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英语重要知识点
以下为英语的重要知识点：
1. 词汇：要掌握常用单词及其词义、常用短语和习惯用语，以及词汇分类（名词、动词、形容词、副词等）和它们在句子中的作用。
2. 语法：了解主谓一致、时态、语态、修饰语和从句等语法知识，以及它们在构成不同类型的句子中的应用。
3. 发音：正确的发音对于交流和理解非常重要，需注意英语重音和音标的学习。
4. 阅读理解：阅读能力是英语学习的关键，需要提高阅读速度和理解能力，了解不同文体和文章类型。
5. 写作技巧：掌握写作技巧，如段落结构、主题句、论据等，以及避免常见的写作错误，如语法错误和拼写错误。
6. 听力技能：听力技能是了解英语语音、语调和语速的关键，可以通过听英语广播、观看英语影视剧和与外国人交流来提高。
7. 口语表达：英语口语能力是交流的核心，需要提高口语表达的自信度，增强口头交流能力。
8. 文化背景：了解英语国家的文化和历史背景，能够更好地理解英语的含义和文化背景。
英语知识点60个英语是一门全球通用的语言，对于很多人来说，学习英语是一个必要的过程。
在学习英语的过程中，我们需要掌握一些基本的知识点。
下面是60个英语知识点的介绍。
1.词汇量：学习英语的基础是掌握足够的词汇量。
2.语法：了解英语的基本语法规则，如主谓宾结构等。
3.时态：学习英语的时态，如现在时、过去时、将来时等。
4.翻译：学习如何正确地翻译英语句子。
5.句型：掌握各种句型的用法，如陈述句、疑问句等。
6.主谓一致：确保主语和谓语在人称和数上保持一致。
7.介词：了解介词的用法和意义。
8.连词：学习连接词的用法，如and、but、or等。
9.冠词：学习冠词的用法，如a、an、the等。
10.数词：学习如何用英语表示数字。
11.比较级和最高级：学习形容词的比较级和最高级的用法。
12.非谓语动词：了解不定式、动名词和分词的用法。
13.代词：学习代词的用法，如人称代词、指示代词等。
14.名词：了解名词的单数和复数形式的变化规则。
15.形容词：学习形容词的用法和修饰名词的位置。
16.副词：了解副词的用法和修饰动词的位置。
17.动词时态：学习动词的时态，如一般现在时、过去进行时等。
18.语气：了解陈述语气、祈使语气和虚拟语气的用法。
19.省略句：学习如何使用省略句。
20.直接和间接引语：学习如何使用直接和间接引语。
21.定语从句：学习如何使用定语从句来修饰名词。
22.状语从句：了解状语从句的用法和位置。
23.主语从句：学习如何使用主语从句。
24.宾语从句：了解宾语从句的用法和位置。
25.同位语从句：学习如何使用同位语从句。
26.倒装：了解语序倒装的用法和情况。
27.复合句：学习如何构建复合句。
28.强调句：了解如何使用强调句。
29.题目：学习如何理解和回答问题。
30.议论文：了解如何写一篇英语议论文。
31.书面表达：学习如何用英语进行书面表达。
32.阅读理解：学习如何理解和解答阅读理解题目。
33.听力理解：了解如何听懂英语的口语表达。
英语基础必须掌握的知识点英语基础涵盖了多个知识点，以下是一些必须掌握的知识点：
1. 词汇，掌握常用单词的拼写、发音和词义。
建议学习常用词汇表，并逐渐扩大词汇量。
2. 语法，了解英语的基本语法规则，包括句子结构、时态、主谓一致、动词形态变化等。
掌握基本的句型，如陈述句、疑问句、否定句等。
3. 时态，熟悉各种时态的用法，如一般现在时、过去时、将来时等。
了解时态的表示方式和常见的时间状语。
4. 语音，掌握英语的音标，了解英语发音规则和重音的位置。
学习正确的发音，包括元音、辅音和连读规则。
5. 阅读理解，培养阅读理解能力，包括快速阅读、理解文章主旨、抓取关键信息、推断词义等。
阅读各类英文材料，如新闻、故事、科技文章等。
6. 写作技巧，学习书写规范的英文句子和段落，包括语法正确、用词准确、逻辑清晰。
培养写作习惯，提高写作表达能力。
7. 听力技巧，训练听力理解能力，包括听懂日常对话、听取信
息细节、辨别语气和语调等。
多听英语广播、音频材料和英语电影，提高听力水平。
8. 口语表达，练习口语交流能力，包括日常对话、描述事物、
表达观点等。
多参与英语口语练习，与他人进行交流对话。
9. 习惯用语和惯用表达，熟悉英语中的常用习惯用语和惯用表达，如常见的谚语、俚语和成语等。
了解它们的用法和意义，丰富
语言表达。
10. 文化背景，了解英语国家的文化背景和习俗，包括礼仪、
节日、习惯等。
这有助于更好地理解和运用英语。
以上是英语基础必须掌握的一些知识点，通过不断学习和实践，可以提高英语水平。
英语知识总结（精华）英语是全球通用的语言之一，具有很高的实用性和较强的国际交流能力。
为了更好地学习和掌握英语，以下是一些英语知识的总结和要点：一、基础语法知识：1.词汇：掌握常用的英语词汇，包括名词、动词、形容词、副词等。
2.时态：了解各种时态的用法和相应的时间标志词，如一般现在时、一般过去时、一般将来时等。
3.句型结构：掌握基本句型结构，包括陈述句、疑问句、否定句以及复合句的构成和使用方法。
4.从句：了解主从复合句的构成和使用，包括宾语从句、定语从句、状语从句等。
5.语态：掌握主动语态和被动语态的转换和使用方法。
二、拼写和发音：1.拼写规则：掌握基本的拼写规则和拼写技巧，包括字母的读音和拼写规则，以及词汇的变形和拼写规则。
2.发音：了解英语中的发音规则和音标符号，包括元音和辅音的发音，以及重音和连读的规则。
三、阅读技巧：1.识别词义：通过上下文和词根词缀等方法来推测词义。
2.理解主旨：抓住关键信息，了解文章的主要内容和目的。
3.掌握排除法：通过排除错误选项，选择正确答案。
4.注意细节：注意细节信息，如数字、地点、时间等。
四、口语表达：1.培养语感：多听多说，模仿英语母语者的发音和语调，培养语感。
2.学习常用表达：掌握常用的口语表达方式，包括问候、道歉、感谢、请求等。
3.练习口语：多与他人进行英语口语练习，积累口语表达的经验和自信心。
4.注重语音语调：注意语音语调的准确性，避免重读错误和口音干扰。
五、写作技巧：1.选择合适的词汇和短语：注意使用恰当的词汇和短语，表达清晰准确的意思。
2.灵活运用句型和句式：避免句子结构重复，使用丰富多样的句型和句式。
3.逻辑清晰：合理组织文章结构，将各个段落和句子连接起来，使逻辑关系清晰明确。
4.练习写作：多写多练，积累写作经验和提高写作水平。
5.审查修改：写完文章后，对文章进行审查和修改，检查语法错误和逻辑问题。
六、语言学习方法：1.多听多说：培养英语语感和听说能力。
英语语法中的语法总结与复习方法语法是英语学习中重要的一部分，掌握好语法规则能够帮助我们更准确地表达意思。
然而，许多学习者在学习语法时感到困惑和无从下手。
本文将介绍一些语法总结与复习方法，帮助大家更好地学习和掌握英语语法。
一、掌握基本语法知识在开始语法学习之前，首先需要掌握基本的语法知识，包括主谓宾结构、时态、语态、修饰语等基本概念。
了解这些基础概念将有助于我们理解和分析复杂的语法规则。
二、学习语法规则学习语法需要系统地掌握各种语法规则，例如名词的单复数形式、动词的时态和语态变化、代词的使用等。
可以通过查阅语法书籍、参加语法课程或者在网上搜索相关资源来学习语法规则。
同时，要注重理解规则的应用，并进行大量的练习以巩固所学知识。
三、总结语法要点语法知识繁多，我们可以通过总结语法要点来记忆和理解。
可以将语法要点整理成表格、图表或者笔记等形式，以便于我们随时回顾和复习。
例如，可以将各种时态的构成和用法整理成表格，以帮助我们更清晰地记忆。
四、应用语法知识学习语法并不仅仅是为了记忆规则，更重要的是能够灵活运用。
在实际的英语学习和交流中，我们应该尽量多地使用语法知识，例如在写作和口语表达中积极运用各种语法结构。
通过不断的实践，我们将更加熟练地掌握和运用语法知识。
五、多做练习和巩固复习是巩固语法知识的关键。
可以通过做练习题、参加语法测验或者使用语法学习网站等方式进行复习和巩固。
同时，也可以参考语法练习书籍和教材，选择适合自己的练习内容进行学习。
通过大量的练习，我们可以更好地理解和掌握语法知识。
六、模仿和分析范例阅读英语文章和文本是提高语法水平的有效方式之一。
可以选择一些经典的英语文章，通过分析其语法结构和使用方式来提高语法意识和水平。
同时，也可以模仿这些范例，将所学的语法知识应用到自己的写作和表达中。
七、寻求帮助和互动学习语法过程中，难免会遇到难以理解或者混淆的地方。
这时，我们可以寻求老师、同学或者其他学习者的帮助，进行讨论和交流。
英语最主要知识点总结英语作为全球通用语言，是我们在学习、工作和生活中必不可少的一门语言。
掌握好英语的基本知识点对于我们提高英语水平至关重要。
在本文中，我将为大家总结英语学习的最主要知识点，帮助大家系统地学习和掌握英语。
一、词汇与语法知识 1. 词汇量的积累：英语的词汇是学习和运用英语的基础，我们应该通过不断地阅读、听力练习和复习来扩大自己的词汇量。
2. 语法规则的掌握：了解和掌握英语的基本语法规则，包括时态、语态、句型结构等，可以帮助我们正确地表达和理解英语。
二、阅读与听力技巧 1. 阅读技巧：在阅读英语文章时，可以使用扫读和略读的方式快速获取整体理解，同时注意关键词和上下文语境的理解。
2. 听力技巧：提高听力水平需要不断地进行听力训练，可以选择听英语新闻、音乐或者英语原版电影，同时要注意提高听力的速度和准确度。
三、口语与写作能力 1. 口语表达：通过多与英语母语人士交流，提高口语表达能力，也可以通过参加英语角或者组织英语演讲活动来提高口语能力。
2. 写作技巧：写作是英语学习的重要环节，我们可以通过多写、多读、多积累范文和写作技巧来提高自己的写作能力。
四、文化背景和交际礼仪 1. 文化背景：了解英语国家的文化习俗和传统，有助于我们更好地理解英语的语言和表达方式。
2. 交际礼仪：在与英语母语人士的交流中，遵守交际礼仪是非常重要的，比如礼貌用语、面部表情和姿态等。
五、学习方法和习惯养成 1. 学习方法：选择适合自己的学习方法，如创设语言环境、制定学习计划和使用学习工具等，可以更高效地学习和掌握英语知识。
2. 习惯养成：养成良好的学习习惯，如坚持每天学习一定的时间、复习和总结已学知识等，能够帮助我们更好地巩固和提高英语水平。
六、练习和实践的重要性 1. 多练习：通过各种口语、听力、阅读和写作练习来提高英语能力，如模拟考试、角色扮演和语言游戏等。
2. 实践应用：将所学的英语知识应用到实际生活中，如与外国友人交流、参加英语角和国际交流活动等。
英语语言学复习资料注: 1.试题类型为选择题,填空题,语料分析题和问答题.2.未标习题的章节为一般了解.Chapter 1Language and Linguistics: An Overview1.1 What is language?1.2 Features of human languages(i) Creativity (or productivity)Productivity is the first and foremost striking feature of human language._________ is the first and foremost striking feature of human language.A. DualityB. ArbitrarinessC. CreativityD. Displacement(ii) Duality( ) Language contains two subsystems, one of speaking and the other of writing. (iii) Arbitrariness( ) The Swiss linguist de Saussure regarded the linguistic sign as composed of sound image and referent.(iv) Displacement( ) Modern linguistics is prescriptive rather than descriptive.( ) Language can be used to refer to things real or imagined, past, present or future.(v) Cultural transmission(vi) Interchangeability(vii) Reflexivity1.3 Functions of language(i) The ideational function(ii) The interpersonal function(iii) The textual functionWhich of the following does not belong to the language metafunctions illustrated byM.A.K. Halliday?A.Ideational functionB. Interpersonal functionC．Textual function. D. Logical function1.4 Types of language( ) Chinese is an agglutinating language.1.5 The myth of language: language origin1.6 Linguistics: the scientific study of language1.6.1 Linguistics as a science1.6.2 Branches of linguistics(i) Intra-disciplinary divisions(ii) Inter-disciplinary divisions1.6.3 Features of modern linguisticsChapter 2 Phonetics: The Study of Speech Sounds2.1 The study of speech soundsThe study of speech sounds is called ________.A. PhoneticsB. Articulatory phoneticsC. PhonologyD. Acoustic Phonetics2.2 The sound-producing mechanism2.3 Phonetic transcription of speech sounds2.3.1 Unit of representation2.3.2 Phonetic symbols2.4 Description of English consonants2.5 Description of English vowels( ) Not all vowels are voiced.2.6 Phonetic features and natural classesI. Write the phonetic symbol that corresponds to the articulatory description. (10%) Example: vowel front high [i:]1．bilabial nasal2．voiced labiovelar glide3．literal liquid4．voiced bilabial stop5．front high laxII. Transcribe the sound represented by the underlined letter(s) in the words and then describe it. (10%)Example: heat [i:] vowel front high1．write2．actor3．city4．worry1．yesChapter 3 Phonology: The Study of Sound Systems and Patterns3.1 The study of sound systems and patterns( ) The study of speech sounds is called Phonology.3.2 Phonemes and allophones3.3 Discovering phonemes3.3.1 Contrastive distributionSip and zip, tip and dip, map and nap, etc, are all ______.A. minimal pairsB. minimal setsC. allophonesD. phomes3.3.2 Complimentary distribution( ) The voiceless bilabial stop in pin and the one in spin are in complementary distribution.Pronounce the words key and core, ski and score, paying attention to the phoneme /k/. What difference do you notice between the first pair and the second pair in terms of the phonetic features of the voiceless velar stop? (10%)3.3.3 Free Variation( ) If segments appear in the same position but the mutual substitution does not result in change of meaning, they are said to be in free variation.3.3.4 The discovery procedure3.4 Distinctive features and non-distinctive features3.5 Phonological rules3.6 Syllable structureEvery syllable has a(n) _______, which is usually a vowel.A. onsetB. nucleusC. codaD. rhyme3.7 Sequence of phonemes3.8 Features above segments3.8.1 Stress3.8.2 Intonation3.8.3 Tone( ) Tone is the variation of pitch to distinguish utterance meaning.Which of the following does not belong to suprasegmental features?B.Stress B. IntonationC. ToneD. Syllable3.8.4 The functioning of stress and intonation in EnglishI.How would you read the phrases in the two columns? What does each of them mean? (10%)Column I Column IIa. a bluebird a blue birdb. a lighthouse keeper a light housekeeperII.Explain the ambiguity of the following sentences. (10%)1. Those who went there quickly made a fortune.2. A woman murdererChapter 4 Morphology: The Study of Word Structure4.1 Words and word structure1.________ is defined as the study of the internal structure and the formation of words.A. MorphologyB. SyntaxC. LexiconD. Morpheme4.2 Morpheme: the minimal meaningful unit of language4.3 Classification of morphemes4.3.1 Free and bound morphemes( ) In the phrases a herd of cattle, a flock of sheep, both cattle and sheep contain only one morpheme.In the phrases a herd of cattle, a flock of sheep, both cattle and sheep contain _____ morphemes.A. oneB. twoC. threeD. four4.3.2. Inflectional and derivational morphemes4.4 Formation of English words4.4.1 Derivation4.4.2 Compounding( ) The meaning of compounds is always the sum of meaning of the compounds. ( ) A greenbottle is a type of bottle.( ) Compounding, the combination of free morphemes, is a common way to form words.4.4.3 Other types of English word formationTell the process of word formation illustrated by the example and find as many words as you can that are formed in the same way. (10%)a) flub) OPECc) Nobeld)televisee) better (v.)_____ is a process that puts an existing word of one class into another class.A. ClippingB. BlendingC. EponymD. ConversionChapter 5 Syntax: the Analysis of Sentence Structure5.1 Grammaticality5.2 Knowledge of sentence structure5.3 Different approaches to syntax5.4 Transformational-generative grammar5.4.1 The goal of a TG grammar5.4.2 Syntactic categories5.4.3 Phrase structure rules5.4.4 Tree diagramsDraw two tree diagrams of the following ambiguous sentence. (10%)Pat found a book on Wall Street.5.4.5 Recursion and the infinitude of language5.4.6 Subcategorization of the lexicon5.4.7 Transformational rules5.5 Systemic-functional grammar5.5.1 Two perspectives of syntactic analysis: chain and choice5.5.2 The three metafunctions5.5.3 Transitivity: syntactic structure as representation of experienceMaterial processesRelational processesMental processesVerbal processesBehavioral processesExistential processesIdentify the type of transitivity process in each of the following sentences. (10%)1. John washed the car.2. John likes the car.5.5.4 Mood and modality: syntactic structure as representation of interaction5.5.5 Theme and rheme: syntactic structure as organization of message Chapter 6 Semantics: the Analysis of Meaning6.1 The study of meaning6.2 Reference and sense6.2.1 Reference6.2.2 Sense6.3 Classification of lexical meaningsBoth pretty and handsome mean good-looking but they differ in ________ meaning.A. collocativeB. socialC. affectiveD. reflected6.3.1 Referential meaning and associative meaning6.3.2 Types of associative meaning6.4 Lexical sense relations6.4.1 Synonymy6.4.2 Antonymy6.4.3 Homonymy6.4.4 Polysemy6.4.5 HyponymyExplain the relation between bank1(the side of a river) and bank2(the financial institute). (5%)6.5. Describing lexical meaning: componential analysis6.6 Words and concepts6.6.1 Categorization6.6.2 Prototypes6.6.3 Hierarchies6.7 Semantic relations of sentencesTell the semantic relation within the given sentence and that between the two sentences.(15%)a)My uncle is male.b)The spinster is married.c)Jim is an orphan. Jim lives with his parents.d)Sam is the husband of Sally. Sally is the wife of Sam.e)He has gone to London. He has gone to England.6.8 Metaphors6.8.1 From rhetorical device to cognitive device6.8.2 The components of metaphors6.8.3 Features of metaphorsChapter 7 Pragmatics: Analysis of Meaning in Context7.1 The pragmatic analysis of meaning7.2 Deixis and reference7.3 Speech ActsWhat are the three dimensions that a speech act consists of?7.4 Cooperation and implicatureWhat are the four maxims of the Cooperative Principle?7.5 The politeness principle7.6 The principle of relevance7.7 Conversational structure______ refers to having the right to speak by turns.A．Adjacency pairs B. Turn-talkingC．Preferred second parts D. Insertion sequencesChapter 8 Language in Social Contexts8.1 Sociolinguistic study of languageHow do sociolinguists classify the varieties of English?8.2 Varieties of a language1. ______ is a term widely used in sociolinguistics to refer to “varieties according to use.”A. RegisterB. FieldC. ModeD. Tenor2. British English and American English are ______ varieties of the English language.A. functionalB. socialC. regionalD. standard8.3 Grades of formality8.4 Languages in contactHow do you distinguish pidgin from Creole?8.5 Taboos and euphemisms8.6 Language and culture8.7. Communicative competenceChapter 9 Second Language Acquisition9.1 What is second language acquisition?In _____ stage, children use single words to represent various meanings.A. telegraphicB. two-wordC. holophrasticD. babbling9.2 Factors affecting SLA9.3 Analyzing learners' language_____ is the approximate language system that the learner constructs for use in communication through the target language.A. MetalanguageB. InterlanguageC. SignD. Esperanto9.4 Explaining second language acquisitionChapter 10 Linguistics and Foreign Language Teaching10.1 Foreign language teaching as a system10.2 Contribution of linguistics: applications and implications10.3 Linguistic underpinning of syllabus design10.4 Method as integration of theory and practice10.5 Linguistics in the professional development of language teachers。
英语语言学知识整理Chapter 1 Introduction语言学的定义：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.问题：How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language?→It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.What the linguist has to do “first, then, but”:①to observe and collect language facts and generalizations are made about them.②to formulate some hypotheses about the language structure.③to check the hypotheses thus formed repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity.The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)问题: What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?→phonetics（语音学）→the study of sounds→phonology（音位学）→study how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning→morphology（形态学）→study the way in which symbols or morphemes are arranged and combined to form words.→syntax（句法学）→the study of rules of forming sentences →semantics（语义学）→the study of meaning→pragmatics（语用学）→the context of language useSociolinguistics（社会语言学）：The studies of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch.Psycholinguistics（语言心理学）：Relate the study of language to psychologyApplied linguistics（应用语言学）：In a narrow sense it refers to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Some important distinctions in linguistics:①prescriptive（规定性）/descriptive（描写性）②synchronic（共时）/diachronic（历时）③speech（口语）/writing（书面语）④langue（语言）/parole（言语）（the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure——Course in General Linguistics）⑤competence（语言能力）/performance（语言应用）（the American linguist N. Chomsky）⑥traditional grammar （传统语法）/modern linguistics（现代语言学）问题：in what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?①linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.②modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.③modern linguistics does not force languages into a La tin-based framework.问题：Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?In modern linguistics, a synchronic (不考虑历史演进的, 限于一时的) approach seems to enjoy priorityBecause it is believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.Synchronic descriptions are often thought of as being descriptions of language in its current existence, and most linguistic studies are of this type.问题：For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today’s world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.Spoken language reveals more true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised”record of speech. And linguists’data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regarded as authentic.语言的定义：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Design features of language（7个识别特征）①arbitrariness 任意性（at the syntactic level）②productivity 能产性，创造性Secondary units（底层结构sounds）③duality 双层性Primary units （上层结构units of meaning）④displacement 不受时空限制性（handle generalization and abstraction）⑤cultural transmission 文化传递性⑥interchangeability 互换性⑦convention 约定性Functions of language：三大主要功能：The descriptive functionThe expressive functionThe social functionRoman Jacobson（6种首要因素，结构主义语言学家）①speaker addresser→emotive 感情功能②addressee→conative 意动功能③context→referential所指功能④message→poetic 诗学功能⑤contact→phatic communion交感功能⑥code→metalinguistic 元语言功能Other functions:②informative f. 信息功能③interrogative f. 询问功能④expressive f. 表达功能⑤evocative f. 感染功能⑥directive f. 指令功能⑦performative f. 行使（权力）功能M.A.K. Halliday①ideational②interpersonal（indicate/establish/maintain/social relationships）③textual问题：How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?The distinction between langue and parole was made by Saussure, langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently, while parole varies from people to people, and from situation to situation.The distinction between competence and performance proposed by the American linguists Chomsky, competence is a deal user’s kno wledge of the rules of his language, and the performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Imperfect performance is caused by social and psychological factors.Saussure makes this distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. In his opinion, parole is simple a mass of linguistic facts, too varied confusing for systematic investigation, and that linguistics should do is to abstract langue from parole, i.e., to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks what linguists should study is the ideal speaker’s competence, not his performance, which is too haphazard to be studied.问题：What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?①arbitrariness 任意性（at the syntactic level）②productivity 能产性，创造性Secondary units（底层结构sounds）③duality 双层性Primary units （上层结构units of meaning）④displacement 不受时空限制性（handle generalization and abstraction）⑤cultural transmission 文化传递性⑥interchangeability 互换性⑦convention 约定性Chapter 2 PhonologyPhonetics: （语音学）①the study of the phonic medium of languageⅠstudy the sounds from the speaker’s point of view→articulatory phonetics（发音语音学）Ⅱlook at the sounds from the hearer’s point of view→auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）Ⅲstudy the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves→acoustic phonetics（声学语音学）③study how sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived.Organs of speech:⒈three important areas①The pharyngeal cavity→the throat②the oral cavity→the mouth③the nasal cavity→the nose⒉The pharyngeal cavity→windpipe/glottis/larynx/vocal cords⒊the oral cavity→tongue/uvula/soft palate(velum)/hard palate/teeth ridge(alveolus)/teeth/lipsInternational Phonetic Alphabet （IPA）①diacritics 附加符号②broad transcription（宽式标音）→the transcription with letter-symbols only③narrow transcription（严式标音）→the tran scription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics Classification of English speech sounds①two broad categories of speech sounds in English: V owels/consonants②two ways to classify the English consonants: In terms of manner of articulationIn terms of place of articulation③In terms of manner of articulation:Stops/fricatives/affricates/liquids/nasals/glides④In terms of place of articulation:Bilabial/labiodental/dental/alveolar/palatal/velar/glottal⑤bilabial Labio-dental dental alveolar palatal velar glottalstops VL p t kVD b d gfricatives VL f θs ?hVD v ez ?affricates VL (t?) t?VD (d?) d?nasals VD m n ?liquids VD l/rglides VD w jClassification of English vowels⒈criteria :（monophthongs）单元音The position of the tongue in the mouth: front/central/backThe openness of the mouth: close vowels/semi-close vowels/semi-open vowels/open vowelsThe shape of the lips: unrounded/roundedfront central backclose i: u:i uSemi-close e ?::Semi-openopen ? ??a a:⒉diphthongs 双元音/ei //ai //au //?u //?i //i? //ε?// u? /Phonology 音韵学，语音体系Difference of phonology and phonetics:①Phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages.②Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds areused to convey meaning in linguistic communication.Phone（音素）: A phone is a phonetic unit or segment.Phoneme（音位）: It is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particularsound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.Allophone（音位变体）: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.Phonemic contrast（音位对立）Complementary distribution（音位变体的互补分布）Minimal pairs（最小对立体）：含音位的单词的全部音标Minimal set（最小对立集）：is used to find the important sounds in language.Phonological Analysis（音位分析）Principle: certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phase, whereas other sounds do not. Phonetically similar sounds:描述音位关系Free variants: 音位的自由变体differences instead of by any distribution rule.Some rules in phonology①sequential rules: 序列规则If a word begins with a / l / or a / r /, then the next sound must be a vowel.If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules: The first phoneme must be / s /The second phoneme must be / p / / t / / k /The third phoneme must be / l // r // w /②ass imilation rule:同化规则③deletion rule：省略规则Suprasegmental features 超音段特征≠超音段（比音位更大的语言单位）①stress（单词，句子层面）：the location of stress in Englishdistinguishes meaning.Syllable音节：A syllable nucleus (often a vowel) with optional initial and final margins (often consonants)单音节词多音节词英语单词都有重读音位学中，单词由音节构成，音节由音位构成。
英语语言文学考研刘润清《新编语言学教程》考研考点复习笔记本章要点：1. The definition and main branches of linguistics study语言学的定义和研究的范围2. The definition and the origins of language语言的定义与起源3. The design feature and the function of language语言的特征和功能4. Some major concepts in linguistics语言学中重要的概念本章考点：1. 有关语言学的常考考点(1) 语言学的定义，现代语言学与传统语法学研究的区别。
(2) 语言学中几组重要概念，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义。
(3) 普通语言学的主要分支学科及各自的研究范畴。
(4) 宏观语言学及应用语言学的主要分支及各自的研究范畴。
2. 有关语言的常考考点(1) 语言的定义；语言的基本特征(任意性、二重性、多产性、移位性、互换性、专门性和文化传递性)；(2) 语言的功能(寒暄、指示、信息、疑问、表达、劝说和施为)；(3) 语言的起源(叮咚说、唱歌说、哒哒说、汪汪、噗噗、哟嘿吼理论等。
) 本章内容索引：I. Definition of linguisticsII. Linguistics vs. traditional grammarIII. Scope of linguistics1. Microlinguistics2. MacrolinguisticsIV. Definition of languageV. Origins of language1. Ding-Dong Theory2. Sing-Song Theory3. Pooh-Pooh Theory4. Yo-He-Ho Theory5. Ta-Ta Theory6. Bow-Wow TheoryVI. Design features of language1. Arbitrariness2. Duality3. Productivity4. Interchangeability5. Displacement6. Specialization7. Cultural transmissionVII. Functions of language1. Phatic function/communion2. Directive function3. Informative function4. Interrogative function5. Expressive function6. Evocative function7. Performative functionVIII. Some major concepts in linguistics1. Descriptive and prescriptive grammar2. Synchronic and diachronic linguistics3. Langue and parole4. Competence and performance5. Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations6. Functionalism and formalismI. Definition of linguistics (语言学的定义)【考点：名词解释】The scientific or systemic study of language, which is always guided by the- three canons of science: exhaustiveness, consistency and economy.语言学是对语言的科学或系统的研究。
英语复习备考的技巧英语复习备考的技巧有哪些怎样学英语是最快最有效的呢?一是将自己沉浸在语言环境中，并且需要多听多看多读;二是多记多背，利用零碎时间背单词、看语法;三是为自己设定目标，督促自己在一段时间内达到某个水平。
下面小编给大家整理了关于英语复习备考的技巧的内容，欢迎阅读，内容仅供参考!英语复习备考的技巧首先，从提高阅读能力开始。
怎样学英语，每天精做一个阅读理解，限时做三个阅读。
具体做阅读的方法就是先读一遍，看看能不能读懂，画出所有的不认识的单词和句子。
然后查出所有陌生单词记到本子上。
限时做的三个阅读要求就没这么高了，但是依然要注意单词和句子，尤其是句子，一定要把你觉得能用的到且逼格比较高的句子记下来。
记下这些单词之后，在早读的时候读这些单词和句子，记不住就做到尽量熟悉。
重点了解各种句子结构，特别是翻译的技巧，比如倒装句之类的。
虽然老师在课上会讲很多，听得我们云里雾里的，但是理解句子最重要。
每个月小结一次，适时调整任务量和所用的阅读文章，精读的文章尽量选干货多、难度适中且题材比较贴近生活的。
学英语的方法第一，学习英语最最重要的就是词汇量。
从现在开始，就好好背单词，如果没有相关英语的课程，那我建议你下个英文单词app，如果有英语相关的课程，那我建议，首先你需要记会的就是课上学过的单词，其次才是那些单词书，以及软件上面的单词哦。
第二，就是培养语感。
我认为语感是建立在语法的基础上，所以要语感好，起码语法得过关，这个就需要疯狂刷题了，在刷题的过程中，不同的语法自然就熟稔于心啦，至于刷什么题，某宝都有哦，可以搜搜看，找那种专门练习语法，解析很详细的呦。
另外语感还来自于一个方面，那就是读背课文，做阅读了，怎么说呢，每天学完英语就张口读啊，然后喜欢看美剧就张口跟读啊，看到比较有趣的短文可以背啊，途径真的很多，但是真的，做起来很难，坚持更难哦。
第三，英语学习我觉得最重要的，就是克服惰性，培养兴趣。
任何学习，不认真努力学，不坚持学都很难进步，更不能三天打鱼两天晒网，一定要有长远的计划。
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguisticsnguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. To give the barest definition language is a means of verbal communication. It is instrumental social and conventional. Linguistics is usually defined as the science of language or alternatively as the scientific study of language. It concerns with the systematic study of language or a discipline that describes all aspects of language and formulates theories as to how language works.2.Design features refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement etc.Arbitrariness refers to forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning Language is arbitrary. There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds even with onomatopoeic words.Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structure. The units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.☺the lower or the basic level---- the sound units or phonemes which are meaningless, but can be grouped and regrouped into words.☺the higher level ----morphemes and words which are meaningfulCreativity refers to Words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be instantly understood by people who have never come across that usage before.Displacement refers to the fact that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present real or imagined matters in the past present or future or in faraway places. It means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects events and concepts which are not present in time and space at the moment of communication3. Jakobson’s classification of functions of language.Jakobson : In his article Linguistics and Poetics (1960) defined six primary factors of any speech event: speaker, addressee, context,message, code, contact.1).Referential function 所指功能2).Poetic function诗学功能3).Emotive function感情功能4).Conative function意动功能5).Phatic function交感功能6).Metalingual元语言功能Hu Zhuanglin’ classification of functions of language and use some examples to illustrate them.1).Informative function 信息功能2).Interpersonal function 人际功能3).Performative function 施为功能4).Emotive function 感情功能5).Phatic communion 交感性谈话6).Recreational function 娱乐性功能7).Metalingual function 元语言功能4. What are the major differences between Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole and Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?According to Saussure,(1) Langue is abstract, parole is specific to the speaking situation;(2) Langue is not actually spoken by an individual , parole is always a naturally occurring event;(3) Langue is relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation.According to N. Chomsky,Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities; A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker's performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence; Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1.Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted and received. It is concerned with the actual physical articulation, transmission and perception of speech sounds.Phonology is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds. It isconcerned with the abstract and mental aspect of the sounds in language.Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication1. Lips2. Teeth3. Teeth ridge (alveolar)齿龈4. Hard palate 硬腭5. Soft palate (velum) 软腭6. Uvula 小舌7. Tip of tongue8. Blade of tongue 舌面9. Back of tongue10. V ocal cords 声带11. Pharyngeal cavity 咽腔 12. Nasal cavity 鼻腔2.Phone （音素): the smallest perceptible discreet segment of sound in a stream of speech. (in the mouth)Phoneme （音位）：A sound which is capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of a word from another in a given language is a phoneme. (in the mind)allophone (音位变体) : phonic variants of a phoneme are called allophone of the same phoneme. / / = phoneme [ ] = phone { } = set of allophonesIPA:the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet .Minimal pairs 最小对立体Three requirements for identifying minimal pairs:1) different in meaning; 2) only one phoneme different;3) the different phonemes occur in the same phonetic environment.e.g. a minimal pair: pat -fat; lit-lip; phone-toneminimal set:pat, mat, bat, fat, cat, hat, etcplementary distribution 互补分布Phonetically similar sounds might be related in two ways.If they are two distinctive phonemes, they might form a contrast; e.g. /p/and /b/ in [pit] and [bit];If they are allophones of the same phoneme, then they don’t distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution, i.e. they occur in different phonetic contextSuprasegmental features 超音段特征—features that involve more than single sound segment, such as stress （重音），length（音程）, rhythm （节奏），tone（音调），intonation（语调）及juncture（音渡）．Chapter 3 Lexicon/Morphology1. Word1.1 Three senses of “word”(1) A physically definable unit: a cluster of sound segments or letters between two pause orblank.(2) Word both as a general term and as a specific term.(3) A grammatical unit1.2 Identification of wordsSome factors can help us identify words:(1) Stability(2) Relative uninterruptibility(3) A minimum free form1.3 The classification of wordWords can be classified in terms of:(1) Variable vs. invariable words (可变词/不可变词)(2) Grammatical words vs. lexical words (语法词/词汇词)(3) Closed-class words vs. open-class words (封闭词/开放词)(4) word class(词类)(1) Variable vs. invariable words (可变词/不可变词)the former refers to words having inflective changes（屈折变化）while the latter refers to words having no such endings.Variable words: follow; follows; following; followedInvariable words: since; when; seldom; through; hello(2) Grammatical words vs. lexical words (function words and content words.语法词/词汇词)The former refers to those words expressing grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions(连词), prepositions（介词）, articles(冠词), and pronouns（代词）;the latter refers to words having lexical meanings, those which refer to substance, action etc. such as n., v., adj., and adv..(3) Closed-class words vs. open-class words (封闭词/开放词)the former refers to words whose membership is fixed or limited; e.g. pron., prep., conj., article. the latter of which the membership is infinite or unlimited. e.g.: n., v., adj., adv.(4) word class (词类)The traditionally recognized word classes are: noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjection, article, etc. More word classes have been introduced into grammar: particles 小品词/语助词(go by, look for, come up);auxiliaries 助词(can, be, will);pro-form 替代词(do, so);determiners 前置词/ 限定词(all, every, few, plenty of, this).2. The formation of word2.1 Morphology 形态学Definition：Morphology is a branch of linguistics, which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.The two fields (p64)Inflectional morphology: the study of inflectionsDerivational morphology: the study of word-formation3. Lexical change3.1 Lexical change proper（词本身的变化）Invention 新造词Blending混合词Abbreviation 缩合词Acronym首字母缩略词back-formation 逆构词analogical creation 类比造词Borrowing 借词、外来词definition:1) Morphology:Morphology is a branch of linguistics, which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2) Terminology 术语解释Morpheme: The smallest unit of meaning, which can not be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.Free morphemes: morphemes which may constitute words by themselves．Bound morphemes:morphemes which can not be used by themselves, but must be combined with other morphemes to form wordsInflectional morpheme: a kind of bound morphemes which manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree and case.Derivational morpheme: a kind of bound morphemes, added to existing forms to create new words. There are three kinds according to position: prefix, suffix and infix.Chapter 4 Syntax From Word to TextSyntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.Endocentric Constructions:is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.Exocentric Constructions:refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group Category: refers to the defining properties of these general units:Categories of the noun: number, gender, case and countabilityCategories of the verb: tense, aspect, voicethree kinds of syntactic relations:relations of position位置关系Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.relations of substitutability 可替代性关系The Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure.relations of co-occurrence 同现关系It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.Immediate Constituent Analysis (IC Analysis)Immediate constituent analysis is a form of linguistic review that breaks down longer phrases or sentences into their constituent parts, usually into single words. This kind of analysis is sometimes abbreviated as IC analysis,and gets used extensively by a wide range of language experts.Endocentric constructions fall into two main types, depending on the relation between constituents: Coordination and subordinationCoordination is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or .Subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.Characteristics of subjectsA) Word order: Subject ordinarily precedes the verb in the statementB) Pro-forms(代词形式) : The first and third person pronouns in English appear in a special form when the pronoun is a subjectC) Agreement with the verb: In the simple present tense, an -s is added to the verb when a third person subject is singular, but the number and person of the object or any other element in the sentence have no effect at all on the form of the verbD) Content questions (实意问句): If the subject is replaced by a question word (who or what), the rest of the sentence remains unchangedE) Tag question (反意问句): A tag question is used to seek confirmation of a statement. It always contains a pronoun which refers back to the subject, and never to any other element in the sentence.Explain the difference between sense and reference from the following four aspects:1) A word having reference must have sense;2) A word having sense might not have reference;3) A certain sense can be realized by more than one reference; 4) A certain reference can beexpressed by more than one senseThe distinction between “sense” and “reference” is com parable to that between “connotation” and “denotation”. The former refers to some abstract properties, while the latter refers to some concrete entities.Firstly, to some extent, we can say that every word has a sense, i.e., some conceptual content; otherwise we would not be able to use it or understand it. Secondly, but not every word has a reference. There are linguistic expressions which can never be used to refer to anything, for example, the words so, very, maybe, if, not, and all. These words do of course contribute meaning to the sentences in which they occur and thus help sentences denote, but they themselves do not identify entities in the world. They are intrinsically non-referring terms. And words like ghost and dragon refer to imaginary things, which do not exist in reality. Thirdly, some expressions will have the same reference across a range of utterances, e.g., the Eiffel Tower or the Pacific Ocean. Such expressions are sometimes described as having constant reference. Others have their references totally dependent on context. Expressions like I, you, she, etc. are said to have variable references. Lastly, sometimes a reference may be expressed by more than one sense. For instance, both ‘evening star’ and ‘morning star’(晚星，启明星), though they differ in sense, refer to Venus.Chapter 6 Language and cognition1.What is Cognition?In psychology it is used to refer to the mental processes of an individual with particular relation to a view that argues that the ming has internal mental states and can be understood in terms of information processing.Another denefition is mental process or faculty of knowing, including awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment.2.Cognitive LinguisticsCognitive linguistics is the scientific study of the relation between the way we communicate and the way we think.It is an approach to language that is based on our experience of the world and the way we perceive and conceptualize it.3.What are the differences between metaphor & metonymy? Give some examples. Metaphor is a conceptual mapping（概念映射）, not a linguistic one, from one domain to another （从一个语域到另一个语域）, not from a word to another.Metonymy is a cognitive process in which one conceptual entity, the vehicle（源域）, provides mental access to another conceptual entity, the target（目标域）, within the same domain. The reference point activates the target.1.Metaphor is used for substitution, while metonymy is used for association.2. Metaphor can mean condensation and metonymy can mean displacement.3. A metonymy acts by combining ideas while metaphor acts by suppressing ideas.4. In a metaphor, the comparison is based on the similarities, while in metonymy thecomparison is based on contiguity.--For example, the sentence ‘he is a tiger in class’ is a metaphor. Her e the word tiger is used in substitution for displaying an attribute of character of the person. The sentence ‘the tiger called his students to the meeting room’ is a metonymy. Here there is no substitution; instead the person is associated with a tiger for his nature..Metaphor is actually a cognitive tool that helps us structure our thoughts and experiences in the world around us..Metaphor is a conceptual mapping（概念映射）, not a linguistic one, from one domain to another（从一个语域到另一个语域）, not from a word to another.Metonymy（换喻，转喻）.It is a cognitive process in which one conceptual entity, the vehicle（源域）, provides mental access to another conceptual entity, the target（目标域）, within the same domain.2.Psycholinguistics is the study of psychological aspects of language; it usually studies the psychological states and mental activity with the use of language.Language acquisition (1) Holophrastic stage（单词句阶段）–Language’s sound patterns–Phonetic distinctions in parents’ language.–One-word stage: objects, actions, motions, routines.2) Two-word stage: around 18m3) Three-word-utterance stage4) Fluent grammatical conversation stageChapter 7 Language, culture and society1.the relationship between language and thought?Generally, the relation of L to C is that of part to whole, for L is part of C.The knowledge and beliefs that constitute a people’s culture are habitually encoded and transmitted in L.There exists a close relationship between language and culture. This is evidenced by the findings of anthropologists such as Malinowski, Firth, Baos, Sapir and Whorf. The study of the relation between language and the context in which it is used is the cultural study of language.2.What’s Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis? Give your comment on it.Edward Sapir (1884 - 1939) and Benjamin Lee Whorf (1897-1941)Our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages may probably express speakers’unique ways of understanding the world.Linguistic determinism: L may determine our thinking patterns.Linguistic relativity: a. Similarity between language is relative; b. the greater their structural differentiation is, the diverse their conceptualization of the world will be.Chapter 8 Language in usePragmatics: The study of language in use and the study of meaning in context, as well as the study of speakers’ meaning, utterance meaning& contextual meaning..What’s your understanding of conversational implicature? Use one or two examples to discuss the violation of its maxims.People do not usually say things directly but tend to imply them. CP is meant to describe whatactually happens in conversation. People tend to be cooperative and obey CP in communication. Since CP is regulative, CP can be violated. Violation of CP and its maxims leads to conversational implicature.1.What are the main differences between pragmatics and semantics?Semantics and pragmatics are both linguistic studies of meaning. The essential difference lies in whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. If it is not, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is, the study is carried out in the area of pragmatics.Semantics studies sentences as units of the abstract linguistic system while pragmatics studies utterances as instances of the system.The former stops at the sentence level; the latter looks at bigger chunks of conversation. The former regards sentences as stable products; the latter treats utterances as dynamic processes. The former analyses sentences in isolation; The latter analyses utterances in close connection with their contexts of situation.2. What does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditional semantics?答： Generally speaking, pragmatics is the study of meaning in the context. It studies meaning in a dynamic way and as a process. In order to have a successful communication, the speaker and he arer must take the context into their consideration so as to affect the right meaning and intention. T he development and establishment pragmatics in 1960s and 1970s resulted mainly from the expan sion of the study semantics. However, it is different from the traditional semantics. The major diff erence between them lies in that pragmatics studies meaning in a dynamic way, while semantics st udies meaning in a static way. Pragmatics takes context into consideration while semantics does n ot. Pragmatics takes care of the aspect of meaning that is not accounted for by semantics.3. What are the four maxims of the CP? Try to give your own examples to show how flouting these maxims give rise to conversational implicature?答： Cooperative Principle, abbreviated as CP. It goes as follows:Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the ac cepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.To be more specific, there are four maxims under this general principle:(1) The maxim of quantity① Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange) . ② Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.(2) The maxim of quality① Do not say what you believe to be false.② Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.(3) The maxim of relation Be relevant.(4) The maxim of manner① Avoid obscurity of expression. ② Avoid ambiguity.③ Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).④ Be orderly.Chapter 9 Language and literature1.What is ‘foregrounding’?In a purely linguistic sense, the term ‘foregrounding’ is used to refer to new information, in contrast to elements in the sentence which form the background against which the new elementsare to be understood by the listener / reader.In the wider sense of stylistics, text linguistics, and literary studies, it is a translation of the Czech aktualisace (actualization), a term common with the Prague Structuralists.The English term ‘foregrounding’has come to mean several things at once:-the (psycholinguistic) processes by which - during the reading act - something may be given special prominence;-specific devices (as produced by the author) located in the text itself. It is also employed to indicate the specific poetic effect on the reader;-an analytic category in order to evaluate literary texts, or to situate them historically, or to explain their importance and cultural significance, or to differentiate literature from other varieties of language use, such as everyday conversations or scientific reports.Literal language and figurative language-A language is called literal when what is meant to be conveyed is same as what the word to word meaning of what is said. In contrast the figurative language, the words are used to imply meaning which is other than their strict dictionary meaning.-Literal language refers to words that do not deviate from their defined meaning. Figurative language refers to words, and groups of words, that exaggerate or alter the usual meanings of the component words. Figurative language may involve analogy to similar concepts or other contexts, and may involve exaggerations. These alterations result in figures of speech.Chapter 11 LinguisticsApplied linguistics: is the study of the relation of linguistics to foreign language teaching, of the ways of applying linguistic theories to the practice of foreign language teaching. Universal Grammar:is a theory in linguistics that suggests that there are properties that all Possible natural human languages have. Usually credited to Noam Chomsky, the theory suggests that some rules of grammar are hard-wired into the brain, and manifest themselves without being taught. There is still much argument whether there is such a thing and what it would be. Syllabus: a syllabus is a specification of what take place in the classroom,which usually contains the aims and contents of teaching and sometimes contains suggestions of methodology. Interlanguage: the type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language is often referred to as interlanguage.contrastive analysis: A way of comparing L1 and L2 to determine potential errors for the purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what not. Its goal is to predict what areas will be easyto learn and what will be difficult. Associated in its early days with behaviorism and structuralism. the Input Hypothesis: according to krashen's input hypothesis, learners acquire language as a result of comprehending input addressed to them.Chapter 12 Theories & schools of modern linguisticsTransformational-Generative GrammarThe five stages of development of TG Grammar:1) The classical theory (1957)2) The standard theory (1965)3) Extended standard theory4) GB/PP theory (1981)5) The Minimalist ProgramInnateness hypothesis: Chomsky believes that language is somewhat innate, and that children are born with what he calls a Language Acquisition Device(LAD), which is a unique kind of knowledge that fits them for language learning.CHOMSKY’S TG GRAMMAR DIFFERS FROM THE STRUCTURAL GRAMMARIN A NUMBER OF WAYS1. Rationalism2. innateness 3 deductive methodology4 emphasis on interpretation 5formalization 6.emphasis on linguistic competence 7. strong generative powers 8.emphasis on linguistic universals11 / 11。
