《简明英语语言学教程》
Chapter 1 What is language?
The origins of language
①The divine source
The basic hypothesis: if infants were allowed to grow up without hearing any language, then they would spontaneously begin using the original God-given language.
Actually, children living without access to human speech in their early years grow up with no language at all
②The natural-sound source
The bow-wow theory: the suggestion is that primitive words could have been imitations of the natural sounds which early men and women heard around them.
The ―Yo-heave-ho‖ theory: the sounds produced by humans when exerting physical effort, especially when co-operating with other humans, may be the origins of speech sounds. Onomatopoeic sounds
③The oral-gesture source
It is claimed that originally a set of physical gestures was developed as a means of communication. The patterns of movement in articulation would be the same as gestural movement; hence waving tongue would develop from waving hand.
④Gloss genetics（言语遗传学）
This focuses mainly on the biological basis of the formation and development of human language. Physical adaptation:
Human teeth are upright and roughly even in height. Human lips have intricate muscle interlacing, thus making them very flexible.
The human mouth is small and contains a very flexible tongue.
The human larynx is lowered, creating a longer cavity called the pharynx, and making it easier for the human to choke on the pieces of food, but making the sound speech possible.
The human brain is lateralized. Those analytic functions (tool-using and language) are largely confined to the left hemisphere of the brain for most humans.
Major functions of language:
Descriptive function: the primary function, it is assumed to convey factual information. Expressive function: also called emotive or attitudinal function, supplies information about the user’s feelings, preference, prejudice and values.
Social function: interpersonal function, to establish and maintain social relations between people. Elements of speech event:
Addresser---emotive –express attitude towards the topic
Addressee---conative—the addresser aims to influence the addressee’s course of action or ways of thinking
Context---referential---the addresser conveys a message or information
Message---poetic---the addresser aims to display the beauty of language
Contact---phatic communion---they aim to establish or maintain good relationships
Code---metalinguistic---the addresser uses language to make clear of the meaning of language itself.
The properties of language
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
a) System: combined together according to rules
b) Arbitrary: no intrinsic connection between the word
―pen‖ and the thing in the world which it refers to
c) V ocal: the primary medium is sound for all languages
d) Human: language is human-specific
Arbitrariness
Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings.
a) echo of the sounds of objects or activities: onomatopoeic words
b) Some compound words
Duality
Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.
Creativity
Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences.
Displacement
Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation.
Productivity
Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. (Creativity or open-endedness)
Cultural transition
While human capacity for language has a genetic basis , the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learnt.
Discreteness
Each sound in the language is treated as discrete.
Communicative vs. Informative:
Communicative: intentionally using language to communicate something
Informative: through/via a number of signals that are not intentionally sent
Descriptive vs. Prescriptive
Descriptive: to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.
Prescriptive: to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all.
In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.
Synchronic vs. Diachronic
Synchronic: study takes a fixed instant as its point of observation. Saussure’s diachronic
description is the study of a language through the course of its history.
Diachronic: the description of a language as it changes through time
Langue & Parole
Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole.
Langue: is relative stable and systematic, langue is not spoken by an individual
Parole: is subject to personal and situational constraints; parole is always a naturally occurring event.
What a linguist should do is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts.
Competence and Performance
Competence: underlying knowledge about the system of rules; enables a speaker to produce and understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities; stable
Performance: the actual use of language in concrete situations; influenced by psychological and social factors;
Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is deemed as a property of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically Traditional grammar vs modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics
Linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive
Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not written
The former differs from the latter in that it does not force language into a Latin-based framework. The development of written language
①pictograms & ideograms（象形文字和表意文字）
Pictogram: when some of the pictures came to represent particular images in a consistent way, we can begin to describe the produce as a form of picture-writing, or pictograms.
Ideogram: the picture developed as more abstract and used other than its entity is considered to be part of a system of idea-writing, or ideogram
②Logograms（语标书写法）
When symbols come to be used to represent words in a language, they are described as examples of word-writing, or logograms. ―Arbitrariness‖—a writing system which was word-based had come into existence.
Cuneiform--楔形文字—the Sumerians (5000 and 6000 years ago)
Chinese is one example of its modern writing system.
Advantages: two different dialects can be based on the same writing system.
Disadvantages: vast number of different written forms.
③Syllabic writing（音节书写法）
When a writing system employs a set of symbols which represent the pronunciations of syllables, it is described as syllabic writing.
The Phoenicians: the first human beings that applied the full use of a syllabic writing system (ca 1000 BC)
④Alphabetic writing（字母书写法）
Semitic languages (Arabic and Hebrew): first applied this rule
The Greeks: taking the inherently syllabic system from the Phoenicians via the Romans
Latin alphabet and Cyrillic alphabet (Slavic languages)
The definition of linguistics
Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.
Process of linguistic study:
②Certain linguistic facts are observed, generalization are formed;
③Hypotheses are formulated;
④Hypotheses are tested by further observations;
⑤ A linguistic theory is constructed.
The scope of linguistics
General linguistics: the study of language as a whole
Phonetics: the general study of the characteristics of speech sounds (or the study of the phonic medium of language) (How speech sounds are produced and classified)
Phonology: is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language. (How sounds form systems and function to convey meaning)
Morphology: the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words (how morphemes are combined to form words)
Syntax: the study of those rules that govern the combination of words to form permissible sentences (how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences) Semantics: the study of meaning in abstraction
Pragmatics: the study of meaning in context of use
Sociolinguistics: the study of language with reference to society
Psycholinguistics: the study of language with reference to the workings of the mind
Applied linguistics: the application of linguistics principles and theories to language teaching and learning
Chapter 2 Phonetics and phonology
The definition of phonetics
Phonetics: the study of the phonic medium of language: it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.
Articulatory phonetics: the study of how speech sounds are made, or articulated.
Acoustic phonetics: deals with the physical properties of speech as sound waves in the air. Auditory phonetics: deals with the perception, via the ear, of speech sounds.
Forensic phonetics: has an application in legal cases involving speaker identification and the analysis of recorded utterances.
Minimal pairs
Minimal pairs are two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound and which also differ in meaning. E.g. the English words tie and die are minimal pairs as they differ in meaning and in their initial phonemes /t/ and /d/.
Organs of speech
The important cavities:
The pharyngeal cavity- the throat
The oral cavity—the mouth
The nasal cavity---the nose
Orthographic representation of speech sounds
Broad and narrow transcriptions
IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet/Association)
Broad transcription: the transcription with letter-symbols only; used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes
Narrow transcription: the transcription with diacritics; used by the phonetician in the study of sounds
In terms of manner of articulation (the manner in which obstruction is created)
①Stops: The obstruction is total or complete, and then going abruptly
[p]/ [b], [t]/[d], [k]/[g]
②Fricatives: The obstruction is partial, and the air is forced through a narrow passage in the month
[f]/[v], [s]/[z], [W]/[T], [F]/[V], [h] (approximant)
③Affricates: The obstruction, complete at first, is released slowly as in fricatives
[tF]/[dV]
④Liquids: The airflow is obstructed but is allowed to escape through the passage between part or parts of the tongue and the roof of the mouth
[l] a lateral sound; [r] retroflex
⑤Glides: [w], [j] (semi-vowels) Liquid + glides + [h] approximants
⑥Nasals: the nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft palate to let air pass through it [m], [n], []
By place of articulation (the place where obstruction is created)
①bilabials: Upper and lower lips are brought together to create obstructions [p]/[b], [w] (velar)
②labiodentals: The lower lip and the upper teeth [f]/[v]
③dentals: The tip of the tongue and the upper front teeth
[W]/[T]
④alveolar: The front part of the tongue on the alveolar ridge
[t]/[d], [s]/[z], [n], [l], [r]
⑤alveolar-palatals (palatal-alveolar): Tongue and the very front of the palate, near the alveolar ridge [F]/[V], [t]/[d]
⑥palatal: Tongue in the middle of the palate
[j]
⑦velars: the back of the tongue against the velum [k], [g], [N] … [w]
⑧glottal: the glottal is the space between the vocal cords in the larynx [h]
Syllables
Suprasegmental features: Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are syllables, stress, tone, and intonation.
Syllable: A unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.
Open syllable: A syllable which ends in a vowel.
Closed syllable: A syllable which ends in a consonant.
Maximal onset principle: The principle which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda.
The definition of phonology and phonetics
Phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be
classified, etc.
Phonology is interested in the system of sounds of a particular languages; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.
Phone, phoneme, and allophone
Phone: a phonetic unit or segment; the sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.-
Phoneme: a phonological unit; it is a represented by a certain phonetic context
Allophone: a set of phones, all of which are versions of one phoneme
Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair
Phonemic contrast: when two phonemes can occur in the same environments in two words and they distinguish meaning, they’re in phonemic contrast.
E.g. pin & bin /p/ vs. /b/ rope & robe /p/ vs. /b/
Complementary distribution: not appear at the same time, or occur in different environment, besides they do not distinguish meaning.
Minimal pair: when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sounds are said to form a minimal pair. When a group of words can be differentiated, each one from the others, by changing one phoneme (always in the same position), then all of these words constitute a minimal sets.
Some rules in phonology
①sequential rules
②assimilation rules
③deletion rule-Elision
Suprasegmental features
①Stress
Word stress & sentence stress
The noun has the stress on the 1st syllable and the corresponding verb has the stress on the 2nd syllable.
The stress of the English compounds always on the first element
②Tone
Definition: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.
Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like morphemes.
Tone language, like Chinese, has four tones. Level, rise, fall-rise, fall
②Intonation
English: the four basic types of intonation, or the four tones:
The falling tone (a straight-forward, a matter of fact statement), the rising tone (make a question), the fall-rising tone (implied message), and the rise-fall tone
Chapter 3 Morphology
The definition of morphology
Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.
Classification of words
1. Variable and invariable words
Variable words, one can find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word form; on the other hand, part ofthe word remains relatively constant. E.g. follow – follows – following – followed.
Invariable words refer to those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello, etc. They have no inflective endings.
2. Grammatical words and lexical words
Grammatical words, a.k.a. function words, express grammatical meanings, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, are grammatical words.
Lexical words, a.k.a. content words, have lexical meanings, those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, are lexical words.
3. Closed-class words and open-class words
Closed-class word: the ―grammatical‖ and ―functional‖ words; pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are all closed items.
Open-class word: the content words of a language; nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs.
Morpheme: the smallest meaningful components of words (A minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function); a meaning and a stretch of sound joined together
Free morphemes & bound morphemes
Free morphemes: can stand by themselves as single words
Lexical morphemes [n.a.v] & functional morphemes [conj.prep.art.pron.]
Bound morphemes: cannot normally stand alone, but which are typically attached to another form Derivational morphemes---- affix (suffix, infix,prefix) + root
Inflectional morphemes
Types of inflectional morphemes in English Noun+ -’s, -s [possessive; plural]
Verb + -s, -ing, -ed, -en [3rd person present singular;
present participle; past tense, past participle] Adj+ -er, -est [comparative; superlative] Derivational vs. inflectional
Inflectional morphemes never change the grammatical category of a word
Inflectional morphemes influence the whole category; Derivational morphemes are opposite Order: root (stem) + derivational + inflectional
Morphological Rules
N. +ly a.; A. +ly adv.; guard overgeneralization
Productive morphological rules: eg. un+ accept+ able
Morphs and allomorphs
Morphs: the actual forms used to realize morphemes
Allomorphs: a set of morphs, all of which are versions ofone morpheme, we refer to them as allomorphs of thatmorpheme.
Word-formation process
①Coinage:the invention of totally new terms
②Borrowing:the taking over of words form other languages
③Compounding: a joining of two separate words to produce a single form
Features of compounds
a) Orthographically, a compound can be written as one word, with or without a hyphen in between, or as two separate words.
b) Syntactically, the part of speech of the compound is generally determined by the part of speech of the second element.
c) Semantically, the meaning of a compound is often idiomatic, not always being the sum total of the meanings of its components.
d) Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element,while the second element receives secondary stress.
④Blending:Taking over the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of other word
⑥Clipping: a word of more than one syllable reduced to a shorter form
⑦Back formation: a process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an
existing word
⑧Conversion: category change, functional shift
⑨Acronyms: new words a re formed from the initial letters of a set of other words
⑩Derivation:the new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots, stems, or words
?Abbreviation: a shortened form of a word or phrase which represents the complete form
Chapter 4 Syntax
The definition of syntax
A subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language
The basic components of a sentence
Subject Predicate: Referring expressioncomprises finite verb ora verb phrase and says something about the subject
Types of sentences
Simple sentence: consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as itsown sentence.
Coordinate (Compound) sentence: contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunctions.
Complex sentence: contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other Lexical categories
Major lexical categories: noun, verb, adjective, preposition
Minor lexical categories: determiner (the, a, this, those), degree word (quite, very, more, so), qualifier (often, always, seldom, almost), auxiliary (must, should, can, might), conjunction (and but, or)
Phrases are formed of head (the word around which a phrase is formed), specified(on the left side of the head), component(on the right side of the head)
Chapter 7 Semantics
The definition of semantics
Definition: the study of meaning from the linguistic point of view
Some views concerning the study of meaning
①the naming theory: The linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken tobe labels of the objects they stand for; words are just names or labels for things.
②the conceptualist view: There’s no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i.e. between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning, they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.
Proposed by Ogden & Richards
③contextualism: John Firth(meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context closely
linked with language behavior )
The situational context: in a particular spatiotemporal situation
Linguistic context (co-text): the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation with another word
④Behaviorism:Bloomfield
Based on contextualist view
Behaviorists define meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer
S: stimulus r: response
Jill Jack
S---------r………s---------R
(the small letters r, s sp eech)(the capitalized letter R, S practical events)
Sense and reference
Sense: is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form, abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect meaning dictionary compliers are interested in.
Reference: means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience
Major sense relations
①synonymy: T he sameness or close similarity of meaning
a. dialectal synonyms——synonyms used in different regional dialects
b. stylistic synonyms——synonyms differing in style
c. synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning
d. collocational synonyms
e. semantically different synonyms
②polysemy——one word that has more than onerelated meaning
③homonymy
Homophones: when two words are identical in sound
Homographs: when two words are identical in spelling
Complete homonyms: when two words are identical both in spelling and in sound
⑤hyponymy—— inclusiveness
The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate
The word which is more specific in meaning is called hyponym.
Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms
⑥Antonymy——oppositeness
Gradable antonyms: there are intermediate forms between the two members of a pair Complementary antonyms: the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of other Relational opposites: pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between items
⑦metonymy
Meaning based on a close connection in everyday experience,of which can be based on a container-contents relation, awhole-partrelation, or a representative-symbol relationship
⑦collocation
Organize the knowledge of words in terms of frequently occurring together
⑧prototypes
The concept of a prototype helps explain the meaning of certain words, not in terms of component features, but in terms of resemblance to the clearest exemplar.
Sense relations between sentences
①X is synonymous with Y
③X is inconsistent with Y
④X entails Y (Y is an entailment of X)
⑤X presupposes Y (Y is a prerequisite of X)
⑥X is a contradiction
⑦X is semantically anomalous
Componential analysis---a way to analyze lexical meaning
Semantic features: the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, or semantic features
Distinctive features: Show how those words are related in meaning
Predication analysis----a way to analyze sentence meaning proposed by British linguist
G.Leech
①the meaning of a sentence is not the sum total (of the meanings of all its components)
②Grammatical meaning and semantic meaning
Chapter 8 Pragmatics
The definition of pragmatics
Definition: the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. What essentially distinguish semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.If it is not, it is semantics.If it is, it is pragmatics.
The study of pragmatics
The Anglo-American tradition: specific language phenomena
The European continental tradition: specific unit of analysis; take pragmatics as a general cognitive, social, and cultural perspective at the use of language
Context
It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. Sentence meaning v. utterance meaning
The dog is barking.
If we take it as a grammatical unit and consider it as a self-contained unit in isolation, then we treat it as a sentence.
If we take it as something a speaker utters in a certain situation with a certain purpose, then we are treating it as an utterance.
Meaning of a sentence is abstract, and de-contextualized. Meaning of an utterance is concrete, and contextualized. Utteranceis based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.
Speech Act Theory（言语行为理论）Proposed by British philosopher John Austin in the late 1950s
Direct speech act
Indirect speech act
Constatives: statements that either state or describe, and thus verifiable
Performatives: sentences that don’t state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable (perform certain acts)
Gave the distinction between constatives and performatives and gave rise to a new model:
[A speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking]
①locutionary act: （言内行为）the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses
It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.
②illocutionary act:（言外行为）the act of expressing the speaker’s intention
It is the act preformed in saying something.
③perlocutionary act:（言后行为）the act performed by or resulting from saying something
It is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.
Linguists are more concerned about or interested in illocutionary act.
The classification of illocutionary act made by American philosopher-linguist John Searle
Five general categories:
①representatives: （阐述类）stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true
②directives:（指令类）trying to get the hearer to do something
③commissives: （承诺类）committing the speaker himself to some future course of action
④expressives（表达类）expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state
⑤declaratives:（宣告类）bringing about immediate changes by saying something
All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose or the same illocutionary point, but they differ in their strength or force.
Principles of conversation (Co-operativeprinciples)会话原则或合作原则
Proposed by Paul Grice, a logician and philosopher
(1) The maxim of quantity:
a. Make your contribution as informative as required.
b. Don’t make your contribution more informative than is required.
(2) The maxim of quality: Try to make your contribution one that is true.
a. Don’t say what you believe to be false.
b. Don’t say thatforwhich you lack adequate evidence.
(3) The maxim of relation: Say things that are relevant.
(4) The maxim of manner: Be perspicuous.
a. Avoid obscurity of expression.
b. Avoid ambiguity.
c. Be brief.
d. Be orderly.
Significance: it explains how it is possible for the speaker to convey more than is literary said. Deixis, reference, anaphora, presupposition
①Deixis: There are some words in the language that cannot be interpreted at all unless the physical context, esp. the physical context of the speaker is known.
Person deixis
Place deixis
Time deixis
②Reference: an act by which a speaker or writer uses language to enable a listener or reader to identify something
Inference: any additional information used by the listener to connect what is said to what must be
meant.
③Anaphora: the second and any subsequent referring expression is an example of anaphora, and the first mention is called the antecedent.
Anaphora: subsequent reference to an already introduced entity
④Presupposition: What a speaker assumes is true or is known by the speaker can be described as a presupposition
Constancy under negation: the presupposition remains true when a sentence is negated.
[G] Background knowledge
Characteristics of implicature
1. Calculability
2. Cancellability / defeasibility
3. Non-detachability
4. Non-conventionality
Chapter 9 Language Change
The purpose and significance of historical linguistics
Historical linguistics is the subfield of linguistics that studies language change. Diachronic linguistics
①the identification ofthe changes enables us to reconstruct the linguistic history of that
language, hypothesizes its earlier forms
②also it enables us to determine how non-linguistic factors, such as social, cultural and psychological factors, interact over time to trigger linguistic change
The nature of language change
Language change is universal, continuous and, to a considerable degree, regular and systematic; a gradual and constant process, often indiscernible to speakers ofthe same generation. Language change is extensive, all aspects of grammar-phonology, morphology, syntax, lexicon, and semantics. Major periods in the history of English
Old English: (449-1100)
Middle English: (1100-1500)
Modern English: (1500-now)
Phonological changes
a) V owel sound change ca. 1400-1600, known as the Great V owel Shift
b) sound loss (apocope) 词尾脱落
c) sound addition (epenthesis) 插音
d) sound movement (metathesis) 换位
Morphological change
a) Affix loss: loss of gender and case markingsdrop of causative verb formation rule
b) Affix addition: -able, -ment (from French), -ize
Syntactic change
a) Rule loss:
(1) adj, agree with the head noun in case, number and gender; (2) double-negation rule
b) Rule addition:
(1)Particle movement rule; (2) distinction between auxiliary verbs and main verbs
c) Rule change:
(1) Negation way; (2) sentence structure: SVO, VSO, SOV, OSV
The loss of case contrasts in English was compensated for with the adoption of the consistent SVO order.
Lexical change
a) lexical loss: no longer in use
b) lexical addition: borrowing and word-formation (refer to syntax)
c) Semantic change: (1) semantic broadening; (2) semantic narrowing; (3) semantic shift: a processofsemantic change in which a word loses its former meaning and acquires a new, sometimes related one.
Semantic shift
It’s a process of semantic change in which a word loses its former meaning and acquires a new, sometimes related meaning.
Some recent trends
The influence of American English; the influence of science and technology (space travel, computer and internet language, ecology)
The causes of language change
Sound assimilation: Assimilative processes are phonological changes due to physiological mechanisms.it also involves vowel nasalization and morphological and lexical changes.
The development ofscience and technology
Elaboration: It occurs when there is a need to reduce ambiguity and increase communicative clarity or expressiveness.
Social and political triggers: cultural and economic advances in distant lands Culturaltransmission
Internal Borrowing -----The application of a rule from one part of the grammar to another part of the grammar by analogy to its earlier operation.
Children’s approximation toward the adult grammar.
Chapter 10 Language, Society and Culture
Speech community and speech variety
SC: a speech community is a group of people who form a community, which may have as few members as a family or as many members as a country, and share the same language or a particular variety of language.
SV: also known as language variety refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers.
Sociolinguistic studies three major speech varieties: Regional dialects, sociolects and registers Factors influencing our language behaviors in a social context:
(1) Class;(2) Gender; (3)Age;(4) Ethnic identity; (5) Education background; (6)Occupation; (7)Religious belief. Classification of sociolinguistics
Macro-linguistics: look at society as a whole and consider how language functions in it and how it reflects the social differentiations
Micro-linguistics: look at the society from the view of an individual member within it
Variety of language
Regionaldialect (is a speech variation according to he particular area where a speaker comes from, which isthe most discernible and definable)
Geographical barriers: loyalty to one’s native speech; physical and psyc hological resistance to change Accent; pronunciation; vocabulary; syntax
Sociolect(social conditions, social background)
Language and gender (women have a wider range in theirintonation, less assertive, more polite; tend to use more question tag, e.g. I am afraid)
Language and age (old are conservative).
Stylistic variation: (register)-------language selected to a particular situation is a register
Field of discourse: concerned with the purpose and subject-matter of communication; answer the question of why and about what communication takes place
Tenor of discourse: the role of relationship in the situation in question; determine the formality or technicality; answer the question of to whom the speaker is communicating
Mode of discourse: the means of communication; concerned with how the communication is carried out
Idiolectal variation: (idiolect)
A speaker’s linguistic performance is heterogeneous, rather than homogeneous.
Idiolect is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines aspects of all the elements regarding regional, social, and stylistic variation, in one way or another.
Standard and non-standard language
Thestandardlanguageisa superposed, socially prestigious, dialect of language. Non-standard, or vernacular, languages:Alldialects of a language are equally effective in expressing ideas.
Lingua franca, pidgins, and creoles
Lingua franca: is a variety of language that serves as a medium of communicationamong groupsof people from diverse linguistic backgrounds. .
Pidgin: is a variety of language that is generally used by native of speakers of other languages as a medium of communication. It may contain significant grammatical features of two or more languages, but rule-governed.
Creole: Creole is a pidgin that has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children ofthat community as their native language.
Ethnic dialect
Black English Vernacular (BEV) Ethnic dialect: a social dialect of a language, often cutting across regional differences
BEV: spoken mostly by a large section of non-middle-class American blacks. It is stigmatized as bad English, a purely social attitude that has no linguistic basis.
The social environment of BEV:The distinctive featuresof BEV persist not for racial reasons, but for social, educational, and economical reasons.
Speaker of an ethnic dialect like BEV regard the language they speak the major symbol of their socio-cultural identity.
Slang
Slang: a casual use of language that consists of expressive but nonstandard vocabulary.
Purpose: a desire for novelty, for vivid emphasis, for membership in a particular group or class, for being up with the terms of a little ahead
Negative connotation: a low or vulgar form of language In-group language or community jargon Linguistic taboo
Linguistic taboo: refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the polite society from general use. Obscene, profane, and swear words
The avoidance of using taboo: language mirrors social attitudes, emotions and value judgment, and has no linguistic basis.
Euphemism
A word or expression that is thought to be mild,indirect,or less offensive, so we use as a polite substitute for the supposedly harsh and unpleasant word or expression.
Language and culture
The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
What the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis suggests is like this: our language helps shape our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages may probably express our unique ways of understanding the world. Language may determine our thinking patterns; on the other hand, similarity betweenlanguages is relative, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualization ofthe world will be. Forthis reason, this hypothesis has alternatively been referred to as linguistic determinism and linguistic relativity.
Two versions:
The strong version ofthe theory refers to the claim the original hypothesis suggests, emphasizing the decisive role of language as the shaper of our thinking patterns.
The weak versionis a modified type of its original theory, suggesting thatthere is a correlation between language, culture, and thought, but the cross-cultural differences thus produced in our ways of thinking are relative, rather than categorical.
Argues for and against the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
①Words and meaning: Relation is arbitrary; without the particular words of snow doesn’t mean he can not perceive differences in varieties of snow…
②Grammatical structure: Manygrammatical features of a language are purely superficial aspects of linguistic structure. They don’t have the kind of interdependent relationship with theperceptual system of thespeakers of that language.
Culture contact
Acculturation: the process of changing in material culture, traditional practice, and beliefs that occurs when one cultural system interfere with another, challenging the latter to adapt to the ways of the former.
Assimilation；Theprocess of differing ethnicity are absorbed into the dominant culture of a society Amalgamation: occurs when a society becomes ethnically mixed in a way that represents a synthesis rather than the elimination orabsorption of one group by another.
Linguistic determinism
Whorf proposed that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on language, or put it more bluntly, language determines thought, hence the strong notion of linguistic determinism.
Linguistic relativism
It refers to the belief that speakers of different languages perceive and experience the world differently, that is, relative to their linguistic background.
It’s hypothesis proposed by an American linguist Benjamin Lee Whorf concerning language and thoug ht.
Three objectives for us to teach culture in our class:
(1) To get the students familiar with cultural differences;
(2) To help the students transcend their own culture and see things as the members ofthe target culture will;
(3) To emphasize the inseparability of understanding language and culture through various classroom practices.
Chapter 11 First Language Acquisition (FLA)
Stages of first language acquisition
①the pre-linguistic stage (babbling age) 3 months: /k/, /u/
②the one-word stageholophrastic sentences
2 year-old:Simple nouns and verbs indicate certain actions and demands, or convey emotions. Overextension (under-extension of reference): use thesame word for things that have a similar appearance
③the multiword stage
2-3 year-old: the salient feature of the utterances at this stage ceases to be the number of words, but the variation in strings of lexical morphemes (telegraphic speech)
Lacking grammatical morphemes, but following the principles of sentence formation [make no word order errors at this stage]
5 year-old: has an operating vocabulary of more than 2000 words
The development of grammatical system
①the development of phonology
The emergence of articulatory skills begins around the age when children start to produce babbling sounds.
②the development of syntax
Children’s early language is not only semantically based, but also makes reference tosyntactic categories, and grammatical relations.
Then, add functional words as well as inflectional and derivational morphemes of the language Negative sentences: no/all gone /// negative words occur at the beginning of expressions /// insert the negative
English questions have developed in the similar way, in an interrelated way with the development of the auxiliary verb system
③the development of morphology
Beyond the telegraphic stage: incorporate some of the inflectional morphemes
1st one: -ing;
2nd one: marking of regular plurals with the ―-s‖ form (overgeneralization);
3rd one: -ed rule to all verbs; begin to learn both regular and irregular forms asindividual words ④the development of vocabulary of semantics
The age of two and a half years: vocabulary is expanding rapidly
Behaviourist learning theory
It’s a theory of Psycho logy suggested by Skinners that the learner’s verbal behavior is conditioned or reinforced through association between a stimulus and response when applied to first language https://www.doczj.com/doc/c118970921.html,nguagelearning is a matter of imitation and habit forming.
Advantage: account of how children acquire some of regular and routine aspects of the language Disadvantage: fails to explain how they acquire more complex grammatical structure.
Innate view of language acquisition
Chomsky proposed that human being are born with an innate ability known as LAD containing principles that are universal to all human language. Children need to activate LAD，which enables them to discover language structure by matching the innate knowledge of basic grammatical system to that particular language.
Interactionist view of language acquisition
It holds that language develops as the result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which he grows, and that the modified language
input which is suitable for the capability is crucial in his language acquisition.
Cognitive development in child language development
Language development is dependent on both the concept form about the world and what they feel stimulated to communicate at the early and later stages of their languagedevelopment.
The cognitive factors determine how the child makes sense of the linguistic system himself instead of whatmeanings the child perceives and expresses.
Critical Period Hypothesis
The strong:children must acquire first language by puberty or they will never be able to learn from subsequent exposure.
The weak: language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty.
Lexical contrast theory
Children have conventional words for things. They use conventional words for something else when a word is available, then they contrast it with other words.
The prototype theory
Children may begin a word with a prototype and extend its features later.
Atypical development
Hearing impairment, mental retardation, autism, stuttering, aphasia, dyslexia, dysgraphia.
Chapter 12Second language Acquisition/Learning
Acquisition v. learning
Acquisition: refers to the gradual development of ability in a language by using it naturally in communicative situations; or the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations (by American SLA
Scholar Stephen Krashen)
Learning: refers to a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of the vocabulary and grammar of a language, usually obtained in school setting.
Transfer and interference
Transfer: while learning the target language consciously or unconsciously, learners will subconsciously use their L1 knowledge in learning a second language.
Positive or negative
Interference (negative transfer) was once believed to be the major source of difficulties experienced and errors made by L2 learners.
Contrastive analysis
Establish the linguistic differences between the native and target language systems, to predict problems and errors
Inter-language (Selinker)
Inter-language: the language that a learner constructs ata given stage of SLA. It consists of a series of interlocking and approximate linguistic systems inbetween and yet distinct from the learner’s native and target languages.
It is systematic, dynamic; variable; reduced system, both in form and function
Fossilization
A process that sometimes occurs in second language learning in which incorrect linguistic features (such as the accent of a grammatical pattern) become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes in the target language.
Input methods:
Interaction: taking parting in communication activities
Intake: the input that is assimilated and fed into the inter-language system
Factors influencing SLA
The optimum age
Motivation: the learner’s overall goal and orientation
Instrumental motivation: learner’s goal is functional （功能性学习动机）
Integrative motivation: learner’s goal is social （介入性学习动机）
Sex
Man is good at computing compositional rules; woman is good at memorizing complex forms; high level of articulatory and motor ability
Personality: anxiety, confidence
Aptitude:
Phonetic coding ability -----to process auditory input into segments which can be stored and retrieved);
Inductive language learning ability and grammatical sensitivity----- centralprocessing; Associative memory capacity-----concerned with how linguistic items are stored, and how they are recalled and used in output
Cognitive style
Field-dependent: more global and holistic in processing new information
Field-independent: more particularistic and analytic.
Deductive or Inductive: the latter is related to the linguistic-analytic ability
Learning strategies: behavior and techniques adopted in SLA
Negative transfer
Negative transfer occurs when the first language pattern is different from the counterpart pattern of the target language. It’s commonly known as interference because it would lead to difficulties or errors in second language learning.
Overgeneralization：
The use of previously available strategies in new situations, i.e. the application of a particular pattern or rule of the target language in many other linguistic situations
Major functions of language
a means of interpersonal communication.人际交流
a means of intrapersonal communication.自我交流
Interpersonal communication
The process of using language within the individual to facilitate one’s own thought and aid the formulation and manipulation of concepts.
Error Analysis ()
An approach to the study and analysis of the errors made by the second language learners which sugg ests that many learner errors are not due to the learner’ s mother tongue interference but reflect universal learning strategies such as over-generalization and simplification of rules. Shortcomings: evaluation of errors; ambiguity in classification; lack of positive data; potential for avoidance
Contrastive Analysis (Robert Lado)
It refers to a comparative procedure used to establish linguistic differences between two languages so as to predict learning difficulties caused by inter ference from the learner’s first language and
prepare the type of teaching materials that will reduce the effects of interference.
It fails to explain the how learners know more than they have heard or have been taught, and it does not account for many learner errors.
Input Hypothesis(Krashen)
Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis: acquisition is subconscious and involves the innate LAD; learning is conscious
Monitor Hypothesis: what is ―learned‖is available as monitor, for purpose of editing or making changes in what has been produced
Natural Oder Hypothesis：Acquisition of the rules of language in predictable order
Input Hypothesis: LA takes place because of comprehensible input. If input is understood, and if there is enough of it, the necessarygrammar is automatically provided.
Affective Filter Hypothesis: input may not be processed if the affective filter is up.
Test One: Invitations to Linguistics
I. Choose the best answer. (20%)
1. Language is a system ofarbitrary vocal symbols used for human __________.
A. contact
B. communication
C. relation
D. community
2. Whichofthe following words is entirely arbitrary?
A. tree
B. typewriter
C. crash
D. bang
3. The function ofthe sentence ―Water boils at 100 degrees Centigrade.‖i s __________.
A. interrogative
B. directive
C. informative
D. performative
4. In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say“碎碎（岁岁）平安”as a means of controlling the forces which they believes feel might affect their lives. Which functions does it perform?
A. Interpersonal
B. Emotive
C. Performative
D. Recreational
5. Whichofthe following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place, due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation?
A. Transferability
B. Duality
C. Displacement
D. Arbitrariness
6. Study the following dialogue. What function does it play according to the functions of language?
— A nice day, isn’t it?
— Right! I really enjoy the sunlight.
A. Emotive
B. Phatic
C. Performative
D. Interpersonal
7. __________ refers to the actual realization ofthe ideal language user’s knowledge ofthe rules of his language in utterances.
A. Performance
B. Competence
C. Langue
D. Parole
8. When a dog is barking, you assume it is barking for something or at someone that exists hear and now. It couldn’t be sorrowful for some lost love or lost bone. This indicates the design feature of__________.
A. cultural transmission
B. productivity
C. displacement
D. duality
9. __________ answers such questions as how we as infants acquire our first language.
A. Psycholinguistics
B. Anthropological linguistics
C. Sociolinguistics
D. Applied linguistics
10. __________ deals with language application to other fields, particularly education.
A. Linguistic theory
B. Practical linguistics
C. Applied linguistics
D. Comparative linguistics
II. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)
11. Language is a means of verbal communication. Therefore, the communication way used by the deaf-mute is not language.
12. Language change is universal, ongoing and arbitrary.
13. Speaking is the quickest and most efficient way ofthe human communication systems.
14. Language is written because writing is the primary medium for all languages.
15. We were all born withthe ability to acquire language, which means the details of any language system can be genetically transmitted.
16. Only human beings are able to communicate.
17. F. de Saussure, who made the distinction between langue and parole in the early 20th century, was a French linguist.
18. A study ofthe features oftheEnglish used in Shakespeare’s time is an example ofthe diachronic study of language.
19. Speech and writing came into being at much the same time in human history.
20. All the languages in the world today have both spoken and written forms.
III. Fill in the blanks. (10%)
21. Language, broadly speaking, is a means of__________ communication.
22. In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be combined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. This feature is usually termed __________.
23. Language has many functions. We can use language to talk about itself. This function is __________.
24. Theory that primitive man made involuntary vocal noises while performing heavy work has been called the__________ theory.
25. Linguistics is the__________ study of language.
26. Modern linguistics is __________ in the sense thatthe linguist tries to discover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.
27. One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of__________ over writing.
28. The description of a language as it changes through time is a __________ study.
29. Saussure put forward two important concepts. __________ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.
30. Linguistic potential is similar to Saussure’s langue and Chomsky’s __________.
IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)
31. Design feature
32. Displacement
33. Competence
34. Synchronic linguistics
2016年10月高等教育自学考试全国统一命题考试 语言学概论试卷(课程代码 00541) 第一部分选择题 一、单项选择题(本大题共20小题，每小题l分，共20分) 在每小题列出的四个备选项中只有一个是符合题目要求的，请将其选出并将“答题卡” 的相应代码涂黑。未涂、错涂或多涂均无分。 1.下面各项中，属于汉语北方方言的是 A.广州话 B.福州话 C.重庆话 D.上海话 2.汉语拼音字母b、p、m都是 A.舌尖音 B.唇齿音 C.正齿音 D.双唇音 3.下面各项属于自源文字的是 A.英文字母 B.甲骨文 C.腓尼基字母 D.希腊字母 4.儿童“以词代句语言”出现在 A.单词句阶段 B.语法句阶段 C.简单句阶段 D.复杂句阶段 5.“叶子岀水很高，像亭亭的舞女的裙”一句采用的修辞手法是 A.比拟 B.仿写 C.夸张 D.比喻 6.下面各项中含有轻声音节的是 A.渐渐 B.妈妈 C.声声 D.人人 7.“在家休息”是一个 A.动宾词组 B.主谓词组 C.偏正词组 D.兼语词组 8.不同行业有自己的“行话“行话”属于 A.地域方言 B.社会方言 C.亲属语言 D.混合语言 9.“半两棉花——免弹（谈)”采用的方法是 A.转移欢关 B.语义汉关 C.语音双关 D.替代双关 10.下面各项属于语言符号特点的是 A.约定性 B.自然性 C.固定性 D.想象性 11.一种语言的共同语是在某一个方言的基础上形成的，这种方言叫 A.母方言 B.底层方言 C.基础方言 D.原始方言
12.谈话体属于 A.书面语体 B.宣传语体 C.文学语体 D.口语语体 13.唐太宗名李世民，唐代人便把“世”改为“代'把“民”改成“人”，这是为了 A.避讳 B.图吉利 C.讨口彩 D.自谦 14.中国历史上推行“书同文”措施的是 A.齐桓公 B.秦始皇 C.汉武帝 D.唐玄宗 15.汉语中“罗汉、菩萨、塔、阎罗”等词的出现，是因为 A.儒家学说的兴盛 B.道教的兴起 C.名教的影响 D.佛教的传入 16.“弟弟吃苹果”不能说成“苹果弟弟吃'这是受制于语言符号的 A.组合关系 B.聚合关系C联想关系 D.分类关系 17.音高取决于声波的 A.振幅 B.数量 C.长短 D.频率 18.“这是革命的春天，这是人民的春天，这是科学的春天”，这个句子是 A.反复句 B.顶真句 C.对偶句 D.回环句 19.中国叫“绥远、定远”之类名字的地方，往往当年 A.水草丰美 B.山川秀丽 C.曾发生战乱后被抚平 D.人口特别多 20.—个民族的全体或部分成员放弃使用本民族语言转而使用另一民族语言的现象叫 A.语言混合 B.语言转用 C.克里奥尔 D.双语现象 二、多项选择题(本大题共5小题，每小题2分，共10分) 在每小题列出的五个备选项中至少有两个是符合题目要求的，请将其选出并将“答题卡”的相应代码涂黑。未涂、错涂、多涂或少涂均无分。 21.下面关于语言和民族、国家关系的说法中，正确的有 A.—个民族只能说一种语言 B.—个民族可以说多种语言 C.一个国家只有一种语言 D.—个国家可以有多种语言 E.不同民族可以说同一种语言 22.下面各项中，属于元音的有 A.[a] B.[f] C. [l] D.[o] E.[p] 23.下面各项中属于发散思维的表现形式的有 A.音乐 B.舞蹈 C.绘画 D.推理 E.文学 24.下面各项中彼此有亲属关系的语言有 A.日语 B.葡萄牙语 C.老挝语 D.朝鲜语 E.英语 25.下面各项中，属于借词的有
初试篇 我初试排名第一，总分412，技术分385.2。现代汉语137，语言学概论129，英语78，政治68。 一.政治 因为上外不重视政治，我没怎么好好复习政治，买的什么风中劲草现在还跟刚买的一样，比重只有10%我想过线就好。说到这里我要强调一下一定看清你所考学校专业如何算分和排名。有的同学总分比别人高，但是按技术分排名后名次反而下降了几个，这样内心不免觉得有点亏。所以这里就不谈怎么复习政治了。 二.英语 英语的话，主要就是多做真题，黄皮书的真题一定要吃透，尤其是阅读理解，我反复做了三遍，当然很多人做了更多遍。重点在后面几年要格外细致。 作文不用开始的太早，后期多写多练。关于作文书我是用的王江涛和何凯文的，还都不错，还买了一本朱伟的写作宝典，真心不推荐。单词我没有按照单词书背，就是背的真题里面的词汇。单词要坚持每天背，利用一些零碎的时间就可以，不要像我一样很拖拉最后背单词很匆忙。
三.专业课 关于专业课，很明显专业课给我拉了很多分，两门专业课我都是第一，并且后期我复试成绩并不好，但是依然总评第一的原因就在这，所以大家一定重视初试尤其是专业课。 现代汉语这门课我看了张斌版的现汉和课后练习。这本书是主要的，然后看了《语法答问》《语法讲义》《现代汉语语法研究教程》《现代汉语十五讲》《汉语语法三百问》《现代汉语八百词》。差不多就是这些吧。 语法研究教程像是十五讲的简明版，十五讲比较晦涩难懂，因为往年的真题有很多题从十五讲上出的，近年来比重有所缩小，我没记错的话2017年并没有考过十五讲（我的记忆力不能保证哈），但我考前一个晚上仍然把十五讲上相对简单的那些捋了一遍，生怕考到。 重点在真题的整理，光背够课本那些条条框框，不梳理出自己的东西很难与众多优秀的同学拉开差距。语言学概论课考完我曾经以为我完了，因为复习的时候以王德春的语言学概论为重中之重，往年都是这样的，虽然叶徐的语言学纲要也是参考书，但往往都是辅助，所以懒散如我后来根本没有时间估计那本辅助的。然而今年不知道怎么回事，题目（尤其大题）很少涉及王版概论，重点考查了语言学纲要。但是我当时没有紧张，语言学纲要大二还是大三的时候学过，当时期末复习我复习的还不错，就凭借遥远的记忆和复习中得到的东西写的。
南开大学语言学及应用语言学考研资料与经验分享南开大学语言学及应用语言学考研的童鞋们的福利来了~ 南开大学语言学及应用语言学考研复习都是有依据可循的,考研学子关注事项流程为：考研报录比-大纲-参考书-资料-真题-复习经验-辅导-复试-导师,缺一不可。天津考研网邀请到了以高分被录取的语言学及应用语言学专业的研究生前辈为我们录制了一份免费的专业解析视频:“南开大学汉院语言学及应用语言学及汉语言文学考研经验心得”，可直接搜索。 看完了视频小伙伴们应该对南开汉语言文学学院，语言学及应用语言学学科专业情况，导师研究方向有了初步的了解了吧。现在可以安下心来踏踏实实的复习了吧…… 天津考研网为报考南开大学语言学及应用语言学专业的同学们整理了一些专业课复习资料以及学长学姐们的复习经验，希望能对大家的复习有所帮助。下面天津考研网就为考研小伙伴们详细说说专业课的复习。 一、南开大学语言学及应用语言学考研主要参考教材 南开大学语言学及应用语言学专业考研考试科目是思想政治理论；英语一；和两门专业课，分别是现代汉语与古代汉语和语言学概论（汉院）。南开大学公布的考研大纲中并未列出专业课具体的参考教材，使得同学们复习的时候无从下手。 针对这种情况天津考研网组织多名一线大学老师及过去几年在天津大学研究生初试中专业课取得高分的考生共同整理了考研复习主要参考教材供大家参考： 古代汉语 《古代汉语》董志翘杨琳主编武汉大学出版社2012年 《古代汉语》（校订重排本）王力主编中华书局1999年 《立体化古代汉语教程》洪波主编高等教育出版社2005年 语言学概论和现代汉语 《语言学概论》王红旗著北京大学出版社2008年 《现代汉语教程》邢公畹主编南开大学出版社1994年
2008和2009自考语言学概论真题及答案一、单项选择题（本大题共20小题，每小题1分，共20分） 在每小题列出的四个备选项中只有一个是符合题目要求的，请将其代码填写在题后的括号内。错选、多选或未选均无分。 1．下列关于“语言”的说法，不正确的一项是（） A．语言就是人们说出来的话 B．语言是一种有声符号系统 C．语言系统由多个子系统组成 D．语言是人类最重要的交际工具 2．下列属性中，风声、雨声、喷嚏声、咳嗽声均不具有的一项是（） A．生理属性 B．自然属性 C．社会属性 D．物理属性 3．下列各组元音中，都属于圆唇元音的一组是（） A．[i，u] B． C． D．[o，y] 4．下列词语中，不属于派生构词的一项是（） A．rewrite B．cats C．teacher D．unafraid 5．下列词语中，不属于偏义复合词的一项是（） A．妻子 B．国家 C．开关 D．忘记 6．下列各项中，不属于“语”的是（）A．惯用语 B．歇后语 C．成语 D．术语 7．美国语言学家乔姆斯基创立的语法理论是（） A．结构语法理论 B．功能语法理论 C．生成语法理论 D．认知语法理论 8．在“这道题我们做过”这个语言片段中，“这道题”和“我们做过”的性质是（）A．既是成分，也是组合 B．是成分，不是组合 C．不是成分，也不是组合 D．是组合，不是成分 9．英语“John loves she”这句话是病句，其错误在于（） A．性 B．格 C．数 D．态 10．下列关于义项的表述，正确的一项是（） A．义项只包括词的理性意义 B．义项包括词的临时意义 C．义项是词典释义的最小单位 D．词的多个义项并非总有关联 11．下列关于语义场的表述，不正确的一项是（） A．语义场是词义系统性的重要表现 B．语义场与上下位词关系密切 C．语义场是一个层级体系 D．不同语义场的系统性是均衡的 12．“行为”和“行径”在词义上最主要的差别在于（） A．感情色彩不同 B．形象色彩不同 C．语体色彩不同 D．理性意义不同 13．下列文字系统中，属于自源文字的是（） A．苏美尔文字 B．阿拉伯文字 C．腓尼基文字 D．拉丁文字 14．由意音文字换用表音文字，属于（）A．文字的创制 B．正字法改革 C．文字类型改革 D．字符类型改革 15．下列关于“语言转用”的表述，不正确的一项是（） A．语言转用是语言统一的重要形式 B．双语现象并非一定导致语言转用 C．语言转用以民族融合为必要条件 D．语言间的密切接触是语言转用的重要条件16．语汇系统中最为稳固而不易变化的是（） A．一般语汇 B．基本语汇 C．通用语汇 D．专用语汇 17．感性思维（前思维）活动不包括（）A．视觉和听觉 B．触觉和知觉 C．记忆和想象 D．情感和意志 18．一般儿童能跟成年人差不多一样地说话的年龄是（） A．1岁左右 B．3岁左右 C．5岁左右 D．12岁左右 19．下列关于母语教学的表述中，不正确的一项是（） A．母语教学主要指中小学阶段的语言教学B．母语教学的目的就是学会使用一种语言C．母语教学的任务包括提高逻辑思维能力D．母语教学也注重提高文化素质 20．对于中介语的错误类型，目前较多采用的分类是（） A．系统前错误、系统错误、系统后错误B．语法错误、语汇错误、语音错误 C．可容忍的错误、部分容忍的错误、不能容忍的错误 D．目标语判断性错误、来源语干扰性错误二、多项选择题（本大题共5小题，每小题2分，共10分） 在每小题列出的五个备选项中至少有两个是符合题目要求的，请将其代码填写在题后的括号内。错选、多选、少选或未选均无分。21．下列关于书面语的表述，正确的有（） A．是经过提炼的口语书面形式 B．与口语相比缺少了一些内容 C．不存在与口语严重脱节现象 D．会具有相对独立的发展历史 E．不会影响和促进口语的发展 22．从发音机制上看，辅音的音质决定于（） A．发音方法 B．发音部位 C．唇形圆展 D．舌位高低 E．舌位前后 23．“奥林匹克”这个词属于（）
语言学概论考研真题与典型题详解 第1章绪论 1.1语言学概述 1.1.1知识要点 一、语言学的对象和任务 1．语言的定义 （1）语言是人类最重要的交际工具和思维工具（功能）。 （2）语言是音义结合的符号系统（结构）。 2．语言学的定义 语言学是以语言为研究对象的科学，对能感知的语言现象进行分析。3．语言学的基本任务和对象 （1）基本任务：研究语言的结构规律和发展规律。 （2）对象：语言。 （3）研究的根本问题：语言形式和内容的关系。 二、语言学的研究范围 1．对象：结构+功能。 2．研究方法：描写语言事实，解释一般规律。 三、语言学在学科体系中的地位
1．研究地位的提高。 2．和其他学科的关系密切。 语言交际的五大过程：编码——发送——传递——接受——解码。 四、语言学的分类 1．微观语言学和宏观语言学 微观语言学：只研究语言的结构本身（语音、词汇、语义、语法）。 宏观语言学：研究语言及相关学科之间的关系。 2．本体语言学和应用语言学 本体语言学：类似于微观语言学。 应用语言学：语言理论的应用和语言应用理论（传统只有前者→语言教学）。 3．个别语言学和普通语言学 个别语言学：又称专语语言学，是指以某一种具体的语言为研究对象的语言学。 普通语言学：以人类一般语言为研究对象，研究人类语言的起源、本质和发展，研究语言的内部结构、分类、研究观念和方法，以及语言学在学科体系中的地位。 4．共时语言学和历时语言学 共时语言学：又称描写语言学，研究描写语言每个子系统在某一特定时期的共时状态和不同子系统之间的联系，如现代汉语、现代英语。 历时语言学：研究语言每个子系统在不同时期所发生的变化及其变化中不同子系统之间的关联，如汉语史、英语史。 五、语言学研究的价值和功用
语言学纲要》练习题参考答案 导言部分 （一）名词解释 1 ?语言：语言是一个音义结合的符号系统，是人类独有的、最重要的交际工具，同时也是思维工具。 2 ?语言学：语言学是以人类语言作为研究对象的学科，研究人类语言的性质、结构、发展 及其在社会生活中的运用以及语言研究成果的应用问题，等等。分理论语言学和应用语言 学两个领域。 3 ?语文学：人类最早的语言研究是从解释古代文献开始的，是为了研究哲学、历史和文学 而研究语言的。我们把这种依附于其他学科存在的语言研究成为语文学。 4?小学”：在中国古代，小学先从教授字的形（六书）、音、义开始，就把研究文字、训诂、音韵方面的学问统称为小学。小学一直是经学的一部分，包括音韵学、训诂学、文字学三个分支学科。5?理论语言学：普通语言学的一个部分，与应用语言学相对。主要以语言系统的描写、语言运用机制、语言能力以及语言发展的历史为主要的研究对象。 （二）填空 1 ?古印度、古代中国、古希腊具有悠久的历史文化传统，是语言学的三大发源地。 2?文言是我国古代的书面语，用它写成的文章称为文言文。 3 ?文字学、音韵学、训诂学是我国传统的语文学。 4 ?研究语言的结构，主要是研究语音、词汇、语法三个部分。 5 ?运用语言传递信息的过程，可以分为编码、发送、传递、接收、解码五个阶段。 第一章语言的社会功能
一、名词解释 1. 语言的两个有限 任何一种语言都是一个音义结合的符号系统，其中作为基本符号的语素和词在数量上是有 限的，把语素或词组合起来构成词组或句子的规则也是有限的。语言的这两个有限性是区 别言语活动的基本特征。 2. 言语活动的两个无限 言语活动是以语言为工具展开的交际或思维活动，其中作为这个活动的最基本的单位一- 句子，在理论上可以是无限长的，在数量上可以是是无限多的。 3. 大脑左右半球分工 人类大脑左右半球分工不同，左脑主管语言、逻辑、书写及右侧肢体运动，而右脑主管色彩、空间感、节奏和左侧肢体运动。大脑两半球分工是人类特有的，但出生婴儿大脑两半球没有分工。 4. 非语言交际工具或副语言交际工具 人们在运用语言进行交际的时候，不但动嘴，而且脸部的表情、手的动作、乃至整个躯体的姿态等非语言的东西也都参加进来。我们这些非语言的交际工具称为副语言交际工具。副语言交际工具的使用范围非常有限，只能起辅助性的交际作用，以补充语言交际的某些 不足。 5. 辅助性交际工具 指的文字、旗语、电报代码等在语言的基础上产生的交际工具。这些交际工具若离开语言 就不能独立存在。其特点是：都有特殊的服务领域，使用的范围相当狭窄。
全国各高校语言学及应用语言学专业排名 中国研究生教育分专业排行榜：050211外国语言学及应用语言学 1 广东外语外贸大学A+ 13 北京师范大学 A 25 湖南大学 A 2 北京外国语大学A+ 14 华中师范大学 A 26 厦门大学 A 3 南京大学A+ 15 中南大学 A 27 中国海洋大学 A 4 中山大学A+ 16 东南大学 A 28 延边大学 A 5 对外经济贸易大学A+ 17 上海大学 A 29 大连外国语学院 A 6 南京师范大学A+ 18 华南师范大学 A 30 山东大学 A 7 上海外国语大学A+ 19 宁波大学 A 31 清华大学 A 8 四川大学A+ 20 华东师范大学 A 32 江苏大学 A 9 上海交通大学 A 21 南昌航空工业学院 A 33 重庆大学 A 10 西安外国语大学 A 22 吉林大学 A 34 同济大学 A 11 复旦大学 A 23 暨南大学 A 12 上海对外贸易学院 A 24 西安交通大学 A B+ 等(53 个) ：北京航空航天大学、西南交通大学、苏州大学、南开大学、电子科技大学、深圳大学、四川外语学院、上海海事大学、长春理工大学、哈尔滨师范大学、长沙理工大学、沈阳师范大学、云南师范大学、大连理工大学、华中科技大学、湘潭大学、浙江大学、浙江师范大学、西南政法大学、广西大学、湖南师范大学、河南大学、华东理工大学、太原理工大学、湖北大学、东北财经大学、东北师范大学、天津大学、贵州大学、北京语言大学、东北大学、南京工业大学、西安电子科技大学、西南大学、西南财经大学、安徽大学、中国地质大学、黑龙江大学、江西师范大学、武汉理工大学、上海理工大学、西北师范大学、北京理工大学、重庆师范大学、外交学院、北华大学、西北农林科技大学、大连海事大学、广西民族学院、北京第二外国语学院、西北大学、青岛科技大学、西北工业大学 B 等(52 个) ：武汉大学、南昌大学、北京林业大学、内蒙古大学、山西大学、燕山大学、陕西师范大学、郑州大学、聊城大学、山西师范大学、西华大学、成都理工大学、广西师范大学、东华大学、哈尔滨工业大学、山东科技大学、河南师范大学、长春税务学院、中南民族大学、南华大学、贵州师范大学、华南理工大学、湖北工业大学、西南石油大学、福建师范大学、曲阜师范大学、青岛大学、上海师范大学、北京科技大学、新疆师范大学、济南大学、河南科技大学、长江大学、西安工业大学、山东师范大学、河北师范大学、浙江工商大学、山西财经大学、烟台大学、长春工业大学、中南财经政法大学、扬州大学、武汉科技大学、江苏科技大学、大连大学、天津科技大学、北京交通大学、西安理工大学、南京航空航天大学、河北大学、首都师范大学、天津理工大学
考研语言学概论-7 (总分：100.00，做题时间：90分钟) 一、判断题(总题数：10，分数：10.00) 1.语言中任何一个较为复杂的词组或句子，在其生成过程中都可能重复使用过一条或几条结构规则。（分数：1.00） A.正确 B.错误 2.英语“books”中的“s”是词尾。 （分数：1.00） A.正确 B.错误 3.“日子”中的“子”是词根语素。 （分数：1.00） A.正确 B.错误 4.“好极了”、“为了明天”属于内向结构。 （分数：1.00） A.正确 B.错误 5.英语“He reads a letter.”中reads中的s表示的语法意义是数、时和人称。 （分数：1.00） A.正确 B.错误 6.派生构词法在汉语中占有很重要的地位。 （分数：1.00） A.正确 B.错误 7.汉语中的单音词、联绵词以及音译词都是单纯词。 （分数：1.00） A.正确 B.错误 8.词类划分的重要标准有两个：一是句法标准，二是意义标准。 （分数：1.00） A.正确 B.错误 9.一切语言都有开放性词类，而大多数语言也有一些封闭性词类。 （分数：1.00） A.正确 B.错误 10.变换有助于辨析句法意义之间的细微差别。 （分数：1.00） A.正确 B.错误 二、简答题(总题数：28，分数：90.00) 11.什么是语法?语法的主要性质特征是什么? （分数：4.00）
__________________________________________________________________________________________ 12.语法规则是由哪两种规则构成的?它们之间的关系怎样? （分数：4.00） __________________________________________________________________________________________ 13.词法和句法有何联系与区别? （分数：4.00） __________________________________________________________________________________________ 14.形位/语素与词位/词有何区别? （分数：4.00） __________________________________________________________________________________________ 15.词位/词和词组的区别是什么? （分数：4.00） __________________________________________________________________________________________ 16.词组和句子有哪些差别? （分数：4.00） __________________________________________________________________________________________ 17.什么是词根形位?什么是附加形位?后缀与词尾有什么区别? （分数：3.00） __________________________________________________________________________________________ 18.构词法和构形法有什么区别? （分数：3.00） __________________________________________________________________________________________ 19.常见的语法手段有哪些? （分数：3.00） __________________________________________________________________________________________ 20.根据词的形态特点(语法形式)，可把语言大致分成几类? （分数：3.00） __________________________________________________________________________________________ 21.举例说明什么是语法范畴。 （分数：3.00） __________________________________________________________________________________________ 22.语法范畴中的“性”的概念有什么特殊性? （分数：3.00） __________________________________________________________________________________________ 23.每一种语法范畴具有哪些共同特点? （分数：3.00） __________________________________________________________________________________________ 24.词类划分的主要标准是什么? （分数：3.00） __________________________________________________________________________________________ 25.划分词类对句法描写的意义和作用是什么? （分数：3.00） __________________________________________________________________________________________ 26.什么叫形态?为什么说形态可以作为划分词类的标准之一? （分数：3.00） __________________________________________________________________________________________ 27.形态变化有哪些主要形式? （分数：3.00） __________________________________________________________________________________________
《语言学纲要》考研修订版考研复习笔记和真题 0-1复习笔记 ―、语言学的对象和学科住质 (一)语言学的研究对象 语言学是研究语言的科学，语言是语言学的研究对象。 L语言现红 语言现象是人类社会普迴具有的现象，它是G早纳人人类研究视野的现象之一。 (1)人类对于世界上的齐种自然现象和社会现象的理性认识以及相关的许多抽象观念, 是在各个古典文明形成的时期出现的。有关语言的理性思考也是从这一时期开始的’ (2)中国先秦时期的思想家、古希腊的竹学家.古代印度的思想家等，都提岀了对语言的一股看法，并且对后人产生/?深远影响，这是对语言的最早的理性认识。 2.语言学的发展过程 (])语言甞的三大发源地 在齐个文明的发展过程?l', I l f代文化典籍的传欣成为文化发展延续的重要途径。这些政 治、哲学、宗教、历史、文学等方面的经典若作要得到学习和继承，郁需姿语言方而的分析和解 释。这样，在许多有若悠久历史文化传统的地区都出现了语文学研究，这是语言的系统研究的开 始。中国、印度和希腊一罗马在传统语文学的研究上都取得了辉煌成就，足语言学的三大发源地＞ (2)语苜学三大发源地的成就 ①中国传统语言研究 3.先秦时期已经出现大域的文化典籍，它们所使用的古代书面语体被后人学习继承，称作文言文Q宜至20世纪初，正式的书而语一直使用这种文言文的形式。 b?屮国传统的语言研究主要是围绕解读文言文典籍的需要进行的，主要是分析汉字的形体,探求它的古代读音和意义,形成了统称“小学"的文字、音韵、训诂之学,也就是中国传统的语文学。 ②古代印度语言研究 a.在印度，文化经典主要是宗教典鉛，所川的语言是古代的梵语。最初这些经典是靠口耳相传，后来由文字记载下来。 b?占代印度的语言研究主要是对这些宗教经典的解读C占代印度的学者在对语言般件质的认识以及具体的语音和语法研究等方面都有卓越建树?对世界其他地区的语言研究也产生了深远影响C
2002年语言学与应用语言学（100 points） All the questions are to be answered in English on the answer sheets provided. 1. Displacement,arbitrariness,productivity,cultural transmission,discreteness and duality are sometimes listed as the 6 core features of human language.Choose 3 out of the 6 and explain with examples what they mean. (12 points) 2. Briefly explain what phonetics and phonology are concerned with and what kind of relationsips hold between the two.(10 points) 3.In deriving new words via a prefix such as mis-, there seems to be some constraint on what is permitted. The words in the first colum below are acceptable formations,but in the other columns are not.Work out what the rule(s) might be for making new adjectives with the prefix mis-. (18 points) Column I : misadventure misjudgement misplaced mistrustful Column II: *mishappy *mismeal *misglad *misrole Column III: *mismilk *missad *misword *miscrazy 4. Using what you know about Grice's cooperative principle and its four maxims,analyze the following short exchange.(20 points) 同事甲：小张昨晚去哪儿了？ 同事乙：今天在早上我看见一辆白色富康停在小林家门口。 5. In each of the following sentences,the second part cancels some information given by the first part. However,this seems to result in quite acceptable utterances in group (1) and in very awkward utterances in guoup (2). Explain why. (20 points) Group (1) a.老张有三个孩子，其实还不止三个。 b.我只喜欢黄色和蓝色，不过试试红色也未尝不可。 c.约翰的普通话说得还可以，确切地说是非常棒。 Group (2) *d.我特后悔选修了这门课，其实我没有选修这门课。
全国2003年10月 一、单项选择题（本大题共26小题，每小题1分，共26分） 在每小题列出的四个备选项中只有一个是符合题目要求的，请将其代码填写在题后的括号。错选、多选或未选均无分。 1.语言符号具有可变性的根本原因在于语言符号的（ A ） A.任意性 B.强制性 C.离散性 D.线性 2.音高取决于（ B ） A.发音体振动的振幅 B.发音体振动的频率 C.发音体振动的持续时间 D.共鸣器的形状 3.听觉上最自然、最容易分辨的最小语音单位是（ D ） A.音素 B.音位 C.音渡 D.音节 4.就词重音而言，不能用来区别意义的是（C） A.自由重音 B.移动重音 C.固定重音 D.不固定重音 5.话“慢”单念时读[man]，但“慢慢儿”却有人读做[mai mar]，前一音节的语流音变现象是（ B ） A.同化 B.异化 C.弱儿 D.增音 6.“奥林匹克运动会”这个词包含的语素数量是（） A.2个 B.3个 C.4个 D.7个 7.英语“worker”中的“-er”是（） A.构词语素 B.构形语素 C.虚词语素 D.词根语素 8.下列汉语词语中的“儿”不属于词根语素（实义语素）的是（） A.健儿 B.女儿 C.少儿 D.花儿 9.整个语汇系统的核心和基础是（） A.通用语汇 B.常用语汇 C.一般语汇 D.基本语汇 10.一般语汇（非基本语汇）最重要的来源是（） A.古语词 B.方言词 C.新造词 D.外来词 11.词组的聚合关系分类是指把词组分成（） A.向心词组和离心词组 B.联合词组和偏正词组 C.基本词组和特殊词组 D.简单词组和复杂词组 12.把句子分成“单句”和“复句”，这种分类是（） A.句子的句型类 B.句子的句式类 C.句子的功能类 D.句子的简繁类 13.“吓唬”和“恐吓”在非理性意义上的主要差别是（） A.语气意义不同 B.感情色彩不同 C.语体色彩不同 D.形象色彩不同 14.下列关于词的本义和基本义关系的表述中，正确的一项是（） A.二者总是一致 B.二者总是不一致 C.基本义比本义更常用 D.本义比基本义更常用 15.下列各项词义引申中，采用比喻方式的一项是（） A.“锁”本指一种器具，后引申指凭借这一器具的行为 B.“兵”本指兵器，后引申指使用兵器的人 C.“南瓜”本指一种植物，后引申指这种植物的果实 D.“后台”本指舞台的后面，后引申指在背后操纵、支持的人或集团 16.下列关于等义词的表述中，正确的一项是（） A.等义词是理性意义和非理性意义都完全相同的词 B.等义词一般都能够长期并存 C.等义词在语言表达上有一定的积极意义 D.同义词大多是等义词 17.“老王说服了小”中“老王”是行为的施事，“小”是行为的受事，这种意义是（） A.语汇意义 B.语法意义 C.语境意义 D.蕴含意义 18.从现有文字史的资料来看，最早出现的字符大多是（） A.记号 B.笔画 C.音符 D.意符 19.世界上最早的表音文字是（） A.元音文字 B.辅音文字 C.意音文字 D.全音位文字 20.语言成分的借用，最常见、最突出的是（） A.词语的借用 B.语音成分的借用 C.词缀的借用 D.语法结构的借用 21.下列几种类型的社会方言中，具有排他性的是（） A.行话 B.黑话 C.官腔 D.贵族语言 22.以下对“思维”的表述中，正确的一项是（） A.思维既包括思维活动，也包括思维结果 B.思维分为感性思维和抽象思维两类 C.思维的形式就是概念、判断、推理 D.思维必须以语言为工具 23.人类开始制造工具这种行为意味着（） A.人类已经产生了语言 B.人类已经产生了思维 C.人类已经同时产生了语言和思维 D.人类既没有产生语言，也没有产生思维 24.患“失语症”是因为（） A.大脑左、右半球的单侧化功能发生了改变 B.大脑左半球的某个部位受到了损伤 C.大脑的语言获得机制出现了遗传性障碍 D.在语言临界期以前没有接触语言环境 25.主要解释某个词语所代表事物的概念知识的一类词典是（） A.历史词典 B.信息词典 C.语言词典 D.百科词典 26.从翻译技术的平面看，机器翻译可以分为四个层级，从低到高的排序是（） A.单词、句法、语义、语境 B.单词、语义、语境、句法 C.单词、句法、语境、语义 D.单词、语义、句法、语境 二、多项选择题(本大题共5小题，每小题2分，共10分) 在每小题列出的五个备选项中有二个至五个是符合题目要求的，请将其代码填写在题后的括号。错选、多选、少选或未选均无分。 27.从发音方法上看，一个辅音的特征取决于（） A.音高的高低 B.发音部位的前后 C.送气不送气 D.声带振动不振动 E.形成和克服阻碍的方式 28.下列关于语义场的表述中，正确的有（） A.语义场与上下位词没有关系 B.语义场是具有共同类属义素的义项的聚合体 C.语义场是一个层级体系 D.语义场是词义系统性的重要表现 E.不同语义场的系统性是均衡的 29.下列关于语素的表述中，正确的有（） A.语素是最小的有意义的语言单位 B.有些语素只有语音形式而没有意义 C.语素分为自由语素和不成词语素两大类 D.一个汉字就是一个语素 E.词都是由语素形成或组成的 30.下列有关汉字的表述中，正确的有（） A.汉字是一种自源文字 B.汉字是一种表意文字 C.汉字是一种音节文字 D.汉字是一种词语文字 E.几千年来，汉字的性质发生了根本的变化 DOC专业
北京师范大学一九九年攻读硕士学位研究生入学考试试题·语概·现汉专业：汉语言文字学 研究方向：训诂学与汉语词汇学、汉字学、汉语语法学、修辞学 考试科目：语言学概论及现代汉语 语言理论部分(共50分) 一、解释下列名词或术语(20分) 语法范畴历史语言学结构语言学语义场音位 二、回答下列问题(30分) 1、“汉藏语系”与“印欧语系”是根据什么标准划分的？这两种语系的主要区别表现在哪些方面？ 2、怎样认识语言符号的“任意性”与“强制性”？ 3、按照功能分类法，世界文字大致可经划分为几种类型？现代汉字属于哪种类型？ 现代汉语部分(共50分) 一。、回答下列问题(20分) 1、什么是“异读词”？它与多音多义字有何区别？ 2、现代汉字的标准化包括哪些内容？怎样进行现代汉字的整理和规范？ 3、什么是基本词汇？其主要特征有哪些？ 4、什么叫歧义句式？什么叫同义句式？ 安徽师范大学1996年招收研究生考题·语言学 招生专业、研究方向：现代汉语考试科目：语言学基础 一、解释下列术语：（17分） 音位（3分）变词语素（3分）态（一种语法范畴）（3分）语言融合（4分）言内意外（4分） 二、结合汉语词类的划分谈谈组合关系和聚合关系之间的联系。（10分） 三、元音和辅音有哪些区别？（6分） 四、怎样确定音位的区别特征？请举例加以说明。（12分） 五、汉语中的助词“们”与英语里表示名词复数的“-6”相比有哪些不同？请举例说明。（13分） 六、语言的结构类型有哪四种？它们主要有哪些特点？（10分） 七、结合同义词、反义词现象谈谈词的理性意义和附加意义（附加色彩）之间的关系。（12分） 八、外业词进入汉语以后会发生哪些变化？试举例说明。（10分） 安徽师范大学1994年招收研究生考题 招生专业、研究方向：现代汉语考试科目：语言学基础 一、简述语言系统中的组合关系和聚合关系。（10分） 二、人类语言和动物的交际方式的本质区别表现在哪几个方面？试简述之。（12分） 三、普通话音位系统的区别特征有哪几对？试举例说明。（16分） 四、简述词义的概括性的几种表现形式。（10分） 五、举例说明词语搭配（组合）所受到的语义条件限制（12分） 六、不同的语言的词类体系相同不相同？为什么？（10分） 一、举例说明语法规则的递归性。（10分） 二、运用变换的方法，辨析下列句子句法意义的细微区别。（10分） A、院子里站着许多人。 B、院子里唱着黄梅戏。
全国名校语言学理论考研真题及详解（含武大、中山等）益星学习网提供全套资料 目录 第一部分武汉大学文学院635语言学理论历年考研真题及详解 2013年武汉大学文学院633语言学理论考研真题（回忆版） 2013年武汉大学文学院633语言学理论考研真题（回忆版）及详解 2012年武汉大学文学院633语言学理论考研真题（回忆版） 2012年武汉大学文学院633语言学理论考研真题（回忆版）及详解 2011年武汉大学文学院633语言学理论考研真题 2011年武汉大学文学院633语言学理论考研真题及详解 2010年武汉大学文学院633语言学理论考研真题（回忆版） 2010年武汉大学文学院633语言学理论考研真题（回忆版）及详解 第二部分中山大学中文系612语言学概论历年考研真题及详解 2013年中山大学中文系612语言学概论考研真题 2013年中山大学中文系612语言学概论考研真题及详解 2012年中山大学中文系612语言学概论考研真题 2012年中山大学中文系612语言学概论考研真题及详解 2011年中山大学中文系612语言学概论考研真题 2011年中山大学中文系612语言学概论考研真题及详解 2010年中山大学中文系612语言学概论考研真题 2010年中山大学中文系612语言学概论考研真题及详解 第三部分中国传媒大学705语言学理论历年考研真题及详解 2013年中国传媒大学705语言学理论考研真题 2013年中国传媒大学705语言学理论考研真题及详解 2012年中国传媒大学705语言学理论考研真题 2012年中国传媒大学705语言学理论考研真题及详解 2011年中国传媒大学705语言学理论考研真题 2011年中国传媒大学705语言学理论考研真题及详解 2010年中国传媒大学705语言学理论考研真题 2010年中国传媒大学705语言学理论考研真题及详解 第一部分武汉大学文学院635语言学理论历年考研真题及详解 2013年武汉大学文学院633语言学理论考研真题（回忆版） 一、辨析下列术语 1．体范畴与时范畴 2．元音与辅音
2000年——语言学及应用语言学——古代汉语 一、标点并翻译。15分 1、下臣不幸属当戎行无所逃匿且擢奔辟而忝两君臣辱戎士敢告不敏摄官承乏 2、是故无冥冥之志者无昭昭之明无昏昏之事者无赫赫之功 3、臣闻始时吕尚之遇文王也身为渔父而钓于渭阳之滨而若是者交疏也已一说而立为太师载与俱归者其言深也故文王果收功于吕尚卒擅天下而身立为帝王即使文王疏吕望而弗与深言是周无天子之德而文武无与成其王也今臣笃旅之臣也交疏与王而所愿陈者皆匡君臣之事处人骨肉之间 4、古者疱牲氏之王天下也仰则观象于天俯则观法于地视鸟兽之文与地之宜近取诸身远取诸物于是始作易八卦以垂宪象神农氏结绳为治而统其事庶业其繁饰伪萌生黄帝之史仓颉见鸟兽归沆之迹知分理之可相别异也 二、请正确读出下面的地名、人名。5分 龟兹月氏吐番镐京涪陵 米？女娲皋陶单于？食其 三、请分析下面汉字的音节结构，包括声、韵（头、腹、尾）调。5分 光安要学英 四、简要说明下面名著的作者、成书年代及其价值。5分 广雅疏证说文解字注切韵广韵中原音韵 五、请为下列几组汉字正确标音，并解释形声字声符变读的原因。5分 帝？敌谪虹豇贡扛坻？邸？馥愎复 六、请解释：5分 简牍篇卷汗青付梓郑玄 七、分析句子结构。20分 1、昭王南征而不复寡人是问。 2、大哉尧之为君！ 3、虽使五尺之童适市，莫之或欺。 4、谁为为之，孰令听之 5、君子疾夫舍曰欲之而必为之辞。 6、谁为大王为此计者？ 7、老臣窃以为？之爱燕后贤于长君。 8、我无尔诈尔无我虞。 八、解释下面文中加冒号…?的字词。10分 1、…疆?…本?…而?节用…则?天下不能…贫? 2、…适?彼苍…者?三…食?…而?…反?腹犹…果?…然? 3、故圣人…以?治天下…为?事者…恶?得不禁…恶?而…劝?爱？ 4、…没?死…以?…闻? 5、…既?…而?大叔命西…鄙?北鄙二于已 6、劳心者治人劳力者治于人治于人者食人治人…者?…食?…于?人 7、…老?吾…老?…以?…及?人之老幼吾幼以及人之幼天下可运…于?掌 8、人不…难?…以?死…免?…其?君我谬之不详赦之…以?劝事君者 9、惟天为大惟尧…则?…之?
The traditional Subject-Predicate distinction may over-lap with that between the Theme-Rheme,but they are not always the same. Look at the following examples: a) Jane stands on the table. Subject Predicate Theme Rheme b)On the table stands Jane. Predicate Subject Theme Rheme Another verson of the same analysis is carried out in terms of Communicative Dynasmism ,CD for short,proposed by Firbas.By CD, Firbas means the extent to which the senence element contributes to the development of the communication. Firbas defined FSP as the distribution of various degrees of CD.In his view,the initial elements of a sequence carry the lowest degree of CD and with each step forward,the degree of CD becomes incremental till the element that carries the highest. 传统语法中主语----谓语的区别可能和主位----述位重叠，但他们并不总是一致的。看下面的例子： a) 简站在桌子上。 主语谓语 主位述位 b)桌子上站着简。 谓语主语 主位述位 这种分析法的另一种版本是交际能力。它是由费尔巴斯首次提出的。费尔巴斯用交际动力表示句子成分对交技发展所起的作用。 费尔巴斯把功能句子观解释为不同程度的交际力的分布。他认为，句子前面部分承载的交际力最低，然后逐步增加，直到交际力最大的成分。 3.The London School 1)Introduction The London school refers to the kind of linguistic scholarship in England.J.R.Firth turned linguistics proper into a recognized distinct academeic subject in Britain.Firth,under the influence of the anthropolosgist B;Malinowski,influenced his student M.A.K.Halliday.They all stressed the importance of context of situation and the system aspect of language.Thus,London School is also known as systemic linguistics and functional linguistics. 3.伦敦学派 1）简介 伦敦学派专门用来称呼独具英国特色的语言学研究。J.R.弗斯使语言学在英国完全成为一门公认的科学。弗斯主要受人类学家B.马林诺夫斯基影响，而他又影响了他的学生M.A.K.韩礼德。三人都强调“语言环境”和语言“系统”的重要性。因此，伦敦学派也被称为系统语言学和功能语言学。 2）Malinowski’s Theories Though a professor of Anthropology,Malinowski made great contributions concerning the functions of language,According to him: https://www.doczj.com/doc/c118970921.html,nguage is a mode of action,rather than a counterpart of thought.