调查统计方法的经典作品。 [A] r [B] s [C] t [D] l 4、语言与文化共存的最典型的例子可以说是（）。 [A] 汉字与中国文化[B] 印度语与印度文化 [C] 拉丁语与拉丁文化[D] 英语与英国文化 5、文化接触导致语言接触，最直接、最常见的现象就是（）。 [A] 行话[B] 黑话[C] 借词[D] 谚语 6、（）是影响社会方言的因素之一。 [A] 社会制度[B] 社会形态[C] 社会地位[D] 社会规模 7、逢年过节“死鱼”“死鸭”改称“文鱼”“文鸭”是属于语言禁忌中的（）。 [A] 年节语言禁忌[B] 日常生活用语禁忌 [C] 社会分层用语禁忌[D] 称谓禁忌 8、汉语成语“秀色可餐”从社会语言学的角度看反映了（）。 [A] 性别差异[B] 性别歧视[C] 性别平等[D] 性别模糊 9、语言规划的经济性原则，不包括（）。 [A] 群众性[B] 简便性[C] 适用性[D] 效益性 10、在域外方言中从汉语输入声调系统的是（）。 [A] 越南语[B] 泰语[C] 日本语[D]朝鲜语 11、新派方言和老派方言的区分标准是（）。 [A] 媒介[B] 时代[C] 地域[D] 年龄 12、下列属于语码混合原因的是（）。
郑州大学现代远程教育《社会语言学》课程考核要 求 说明：本课程考核形式为提交作业，完成后请保存为WORD 2003格式的文档，登陆学习平台提交，并检查和确认提交成功（能够下载，并且内容无误即为提交成功）。 1． 作业要求 1. 认真学习课程，广泛查阅文献资料，高质量完成课程作 业。 2. 必须由自己独立完成，不得抄袭或请人代写，雷同作业按照零分 处理。 2．作业内容 论述题 （1） 中国社会语言学发展的三个阶段（25分） 答：一）初创阶段（1979-1987）：从自发到自觉 一般认为，中国的社会语言学是舶来品，源于20世纪60年代的美国。中国最早提出社会语言学的学者之一陈原则指出，社会语言学发源比较早。自古以来，中外语文学家都曾讨论过古语与今语、文语与口语、标准语与方言在社会功能上的差别。欧洲19世纪初的方言学家对于自己民族语言内部各种变体的调查，其实即是进行社会语言学的工作。事实上，社会语言学的诞生和有没有社会语言学的研究是两回事。进行某一方面的研究并不等于建立了某一个学科。当然，一个学科的出现决不是突然从天上掉下来的。它一定是长时间学科积累的结果。现代中国历史上的许多语言运动，如20世纪初期的国语运动、20年代的白话文运动、30年代的大众语讨论以及北方拉丁化运动，50年代的推广普通话、现代汉语规范化等等，都可以算是社会语言学的工作。但是这些运动或工作可以说是自发的，而不是自觉的。70年代后期，随着“社会语言学”这个术语的出现，人们对社会语言学的研究从自发走向自觉[7]。 这一阶段，中国社会语言学的成果主要表现在通论性的著作和理论的译
介方面。前者除上述陈原的两本著作外，还有陈松岑的《社会语言学导论》（北京大学出版社，1985）、游汝杰、周振鹤的《方言与中国文化》（上海人民出版社，1986）。许国璋早在70年代末开始引进社会语言学，有关论文后来收入《许国璋论语言》（外语教学与研究出版社，1991）。1980年到1982年，英国语言学家特鲁基尔的《社会语言学导论》由林书武等翻译，在《国外语言学》连载。1987年北京大学出版社出版了祝畹瑾编的《社会语言学译文集》和前苏联什维策尔的《现代社会语言学》（卫志强译）。此外，《国际社会科学杂志》1985年第5期（中文版）以 “语言与交往：社会语言学研究个案与应用”的专刊形式，发表了一大批社会语言学的论文，很有指导意义。可惜因为发行上的原因，许多人没有看到。 这一时期有两大缺点：一是结合中国社会实际不够，二是对社会语言学的对象和范围的认识还相当模糊。例如有的学者把语言与思维的关系之类问题也列入社会语言学，这显然是不妥的。此外，受国外的影响，也有热衷于无谓的名份之争的现象。 迅速发展阶段（1987-1993）：从引进走向结合中国实际 1987年12月1日至5日，中国社科院语言文字应用研究所在北京举办了首届社会语言学讨论会。会议展示了70年代以来中国社会语言学的研究现状和水平，它标志着中国社会语言进入了一个火热的阶段，对推动我国的社会语言学研究具有重要意义。1988年8月，深圳教育学院深港语言研究所主办了首次“双语·双方言”讨论会。1990年11月，中国社会科学院语言文字应用研究所和苏州大学在苏州召开了首届应用语言学讨论会，其中有不少的论文也是关于社会语言学的。 这一时期出现了许多社会语言学的专题研究。著作有张清常的《胡同及其他——社会语言学的探索》（北京语言学院出版社，1990）、高天如的《中国现代语言计划的理论和实践》（复旦大学出版社，1993）等。论文数量很多，结集出版的有《双语双方言》（1-4集）（分别由中山大学出版社等出版）、《语言·社会·文化——首届社会语言学学术讨论会论文集》（语文出版社，1991）等等。 这个阶段，继续出版了一批关于社会语言学的译介、概论性著作和教材。在译介国外社会语言学研究成果方面，除了《国外语言学》等杂志连续刊登译介文章（例如Lesley Milroy的《语言和社会网络》等）外，还出版了佐伊基的《社会语言学演讲录》（刘明霞等译，北京语言学院出版社，1989）、郝德森的《社会语言学》（丁信善译，中国社会
An Analysis of the Features and Causes of Female Language 1401 全雪萍1430100137 Introduction: The study of gender language has a long history. As early as 1922, Jens Otto Harry Jesperson has specially opened up a chapter of “ The Women” in his book Language, which discusses the language differences between men and women. Since the 1970s, some famous scholars such as Lakoff , Trugill and others advanced the study to systematize the study of gender study. In recent years, the studies of “female language” are increasing in many magazines and books, which draws much attention. Many researchers have almost reached the same conclusion that women have their own language. Crosby and Nyquist got the conclusion from their studies: the so-called female language is not existed since women are born, but this kind of language reflects the people in the society always put the female in this position that is hard to change. In our society, the female language is characterized by a lack of social status. In this paper, I will start from the features of female language, and simply discuss the factors of its formation. I.The features of female language Many observers believe that men and women are different in language communication. The female language exists in any language as a widespread phenomenon. Men and women have different choices in expressing ideas when they use the same language. For example, abstract nouns have gender differences in grammar, men call women as “ feminine”, while women call men as “masculine”. The education received by women is that they tone should be soft when they talk; do not refute others; be gentle and modest in language communication; avoid arbitrary or offending others; be aware of overconfidence. The features of female language can be summarized from following aspect：the choice of words, the choice of syntactic and pronunciation and intonation. 1.The choice of words Both men and women have their partial words, which can be said that a considerable number of words have been given the label of “feminine” or “masculine”. Men don?t use( scorned, unwilling to use) some peculiar words in female language that is “ feminine” words. At the same time, women also avoid the “ masculine” expressions. Women often express their feelings without control, they like exaggeration when they talk, so they have the following characteristics of choosing words: 1)Like using exaggerated adjectives, such as divine, charming, cute, gorgeous, heavenly” and so on. Men sometimes also use these words, but they rarely use these words to express the same meaning in terms of tradition. “ What a divine idea!” obviously comes from a woman?s mouth. 2)Like using some degree adverbs to emphasize, also like choosing some adverbs to strengthen adjectives, such as “ so” “quite” etc. Lakoff( 1972) and Tarone (1979) prove that men like using “very” and “really” while women like using “so”. 3)Are good at using some color words, especially some rare color words, such as “ lavender, magenta, aquamarine”.
社会语言学教学大纲 课程名称：社会语言学 课程类别：专业选修课编号：学时：54 编者姓名：单位：人类学系职称：讲师 主审姓名：单位：人类学系职称：教授 授课对象：本科生专业：人类学年级：三年级 编写日期： 2007年1月 一、课程目的与教学基本要求 介绍社会语言学的理论、方法及应用。主要内容有：语言变异、言语交际、语言接触、双语以及语文规划等等。让学生掌握一定的社会语言学理论，并能结合社会语言现状（如我国的双语双言现象、语文规划政策等）思考、探讨社会中的语言现象。 二、课程主要内容及时间安排 一、社会语言学的兴起、研究范围、对象、途径、目标计2学时。 二、应用社会语言学的若干方面，语言与经济、政治、双语教学、语言与法律事务计4学时。 三、语言变体，语言与方言；地域方言和社会方言；标准变体和非标准变体；语体和语域计4学时。 四、言语共同体，交际能力计2学时。 五、语言变异，阶级、阶层与语言差异，性别与语言差异计4学时。 六、社会网络与语言差异计2学时。 七、言语交际，对称呼的研究计4学时。 语言区域与文化区域 八、对礼貌的研究，会话分析计2学时。 九、语言接触，双语和多语现象计4学时。 十、语码转换和语码混合，语言干扰计2学时。 十一、洋泾浜语和克里奥耳语计4学时。 十二、语言的扩散和海外体英语计2学时。 十三、语文规划，语文规划的特点和意义，语文规划的类别、步骤计4学时。
十四、我国语文规划的情况，汉语、汉文及少数民族语言和文字计2学时。 十五、语言变项的描写和研究，变项规则，定量研究计4学时。 十六、收集语料的方法和技术，语言变项的定义扩展计4学时。 十七、变项规则分析方法计2学时。 三、课程实习 拟于学期中安排一次。要求学生对家乡的语言构成、语言运用的特点，从多语、多言的角度进行观察，写成报告，并于课堂讨论。计入平时成绩。计2学时。 四、主要参考书目 1、社会语言学上海外教出版社 Spolsky 2000 2、社会语言学与语言教学上海外教出版社 Hornberger 2001 3、拉波夫语言自选集语言大学拉波夫 2001 4、社会语言学教程复旦大学游汝杰、邹嘉彦 2004 5、社会语言学概论湖南教育出版社祝畹瑾 1992 6、Hudson,R.A, Sociolinguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990
以亲属称谓“姐”?自称的社会语?言学研究摘要：本?文针对近来出现的以亲属称谓“姐”?自称的语?言现象进?行了调查研究，分析了“姐”这?一?自称产?生的语?用效果，使?用状况，如使?用场合、对象、原因等等，以及其中暗含的客观原因。 关键词：亲属称谓；姐；?自称 ?一.语?言现象的提出 近来，?网络上出现了?一种以“姐”?自称语?言现象，和其他?网络语?言?一样，这?一语?言现象逐步扩散，出现的频率越来越?高，甚?至已渐渐?走进?人们的?日常?生活。下?面我们就来探讨?一下“姐”作为?自称的这?一语?言现象特别之处。 1.“姐”作为?自称不再局限于指称?比?自?己年长的?女性 根据《当代汉语词典》中的释义，姐，?一般指同?父母?而年纪?比?自?己?大的?女?子，如?二姐、姐妹等；或指有亲戚或其他某种关系的同辈?而年纪?比?自?己?大的?女?子，如表姐、师姐等；或?用来称呼年纪跟?自?己差不多的?女?子(含亲热意)，如江姐、蔡?大姐等。由此见得，“姐”的本意属于亲属称谓，同时有泛化的使?用功能。?而作为亲属称谓也好，作为亲属称谓的泛化使?用也好，“姐”的指称对象（?无论是指称对?方还是指称?自?己）都应该是?比?自?己年长的?女性，笔者观察到，近年随着?网络新语的流?行，亲属称谓“姐”也不再局限于指称?比?自?己年纪稍长的?女性，?而有了新的?用法。 下?面的例?子是笔者从微博上找到的： ①A：XX，姐来播给你看这?里的景?色哦，和你来的时候不?一样了吧？ B：哇，蛮好看的嘛，姐也给你发发阳朔的春天啊！ ②今晚遇到两朵奇葩，乐死姐了！ ③姐我?一向?走?非主流路线！ 第?一个例?子中的对话双?方互相称“姐”，这说明?二者在?用“姐”作为?自称的时候，并?无所谓年纪谁?大谁?小；第?二个例?子中也是，说话的对象并不确定，所以也不是局限于指称年纪较?大者；如果说第?二个例?子中的“姐”还有指称“?自?己姐姐”的歧义的可能性，那么第三个例?子中“姐”的?自称?用法就再明显不过了，句中直接?用“姐+我”明确了以姐?自称的?用法。 2.“姐”作为?自称是对传统谦称的颠覆 中国?人?一向以谦逊为美德，认为?自谦才是合乎礼貌的，因此在汉语中有很多?自古流传的?自谦之词，如：愚兄、鄙?人、在下等，即使是现在这类谦称已不再?用于?日常?生活之中，但受千年中庸之道影响的中国?人，关于?自称也是有其礼貌原则的，例如以年幼的称谓称呼?自?己，如：妹妹我、?小弟等等，但以“姐”?自称则颠覆了这?一?自谦传统。?比如上?面第三个例?子，可以对?比?一下“我?一向?走?非主流路线”和“姐我?一向?走?非主流路线”，后者的语?气更加强烈，表现出来的语?用效果更显我?行我素的意味，使得说话?人让?人感觉??十分?自信、霸?气。 3.“姐”作为?自称暗?示着现代?女性的独?立意识的增强 “姐”的?自称?用法还暗?示了?一个更加深层次的问题，即现代?女性的独?立意识
The Relationship between Language and Culture I Introduction Language emerges and develops with the emergence and development of society. Firstly and simply, it is used as a tool for human communication. Besides, it is a mirror of people’s thoughts. That is to say, individually, a person can express his ideas to others by the way of speaking or writing down the words.Furthermore, language is also related to culture. The thing is: how are “language” and “culture” related to each other and does language determine cognition? .This paper is going to discuss the relationship between language and culture and answer the second question. II Body Language and culture are inseparable pair of social phenomenon which is unique to human society. Language cannot be cut out from the culture as a whole for language itself is part of the culture. Language and culture co-exist, they interact each other, influence each other. The more knowledge a person knows about language, the more he can know the world around him, especially his abstract thinking. Language determines cognition in a certain sense. 1 Language is a social and cultural phenomenon and the carrier of culture Language is a guide to social reality. The formation and development of culture are impossible without language. All the previous work and life experience are stored in language. National culture is inherited from generation to generation through various forms, especially and importantly through using language. It is language that reflects and preserves culture. We can get to know people’s awareness of and attitudes toward the objective world by virtue of the language they speak. For example, “bat”is,by western people, seen as the evil and dark forces associated with devil. We can usually see in some foreign fictions or movies swarms of bats fly out with strange and ghastful noises when evil-doers and ghosts occur. While in China, it is auspicious, this is because “bat” and “Fu” in Chinese are homophone. “Fu” in Chinese means “lucky”“happiness”“beauty”. From this example we can see that the same thing can convey different meanings culturally. Thus, when later generation are learning national language ,they, actually,are learning national culture and traditions. 2 language itself is part of culture Phonetic sound, vocabulary and grammar, parts of language system, are related to national culture. Different groups of people have different understanding of the objective world, so the meanings of concepts elements of their language system
从社会语言学角度初探语言与性别的关系|社会语言学与性别 选题 内容摘要：在日常生活中，我们会很惊奇地发现男士与女士的语言总会有这样那样的不同，并且当我们在面对一些词语时，头脑中总会有相应的画面，比如当遇到“美丽”这个词时我们脑海里浮现的一定是位窈窕淑女，而非一位翩翩君子，这其实就是我们潜意识中对语言与性别下的定义。事实上，从古至今，从国外到国内，由于性别不同而造成的语言差异比比皆是。而造成这些差异的原因就是社会历史条件和男女自身不同的生理特征，且表现在语音，语调，词语，话题，语义等各个层面。关键词：语音词汇句法性别歧视众所周知，男人和女人生理上的差异与生俱来。受到文化和社会角色等的影响，人类个体之间的差异不能被简单的从生理角度贴上标签，因此“性别”这个词随之诞生了。它通常用来形容不同或相同的性别。然而，在日常交流中，由于受到不同性别之间文化差异的影响，异性交流中经常出现困惑的地方。语言与性别之间的关系主要涉及到结构，词汇和具体使用之间的联系。在社会语言学中，这个话题受到了许多语言学家的关注。本文一方面陈述了目前的相关研究，同时也从以下的四个方面进一步阐释了不同性别在使用语言方面的差异，即：语音，词汇，句法，性别歧视，一文献综述语言就像我们生活中的百科全书，对语言和性别之间的研究也是至关重要的。现代语言学对这一现象的研究可以追溯到20世纪初，丹麦著名语言学家Jespersen(1922)在他的著作”Language:ItsNature，Development and Off-gin”中介绍了女性语言，他列举了男性和女性使用的不同语言，并且认为女性更倾向于使用委婉语；而另一方面，