Accident Investigations
Although accident investigation is an after-the-fact approach to hazard identification, it is still an important part of this process. At times hazards exist, which no one seems to recognize until they result in an accident or incident. In complicated accidents it may take an investigation to actually determine what the cause of the accident was. This is especially true in cases where death results and few or no witnesses exist. An accident investigation is a fact-finding process and not a fault- finding process with the purpose of affixing blame. The end of any result of an accident investigation should be to assure that the type of hazard or accident does not exist or occur in the future.
Your company should have a formalized accident investigation procedure, which is followed by everyone. It should be spelled out in writing and end with a written report using as a foundation of your standard company accident investigation form. It may be your workers’ compensation form or an equivalent from your insurance carrier.
Accidents and even near misses should be investigated by your company if you are intent on identifying and preventing hazards in your workplace. Thousands of accidents occur throughout the United States every day. The failure of people, equipment, supplies, or surroundings to behave or react as expected causes most of the accidents. Accident investigations determine how and why these failures occur. By using the information gained through an investigation, a similar or perhaps more disastrous accident may be prevented. Accident investigations should be conducted with accident prevention in mind. Investigations are not to place blame.
An accident is any unplanned event that results in personal injury or in property damage. When the personal injury requires little or no treatment，it is minor. If it results in a fatality or in a permanent total, permanent partial, or temporary total (lost time) disability, it is serious. Similarly, property damage may be minor or serious. Investigate all accident regardless of the extent of injury or damage. Accidents are part of a broad group of events that adversely affect the completion of a task. These events are incidents. For simplicity, the procedures discussed in later sections refer only to accidents. They are, however, also applicable to incidents.
1. Accident Prevention
Accidents are usually complex. An accident may have 10 or more events that can be causes. A detailed analysis of an accident will normally reveal three cause
levels：basic，indirect，and direct. At the lowest level, an accident results only when a person or object receives an amount of energy or hazardous material that cannot be absorbed safely. This energy or hazardous material is the DIRECT CAUSE of the accident. The direct cause is usually the result of one or more unsafe acts or unsafe conditions, or both. Unsafe acts and conditions are the indirect causes or symptoms. In turn, indirect causes are usually traceable to poor management policies and decisions, or to personal or environmental factors. These are the basic cause.
In spite of their complexity, most accidents are preventable by eliminating one or more causes. Accident investigations determine not only what happened, but also how and why. The information gained from these investigations can prevent recurrence of similar or perhaps more disastrous accident. Accident investigations are interested in each event as well as in the sequence of events that led to an accident. The accident type is also important to the investigator. The recurrence of accident of a particular type or those with common causes shows areas needing special accident prevention emphasis.
2. Investigative Procedures
The actual procedures used in a particular investigation depend on the nature and results of the accident. The agency having jurisdiction over the lacation determines the administrative procedures. In general, responsible officials will appoint an individual to be in charge of the investigation. An accident investigation should use most of the following steps:
·Defined the scope of the investigation.
·Select the investigation. Assign specific tasks to each (preferably in writing).
·Present a preliminary briefing to the investigating team.
·Visit and inspect the accident site to get updated information.
·Interview each victim and witness. Also interview those who were present before the accident and those who arrived at the site shortly after the accident. Keep accurate records of each interview. Use a tape recorder if desired and if approved.
·Determine the following:
·What was not normal before the accident.
·Where the abnormality occurred.
·When it was first noted.
·How it occurred.
·Determine the following:
·Why the accident occurred.
·A likely sequence of events and probable causes ( direct, indirect, basic ).
·Alternative sequences.
·Determine the most likely sequence of events and the most probable causes.
·Conduct a post-investigation briefing.
·Prepare a summary report including the recommended actions to prevent a
recurrence. Distribute the report according to applicable instructions.
An investigation is not complete until all data are analyzed and a final report is completed. In practice, the investigation work, data analyzed and report preparations proceed simultaneously over much of the time spent on the investigation.
3. Fact-Finding
Investigator collects evidence from many sources during an investigation, gets information from witnesses and observation as well as by reports, interviews witnesses as soon as possible after an accident, inspects the accident site before any changes occur, takes photographs and makes sketches of the accident scene, records all pertinent data on maps, and gets copies of all reports. Documents containing normal operating procedures flow diagrams, maintenance charts or reports of difficulties or abnormalities are particularly useful. Keep complete and accurate notes in a bound notebook. Record pre-accident conditions, the accident sequence and post- accident conditions. In addition, document the location of victims, witnesses, machinery, energy source, and hazardous materials.
In some investigation, a particular physical or chemical law, principle, or property may explain a sequence of events. Include laws in the notes taken during the investigation or in the later analysis of data. In addition, gather data during the investigation that may lend itself to analysis by these laws, principles, or properties. An appendix in the final report can include an extended discussion.
4. Interview
In general, experienced personnel should conduct interviews. If possible, the team assigned to this task should include an individual with a legal background. After interviewing all witnesses, the team should analyze each witness’ statement. They may wish to re-interview one or more witnesses to confirm or clarify key points. While there may be inconsistencies in witnesses’ statement, investigators should assemble the available testimony into a logical order. Analyze this information along with data from the accident site.
Not all people react in the same manner to a particular stimulus. For example, a witness within close proximity to the accident may have an entirely different story from one who saw it at a distance. Some witnesses may also change their stories after they have discussed it with others. The reason for the change may be additional clues.
A witness who has had a traumatic experience may not be able to recall the details of the accident. A witness who has a vested interest in the result of the investigation may offer biased testimony. Finally, eyesight, hearing, reaction time, and the general condition of each witness may affect his or her powers of observation.
A witness may omit entire sequences because of a failure to observe them or because their importance was not realized.
5. Report of Investigation
As noted earlier, an accident investigation is not complete until a report is prepared and submitted to proper authorities. Special report forms are available in many cases. Others instances may require a more extended report. Such repots are often very elaborate and may include a cover page, title page, abstract, table of contents, commentary or narrative discussion of probable causes, and a section on conclusions and recommendations.
Accident investigation should be an integral part of your written safety and health program. It should be a formal procedure. A successful accident investigation determines not only what happened, but also finds how and why the accident occurred. Investigations are an effort to prevent a similar or perhaps more disastrous sequence of events. You can then use the resulting information and recommendations to prevent future accidents.
Keeping records is also very important to recognizing and reducing hazards. A review of accident and injury records over a period of time can help pinpoint the cause of view of accidents. If a certain worker shows up several times on the record as being injured, it may indicate that the person is physically unsuited for the job, is not properly trained, or needs better supervision. If one or two occupations experience a high percentage of the accident in a workplace, they should be carefully analyzed and countermeasures should be taken to eliminate the cause. If there are multiple accident involving one machine or process, it is possible that work procedures must be changed or that maintenance is needed. Records that show many accidents during a short period of time would suggest an environmental problem.
Once the hazards have been identified then the information and source must be analyzed to determine their origin and the potential to remove or mitigate their effects
upon the workplace. Analysis of hazards forces us to take a serious look at them.
事故调查
尽管事故调查是一种事后危害识别的方法，它依旧是危害识别的一个重要组成部分。有时系统中存在人们无法识别的危害，直到事故或事件发生才能得以辨识。对于复杂的事故，也许经过事故调查才能真正发现事故原因，这种情况尤其适用于发生人员死亡或缺少目击者的事故。事故调查是一个不断发现事实的过程而不是以追责为目的的发现错误的过程。一项事故调查的最终结果应当确定危害或事故不存在或以后不会发生。
一个公司应该有一个编制好的事故调查程序，所有员工都应当去遵守它。这个程序应该以书面方式讲清楚具体过程并最终以标准的公司事故报告格式为基础编写书面报告。它可能是以员工补偿形式或者保险公司的方式。
如果打算识别并且防止工作场所的危害，公司就应当调查事故甚至是未遂事故。每天美国都会发生万千起事故，人员失误、装置失效、供给不足或环境缺陷往往是导致大多数事故发生的原因。事故调查可以确定这些失效如何与为什么发生。通过使用调查获得的信息，一种类似的事故或者也许其他种类灾难性事故也可以得到有效避免。人们应当牢记事故调查要以事故预防为目的来进行，而不是追究责任。
事故是任何导致人员伤亡或财产损失的计划外的事件。如果人员伤害几乎不需要治疗，那这种事故就比较低级。如果导致了人员死亡或者整体永久性、部分永久性或整天暂时性失效，那这种事故就属于严重级别。类似的，财产损失也可以被分为轻微与严重。事故调查应该无视事故伤害或损伤程度，对所有事故进行调查。事故是众多阻碍了任务完成的事件的一部分。这些事件又被称为意外。为了实现简化调查程序，以下部分讨论的程序只涉及到事故，然而它们也适用于意外事件。
1.事故预防
事故往往比较复杂。一起事故可能由十件或更多事件导致。一份详细的事故分析一般将显示为三种层次的原因：基础的，间接的和直接的。在最低级原因中，事故只是因为人或物受到了无法承受的一定量的能量或接触了无法吸收的危害物质。这些能量或危害物质就是事故的直接原因。直接原因经常是一种或多种不安全行为、不安全环境或者二者共同导致的。不安全行为或环境是间接原因或征兆。反过来，间接原因经常可以追溯到差劲的管理政策与决定或者人为与环境因素。这是属于基本原因。
尽管事故具有复杂性，通过消除一个或更多起因，大多数事故还是可以预防的。事故调查不仅可以确定会发生什么，还可以确定事故是如何发生的，为什么发生。这些调查获得的信息可以帮助防止类似事故再次发生或者可能避免更多的灾难性事故。事故调查不仅关注每一个事件，而且关注一系列可能导致事故发生的事件。事故类型对于调查人员也很重要。一种特殊类型事故的再次发生或者那些拥有共同致因的事故显示了需要特殊事故预防重点的方面。
2.调查程序
在一种特定的调查中实际使用的程序取决于事故的性质与结果。在确定管理程序方面，专门机构的权限高于本公司。一般来说，责任机构将会指定一人负责调查。事故调查应当要以下步骤的大部分：
1.确定调查范围
2.选择调查对象，确定所需达到的目标（最好书面记录）
3.向调查小组预先进行简洁汇报
4.参观并检查事故场地，及时更新事故信息
5.访问每一位受害者与目击者，同时还要访问那些事故发生前在场的人员与事故发生不久后到场的人员。对每一个访问进行准确的记录，如果需要或允许的情况下可以使用录像带。
确定以下信息：
1.事故发生前有何异常
2.异常发生在什么地方
3.什么时候首次被发现
4.如何发生
5.为什么事故会发生
6.可能导致事故发生的一系列原因（直接的，间接的，基础的原因）
7.可替代的一系列原因
8.确定导致事故发生的最可能的原因
9.进行调查后简短的汇报
10.准备总结报告，内容应当包括防止事故再发生的建议措施。根据建议的适用性分发报告
直到所有数据被分析并完成最终报告后，事故调查才能算完成。实践过程中，调查工作，数据分析和报告准备同时进行，事故调查的大部分时间都用于这些步骤。
3.事实探究
调查人员在调查过程中，从许多材料中收集证据，从目击者和自我观察中获取信息。同时还需要通过报告、事故发生后第一时间访问目击者、在事故现场发生任何变化之前进行检查、拍照和对现场简单的描绘、记录地图上所有有关信息、对所有报告进行备份获取信息。文件应包括一般操作程序流程图，保留图表或者汇报困难与异常对调查非常有帮助。在一个固定的本子上保持记录完整而精确的笔记。记录事故前的状况，事故发生顺序和事故后状况。另外，记录受害者、目击者、机械、能量源和危害物质的位置。
在一些调查中，特定的物理或化学定律，原理或特性可能解释一连串的事件。包括在调查过程中或后来数据分析笔记中记录的法则。另外，事故调查过程中收集数据可能通过这些定律，原理与特性进行引导分析。最终报告的附录可以对此进行深入的讨论。
4.访问
一般来说，应当由经验丰富的人员进行访问。如果可能，调查小组应将这
个任务委派给具有法律知识背景的专门人员。在访问了所有的目击者后，调查小组应该分析每个人的陈述。小组成员可能希望再次访问一个或更多的目击者以确定或搞清关键点。如果目击者的陈述中有前后矛盾的情况，调查人员应该以逻辑顺序集合所提供的证词，然后再通过事故现场收集到的资料对这些信息进行分析。
在特定的刺激下，人们的反应往往不同。比如，一个距离事发地点很近的目击者所叙述的情况可能与远方的目击者所描述的完全不同。有些目击者在于别人讨论后可能改变之前的证词。改变证词的理由可能是额外的线索。
经历过痛苦之后的目击者可能不能回忆起事故的细节。对于调查结果关乎自身利益的目击者可能提供有偏差的证词。最后，每个目击者的视力、听力、反应时间和整体状态都可能影响他或她的观察力。由于自己的忽视或者没有意识到过程的重要性，目击者可能会漏掉整个事故过程。
5.调查报告
如之前所说，直到报告准备好并得到专家的认可后，事故调查才能算完成。在各种情况下可以使用特殊的报告方式。其他情况可能需要更深入的报告。这类报告通常十分精密，包括封皮，标题页，摘要，内容表格，对可能的原因的评论或叙述性的讨论和总结建议的部分。
事故调查应该是公司安全健康项目的一个必不可少的部分。它应该具有正规的程序。一个成功的事故调查不仅确定发生了什么事故，而且发现事故如何与为什么发生。调查的目的是为了努力避免类似事故或其他更多灾难性的一系列事件的发生，可以使用结论信息与建议防止事故的发生。
保持记录对于识别和减少危害同样很重要。一段时间后对于事故和伤害记录的回顾可以帮助准确找到事故发生的原因。如何一个员工多次被记录受伤，可能表明那位员工体质上不适合这份工作，而不是没有正确培训或需要加强监管。如果有一两个员工在一个工作地点经历了多次事故，他们应当认真分析并采取对策去消除事故原因。如果一个机器或进程涉及到多重事故，那么那个工序需要改变或者采取必要的维护措施。有的记录显示一个很短的时间内发生了许多事故，从此可能反应出环境问题。一旦危害被识别出来，就需要分析信息和资源以确定事故源头和潜在危险，消除或减少它们对工作场所的影响。对危险源的分析会使我们更加认真地对待它们。
公路建设 交通1001 绿学长公路路面结构的地基和分流路就像火车必须在轨道上行驶一样，如果没有桥梁、隧道等特殊结构，那么就需要在原来的土壤或者土堤上修建地基。所以，建造地基也就是道路设施的第一步。 [现场清理] 清理现场前的所有步骤和多数其他施工作业一样。道路开荒在农村地区有时可能只要移除杂草、灌木和其他植物或作物。但是，有时也可能会涉及到大树木、树桩和杂物的处理。我们公认的清理程序还包括处理植物的根茎，因为一旦保留了它们，它们就可能会腐烂并留下空隙，从而导致土质发生沉降。在附近区域进行选择性清除有时也是很必要的。 [开挖] 开挖是一种松动和清除障碍物和标的建设区域岩石与杂物的过程。设备的选取取决于路面材料的质量，并且要考虑到我们的移动作业和设备的处置方法。 开挖的对象通常被描述为'磐石'，'松散岩'或者“普通石块”，其中，“普通石块”意味着没有其他什么特别的分类了。磐石，即坚硬的岩石，几乎总需要钻孔和爆破才能开挖，然后用挖掘机、大卡车或其他大型牵引铲装车辆运输搬运。爆破的碎石块需要用推土机来搬运或转
移一小段距离，实际上这就像是开着一辆巨大的带铲子的拖拉机。“松散岩”，包括风化、腐烂的岩石和夹杂着泥土的较大石块颗粒，我们只需要装载机铲挖而不需要任何之前用的爆破。然而，你可能认为通过进一步松动爆破能够加快工程进度，减少设备损耗并降低成本，但挖掘机铲挖想与爆破施工同时进行却不容易。 近年来，大型松土机被安装在巨大的履带式拖拉机上，被一个或更多的额外的拖拉机推动的方式，已成功地用于破碎松动或断裂岩石。松动的岩石由挖掘机处理，跟“普通”的开挖一样。 “普通开挖”或土方开挖的分级程序受成本影响。如果施工对象被拖运的距离超过200英尺（60米）或下陡坡，应用轨道或轮式推土机运送，这样较为合算。对于较长距离的运送，则使用自动化刮拉胶轮牵引车来运送，并由拖拉机装填以降低成本。有时它更适合用带有电力驱动分离拖片的牵引车来清障。对于限制车长和轴重的地区，应采用后部或底部带铲的装载机和挖掘机，皮带式运输机可能是最划算的道路装载卡车。有时，天气可能会影响到施工进程。例如，胶轮拖拉机车在湿滑的路面施工就比较困难。因此，在下暴雨的时候，用刮拉履带式拖拉机会更便于施工。 运土工业自1925年以来发生了革命性变化，最常用的工具是一个至多1/2码（0.4米），由两到四匹马或骡子拉的牵引刮板。例如，15码（1100米）的装载机需要和125吨的卡车组合使用。32码（2400米）的铲运机破土能力与两个发动机安装在后部刮板用来供应增加牵
毕业设计外文资料翻译 题目POLISHING OF CERAMIC TILES 抛光瓷砖 学院材料科学与工程 专业复合材料与工程 班级复材0802 学生 学号20080103114 指导教师 二〇一二年三月二十八日
MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURING PROCESSES, 17(3), 401–413 (2002) POLISHING OF CERAMIC TILES C. Y. Wang,* X. Wei, and H. Yuan Institute of Manufacturing Technology, Guangdong University ofTechnology, Guangzhou 510090, P.R. China ABSTRACT Grinding and polishing are important steps in the production of decorative vitreous ceramic tiles. Different combinations of finishing wheels and polishing wheels are tested to optimize their selection. The results show that the surface glossiness depends not only on the surface quality before machining, but also on the characteristics of the ceramic tiles as well as the performance of grinding and polishing wheels. The performance of the polishing wheel is the key for a good final surface quality. The surface glossiness after finishing must be above 208 in order to get higher polishing quality because finishing will limit the maximum surface glossiness by polishing. The optimized combination of grinding and polishing wheels for all the steps will achieve shorter machining times and better surface quality. No obvious relationships are found between the hardness of ceramic tiles and surface quality or the wear of grinding wheels; therefore, the hardness of the ceramic tile cannot be used for evaluating its machinability. Key Words: Ceramic tiles; Grinding wheel; Polishing wheel
Unit 1 safety management system Accident causation models 事故致因理论 Safety management 安全管理Physical conditions 物质条件 Machine guarding 机械保护装置 House-keeping 工作场所管理 Top management 高层管理人员 Human errors 人因失误Accident-proneness models 事故倾向模型 Munitions factory 军工厂Causal factors 起因Risking taking 冒险行为Corporate culture 企业文化Loss prevention 损失预防Process industry 制造工业Hazard control 危险控制Intensive study 广泛研究Organizational performance 企业绩效 Mutual trust 相互信任Safety officer 安全官员 Safety committee 安全委员会Shop-floor 生产区Unionized company 集团公司Seniority 资历、工龄Local culture 当地文化 Absenteeism rate 缺勤率Power relations 权力关系Status review 状态审查 Lower-level management 低层管理者 Business performance 组织绩
效 Most senior executive 高级主管 Supervisory level 监督层Safety principle 安全规则Wall-board 公告栏Implement plan 执行计划Hazard identification 危险辨识 Safety performance 安全性能 One comprehensive definition for an organizational culture has been presented by Schein who has said the organizational culture is “a pattern of basic assumptions – invented, discovered, or developed by a given group as it learns to cope with its problems of external adaptation and internal integration –that has worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems” 译文：Schein给出了组织文化的广泛定义，他认为组织文化是由若干基本假设组成的一种模式，这些假设是由某个特定团体在处理外部适应问题与内部整合问题的过程中发明、发现或完善的。由于以这种模式工作的有效性得到了认可，因此将它作为一种正确的方法传授给新成员，让他们以此来认识、思考和解决问题[指适应外部与整合内部的过程中的问题]。 The safety culture of an organization is the product of individual and group values, attitudes, perceptions, competencies, and patterns of behavior that determine the commitment to, and the style and proficiency of , an organization’s health and safety management. 译文：组织的安全文化由以下几项内容组成：个人和群体的价值观、态度、观念、能力和行为方式。这种行为方式决定了个人或团体对组织健康安全管理的责任，以及组织健康安全管理的形式和熟练程度。 Unit 2 System Safety Engineering System safety engineering 系统安全工程By-product 附带产生的结果
The Evolution of Transport 交通运输业的发展 交通运输的发展一直密切联系在一起的人类发展的整个地球的历史。运输的早期功能是为了满足提供食物供给和搬运建筑材料。但是随着部落甚至最后国家的形成，运输的社会和经济功能越来越复杂。起初有需要调动个人，家族，家庭和动物以保护他们的反对，并逃避自然灾害和部族侵略的危险，寻找最好的地方定居。随着种族部落的形成和地理界线的逐步确定，开发新区域、开采新资源、发展社区间的贸易以及捍卫领地，这些都日益需要交通的发展。当第一个国家应运而生,在建立全国的完整性方面,交通运输扮演着重要角色。 基本的社会需求一般都得到照顾后，当地社区可以越来越多地贡献自己的努力，用来加强与其他国家的人民和他们的经济贸易联系，文化和科技发展。而且交通提供了诸如部落间、国际间乃至于洲际间便利的贸易和文化交流。在向有组织的人类社会的演变过程中，这种组织在今天是通过由各国组成的国际化大家庭表现出来的，交通作为人与货物移动的物理过程，电促进了这种发展，不断地经历着技术与组织方面的改变。这些变化是由多种因素和情况引起的。事实上,今天的运输在它的各种形态和组织仍然高度受变化的社会需求和偏好的回应。 显然,首先也是最重要的标准是运输效率。几个世纪以来，特别是在地方经济起飞阶段，社会需要可靠、快速、低成本的运输。为寻找合适的技术相对不受限制。在人类历史上有可靠的时候，快速运输的需求尤其明显，快速的解决办法，为国家自卫所需的时间。在当地和国际冲突的时期内，人类的聪明才智设计出新的传输技术，可往往被证明是为逃生、有时也是为了胜利，的决定性因素。随后完善和发展，这种新技术使我们能够更好地满足日益增加的运输需求，从而改善双方的经济发展和人类福祉。 为更好的战略机动诱导努力提高海上和陆路运输的需要。这导致了更大，更快的船，更可靠，坚固的地面车辆。最后，详细介绍了汽船，铁路，然后是汽车的例证。研究和运输领域的发展终于成为一个具体的目标和组织目标的承诺。随之而来的是专家的集中，越来越复杂的运输技术的进化,如飞机,和最新的火箭推进器。 日益复杂的运输手段逐渐发展成今天的运输系统，其中包括空中、路面和水上运输。特殊行业的需求，引起了发展出相当有限的应用的运输模式，如管道，电缆和传送带。因为当前社会的需求和喜好，以及经济要求的成本效益，现有的各种运输方式一般都能完成特定功能。 尽管运输的潜力以满足社会的流动性需要而水平不断提高，但很明显，这种效果有其代价。大量的交通技术要求和隐含的能耗高的巨大的资金投入生产和经营。因此，一些运输方式对使用者来说是昂贵的。这引起权益问题，因为需要支付运作成本费用是不是所有的人口群体负担，从而限制其流动性和福利。许多国家的政府选择了运输补贴，但很快就意识到，预算往往对其国家的经济造成严重的扭曲。 各种运输方式污染造成的，逐渐成为另一问题，如同世界大多数国家需要应付不断上升的商品流动和人的旅行量严重的问题。在一些地区具有高浓度的人口和产业，这种对环境的不利影响已达到很高的水平。这种损害是这些影响尚未得到充分开发。 最后，这些问题引起世界能源资源的日益减少，特别是石油，已越来越多地阻碍交通服务和操作。大多数现有的运输方式都是以依赖石油衍生品才能正常运转。随着需求量的增长与不衰减得运输和能源供应的有限，逐步提供运输的成本已经稳步增加。特别是，石油需求和石油供应不均衡造成了严重的通货膨胀问题出现在许多国家。尤其沉重的打击与对外部石油供应，其中也经历了他们的经常帐赤字增长部分或完全依赖国家。 运输部门的增加无法满足有效且公平需求的问题，这是一个所有国家必须应对努力促进经济和社会进步。能源供应的限制，高额的资本和运营成本，往往与外汇组件以及与运输有关的环境污染的很大一部分用于这个严重性的问题。但运输是并将继续是世界发展和人类福利的基本要求。没有任何其他选择，只能寻求替代或修改目前的运输系统，使能源消耗和成本永存相关的技术和业务模式的特点是减少对环境的影响，可以保持在最低水平。显然，交通需求的发展将被控制。翻译：设计目标, 公交优先已被看到在整体城市交通的战略目标,不仅包括改善公共汽车(或电车)操作和 克制,car-borne通勤更是一种增强环境,为居民、工人和游客。方法必须为所有这些也有明显的目标而成本和执行。 典型的设计目标为公交优先的措施包括:
本科毕业设计（外文翻译） 题目居住区交往空间规划与设计 院（系部）xxx学院 专业名称xx 年级班级xx 学生姓名xx 指导教师xx xx 年xx 月x 日 Planning and Design of Association Space of residential District
Xia dong liang 【Abstract】:The association space refers to the indoor and outdoor space for communication between residents.The article presents an overall discussion of the necessity，hierarchy and functionality of association space,with a wish to create positive and healthy association atmosphere and stimulate good communication among residents so that the residential area can become a homeland full of love and harmony． 【Keyword】:residential area；association space；necessity；hierarchy；Functionality 【Foreword】：As the housing system reform and the rapid development of real estate, urban residential areas large urban settlements have emerged on the layout of residential buildings, public buildings, public green space, life and living facilities such as roads, to provide urban residents live in the community and The establishment, is an integral part of the city. Exchanges between the living room area residents is to communicate and exchange of indoor and outdoor space. At this stage, people's living standards greatly improved the living environment of continuous improvement district. Developers should not only focus on residential construction and the reasonable comfort, paying greater attention to the construction of residential environment. However, the current environment in the construction of residential areas, they are often the natural ecology of greening the environment is much more to consider, and the promotion of exchanges between the residents of the space environment to consider less, environmental construction can not meet the occupants of the psychological characteristics and needs. From the basic physiological needs gradually to meet the psychological and cultural fields of promoting a higher level, the residential area is not only the function of living, but also people's thinking and feelings of the local exchange. Therefore, the strengthening of exchanges between the residential areas of space construction, increase residential neighbourhood affinity, should be developed in the planning and construction of residential areas should also consider the issue. How to conduct exchanges between the residential areas of space planning and design, improve people's quality of life, the author of his own real estate development
Unit1 Safety Management Systems 1. Accident Causation Models The most important aim of safety management is to maintain and promote workers' health and safety at work. Understanding why and how accidents and other unwanted events develop is important when preventive activities are planned. Accident theories aim to clarify the accident phenomena，and to explain the mechanisms that lead to accidents. All modem theories are based on accident causation models which try to explain the sequence of events that finally produce the loss. In ancient times, accidents were seen as an act of God and very little could be done to prevent them. In the beginning of the 20th century，it was believed that the poor physical conditions are the root causes of accidents. Safety practitioners concentrated on improving machine guarding, housekeeping and inspections. In most cases an accident is the result of two things ：The human act, and the condition of the physical or social environment Petersen extended the causation theory from the individual acts and local conditions to the management system. He concluded that unsafe acts, unsafe conditions，and accidents are all symptoms of something wrong in the organizational management system. Furthermore, he stated that it is the top management who is responsible for building up such a system that can effectively control the hazards associated to the organization’s
交通工程专业英语翻译The_Evolution_of_Transport The Evolution of Transport 交通运输业的发展 The evolution of transport has been closely linked to the development of humankind throughout the earth’s history(交通运输的发展一直与的人类发展的整 个地球的历史密切联系在一起。 Transport’s early function was to meet the basic need of hauling food supplies and building materials(运输的早期功能是为了满足食物供给和搬运建筑材料的 基本 需求。 But with the formation of tribes，then peoples，and finally nations，the societal and economic functions of transport became more and more complex. 但是随着部落的 产生甚至最后国家的形成，运输在社会和经济起到的功能越来越复杂。 At first there was mobility required for individuals，clans，households，and animals to protect them against，and to escape from，the dangers of natural disasters and tribal aggressions，and in the search for the best places to settle(起初有 需要调动个人， 家族，家庭和动物以保护他们来反抗并逃避自然灾害和部族侵略的危险，从而寻
X X 毕业设计（论文） 外文文献翻译 题目 效应 学院： 专业名称：应用物理 学号： 学生姓名：X X X 指导教师：X X X 2013年3月20日
自旋玻璃态La 0.67Ca 0.33Mn 0.9Fe 0.1O 3的庞磁电阻效应 Jian-Wang Cai State Key Laboratory of Magnetism,Institute of Physics and Center for Condensed Matter Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences,P.O.Box 603,Beijing 100080,People’s Republic of China Cong Wang Department of Physical Chemistry,University of Science and Technology Beijing,Beijing 100083, People’s Republic of China Bao-Gen Shen,Jian-Gao Zhao,and Wen-Shan Zhan State Key Laboratory of Magnetism,Institute of Physics and Center for Condensed Matter Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences,P.O.Box 603,Beijing 100080,People’s Republic of China (Received 19February 1997;accepted for publication 21July 1997) The magnetic and magnetotransport properties of the perovskite La 0.67Ca 0.33Mn 0.9Fe 0.1O 3have been investigated,and the spin-glass behavior with a spin freezing temperature of 42K has been well confirmed for this compound.A metal-to-insulator transition and colossal magnetoresistance have been observed near its spin freezing temperature;besides,the insulator behavior has been found to reappear at lower temperature.The formation of ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic clusters and the competition between them with the introduction of Fe 31ions,which do not participate in the double-exchange process,have been suggested to explain the experimental results.?1997American Institute of Physics. [S0003-6951(97)04938-3] 在近几十年的研究中发现空穴掺杂的钙钛矿锰氧化物δ+3-1MnO A La x x （A=Ca,Sr,Ba,Pb ）表现出有趣的磁性性能和运输性能。众所周知，3LaMnO 的主要特性是在过渡金属位点上具有自旋的反铁磁性排列和绝缘特性。通过改变的氧的化学计量或通过利用某些二价阳离子（+2A ），比如+2a C 、+2Sr 、+2a B 、+2Pb 来取代+3a L ，可以使3LaMnO 具有金属态，同时，由于由Zener 于1951年发现的所谓++??43Mn O Mn 的“双交换”效应，它表现出具有强磁性的基态。根据最近对钙钛矿磁性锰氧化物δ+3-1MnO A R x x (R=La,Nd,Pr,Sm,Y 等)的庞磁电阻（CMR ）和其他复杂的物理性能的观测结果，已引起人们重新重视这一类的材料。在多数情况下，钙钛矿有一个共同的特点，即在铁磁有序温度c T 附近会出现由金属态到绝缘态（MI ）转变和CMR 效应。 作为与3LaMnO 结构性质最为相近的钙钛矿型磁性氧化合物，3LaFeO 也有于之类似的磁性和输运特性，表现在绝缘性和反铁磁特性。但是空穴掺杂的δ+3-1FeO A La x x 即使在最大可能的程度空穴掺杂时依然具有反铁磁性的基态并保
Unit 1 Safety Management Systems 安全管理体系 1.Accident Causation Models 1.事故致因理论 The most important aim of safety management is to maintain and promote workers' health and safety at work. Understanding why and how accidents and other unwanted events develop is important when preventive activities are planned. Accident theories aim to clarify the accident phenomena，and to explain the mechanisms that lead to accidents. All modem theories are based on accident causation models which try to explain the sequence of events that finally produce the loss. In ancient times, accidents were seen as an act of God and very little could be done to prevent them. In the beginning of the 20th century，it was believed that the poor physical conditions are the root causes of accidents. Safety practitioners concentrated on improving machine guarding, housekeeping and inspections. In most cases an accident is the result of two things ：The human act, and the condition of the physical or social environment. 安全管理系统最重要的目的是维护和促进工人们在工作时的健康和安全。在制定预防性计划时，了解为什么、怎样做和其他意外事故的发展是十分重要的。事故致因理论旨在阐明事故现象，和解释事故的机理。所有现代理论都是基于试图解释事件发生、发展过程和最终引起损失的事故致因理论。在古老的时期，事故被看做是上帝的行为并且几乎没有预防的方法去阻止他们。在20世纪开始的时候，人们开始相信差的物理条件是事故发生的根源。安全从业人员集中注意力在提高机器监护、维护和清理上。在大多数情况下，一件事故的发生主要有两个原因：人类的行为和物理或者社会环境。 Petersen extended the causation theory from the individual acts and local conditions to the management system. He concluded that unsafe acts, unsafe conditions，and accidents are all symptoms of something wrong in the organizational management system. Furthermore, he stated that it is the top management who is responsible for building up such a system that can effectively control the hazards associated to the organization’s operation. The errors done by a single person can be intentional or unintentional. Rasmussen and Jensen have presented a three-level skill-rule-knowledge model for describing the origins of the different types of human errors. Nowadays，this model is one of the standard methods in the examination of human errors at work. 彼得森根据管理体系中个人的行为结合当地的环境扩充了事故致因理论。他的结论是像不安全行为、不安全情况是一些错误的组织管理系统导致事故的征兆。另外，他指出，高层管理人员负责建立一个能够有效控制危险源有关组织。一个人出现的错误可能是有意的或者是无意的。拉斯姆森和杰森已经提出了三个层次的技能规则知识模型来描述不同种类的人错误的起源。如今，这种模式已经成为在工作中检验人的错误的标准之一。 Accident-proneness models suggest that some people are more likely to suffer anaccident than others. The first model was created in 1919，based on statistical examinations in a mumilions factory. This model dominated the safety thinking and research for almost 50 years, and it is still used in some organizations. As a result of this thinking, accident was blamed solely
Ｕnｉt 1safeｔy manaｇement ｓyｓtem Ａcciｄent ｃａｕｓatｉon ｍoｄels ?事故致因理论 Ｓafety managemeｎt 安全管理 Phｙsｉｃａｌｃonditions ?物质条件 Mａcｈinｅguａrdinｇ?机械保护装置 Ｈouse—keepiｎｇ工作场所管理 Ｔｏｐmanagement 高层管理人员Ｈuman ｅｒrorｓ人因失误 Aｃcidenｔ-pｒonenｅss ｍｏdels 事故倾向模型 Muniｔｉoｎs faｃtｏrｙ?军工厂Causal fａctors?起因 Rｉskinｇtakiｎg?冒险行为 Coｒpｏraｔｅｃｕlture 企业文化 Ｌosｓprevention 损失预防 Prｏcess indusｔry?制造工业 Haｚard coｎtrol 危险控制 Intensｉve ｓtudｙ广泛研究 Orgａniｚationaｌperｆｏrmａnce 企业绩效 Mｕtual trust 相互信任Sａfｅｔｙoffiｃer?安全官员 Ｓafeｔy commｉttee 安全委员会 Ｓhop-fｌｏｏr?生产区Unioniｚed company 集团公司 Seｎioｒitｙ?资历、工龄Local ｃuｌturｅ当地文化Absenｔeｅiｓm rａｔｅ?缺勤率Power reｌａtioｎｓ?权力关系 Stａtus review 状态审查Lower—ｌevel managemenｔ低层管理者 Business pｅrformance?组织绩效 Ｍｏst seniｏｒexｅcｕtiｖe 高级主管Superｖisory levｅl监督层 Ｓａfety pｒincipｌe?安全规则 Waｌl—boarｄ?公告栏 Imｐlement plan?执行计划 Ｈazarｄidenｔificａtion 危险辨识 Ｓａfeｔy pｅrfｏｒmance 安全性能 One comｐrｅｈensｉve definition fｏr an orgaｎｉzatｉonａl cｕｌture ｈas been presentｅdｂｙＳｃhein wｈo has said thｅorganｉｚatiｏnal culturｅiｓ“a patteｒn ｏf baｓic asｓumptionｓ–inveｎｔed, dｉｓcovere ｄ，or deveｌoｐｅｄby ａgiven gｒｏup as iｔlearns to cope with iｔs pｒｏbｌｅms of exｔｅrnal adaｐｔａｔiｏn and inｔernal integratioｎ– that h ａs ｗorked weｌl enouｇｈto be consiｄereｄｖａliｄand,tｈｅrｅｆore, to beｔａught to new memｂeｒｓas the corrｅｃt way to peｒcｅive, thin ｋ,and feel in rｅlatiｏn to ｔhosｅｐrobｌemｓ” 译文:Scheｉｎ给出了组织文化的广泛定义，他认为组织文化是由若干基本假设组成的一种模式,这些假设是由某个特定团体在处理外部适应问题与内部整合问题的过程中发明、发现或完善的.由于以这种模式工作的有效性得到了认可,因此将它作为一种正确的方法传授给新成员,让他们以此来认识、思考和解决问题[指适应外部与整合内部的过程中的问题]。 The ｓafety cｕltｕｒe oｆan organization isｔhe proｄuct ｏf inｄividuａl aｎd ｇroｕp valueｓ,attitudes, ｐerceｐｔioｎs, ｃompｅtencｉｅs, aｎd pa ｔternsｏfｂｅhａviｏr that determine tｈe commitmｅｎt to, aｎd tｈe style and proficieｎcy oｆ,an organｉｚatioｎ’ｓｈｅａlｔｈanｄｓafeｔy manａgement.
第一课土木工程学 土木工程学作为最老的工程技术学科，是指规划，设计，施工及对建筑环境的管理。此处的环境包括建筑符合科学规范的所有结构，从灌溉和排水系统到火箭发射设施。 土木工程师建造道路，桥梁，管道，大坝，海港，发电厂，给排水系统，医院，学校，公共交通和其他现代社会和大量人口集中地区的基础公共设施。他们也建造私有设施，比如飞机场，铁路，管线，摩天大楼，以及其他设计用作工业，商业和住宅途径的大型结构。此外，土木工程师还规划设计及建造完整的城市和乡镇，并且最近一直在规划设计容纳设施齐全的社区的空间平台。 土木一词来源于拉丁文词“公民”。在1782年，英国人John Smeaton为了把他的非军事工程工作区别于当时占优势地位的军事工程师的工作而采用的名词。自从那时起，土木工程学被用于提及从事公共设施建设的工程师，尽管其包含的领域更为广阔。 领域。因为包含范围太广，土木工程学又被细分为大量的技术专业。不同类型的工程需要多种不同土木工程专业技术。一个项目开始的时候，土木工程师要对场地进行测绘，定位有用的布置，如地下水水位，下水道，和电力线。岩土工程专家则进行土力学试验以确定土壤能否承受工程荷载。环境工程专家研究工程对当地的影响，包括对空气和地下水的可能污染，对当地动植物生活的影响，以及如何让工程设计满足政府针对环境保护的需要。交通工程专家确定必需的不同种类设施以减轻由整个工程造成的对当地公路和其他交通网络的负担。同时，结构工程专家利用初步数据对工程作详细规划，设计和说明。从项目开始到结束，对这些土木工程专家的工作进行监督和调配的则是施工管理专家。根据其他专家所提供的信息，施工管理专家计算材料和人工的数量和花费，所有工作的进度表，订购工作所需要的材料和设备，雇佣承包商和分包商，还要做些额外的监督工作以确保工程能按时按质完成。 贯穿任何给定项目，土木工程师都需要大量使用计算机。计算机用于设计工程中使用的多数元件（即计算机辅助设计，或者CAD）并对其进行管理。计算机成为了现代土木工程师的必备品，因为它使得工程师能有效地掌控所需的大量数据从而确定建造一项工程的最佳方法。 结构工程学。在这一专业领域，土木工程师规划设计各种类型的结构，包括桥梁，大坝，发电厂，设备支撑，海面上的特殊结构，美国太空计划，发射塔，庞大的天文和无线电望远镜，以及许多其他种类的项目。结构工程师应用计算机确定一个结构必须承受的力：自重，风荷载和飓风荷载，建筑材料温度变化引起的胀缩，以及地震荷载。他们也需确定不同种材料如钢筋，混凝土，塑料，石头，沥青，砖，铝或其他建筑材料等的复合作用。 水利工程学。土木工程师在这一领域主要处理水的物理控制方面的种种问题。他们的项目用于帮助预防洪水灾害，提供城市用水和灌溉用水，管理控制河流和水流物，维护河滩及其他滨水设施。此外，他们设计和维护海港，运河与水闸，建造大型水利大坝与小型坝，以及各种类型的围堰，帮助设计海上结构并且确定结构的位置对航行影响。 岩土工程学。专业于这个领域的土木工程师对支撑结构并影响结构行为的土壤和岩石的特性进行分析。他们计算建筑和其他结构由于自重压力可能引起的沉降，并采取措施使之减少到最小。他们也需计算并确定如何加强斜坡和填充物的稳定性以及如何保护结构免受地震和地下水的影响。 环境工程学。在这一工程学分支中，土木工程师设计，建造并监视系统以提供安全的饮用水，同时预防和控制地表和地下水资源供给的污染。他们也设计，建造并监视工程以控制甚至消除对土地和空气的污染。