Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics
https://www.doczj.com/doc/cf8403399.html,nguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. To give the barest definition language is a means of verbal communication. It is instrumental social and conventional. Linguistics is usually defined as the science of language or alternatively as the scientific study of language. It concerns with the systematic study of language or a discipline that describes all aspects of language and formulates theories as to how language works.
2.Design features refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement etc.
Arbitrariness refers to forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning Language is arbitrary. There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds even with onomatopoeic words.
Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structure. The units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.
?the lower or the basic level---- the sound units or phonemes which are meaningless, but can be grouped and regrouped into words.
?the higher level ----morphemes and words which are meaningful
Creativity refers to Words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be instantly understood by people who have never come across that usage before.
Displacement refers to the fact that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present real or imagined matters in the past present or future or in faraway places. It means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects events and concepts which are not present in time and space at the moment of communication
3. Jakobson’s classification of functions of language.
Jakobson : In his article Linguistics and Poetics (1960) defined six primary factors of any speech event: speaker, addressee, context,message, code, contact.
1).Referential function 所指功能2).Poetic function诗学功能3).Emotive function感情功能
4).Conative function意动功能5).Phatic function交感功能6).Metalingual元语言功能
Hu Zhuanglin’ classification of functions of language and use some examples to illustrate them.
1).Informative function 信息功能2).Interpersonal function 人际功能3).Performative function 施为功能4).Emotive function 感情功能5).Phatic communion 交感性谈话6).Recreational function 娱乐性功能7).Metalingual function 元语言功能
4. What are the major differences between Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole and Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?
According to Saussure,(1) Langue is abstract, parole is specific to the speaking situation;(2) Langue is not actually spoken by an individual , parole is always a naturally occurring event;(3) Langue is relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation.
According to N. Chomsky,Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities; A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker's performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence; Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.
Chapter 2 Speech Sounds
1.Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted and received. It is concerned with the actual physical articulation, transmission and perception of speech sounds.
Phonology is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds. It is
concerned with the abstract and mental aspect of the sounds in language.
Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication
1. Lips
2. Teeth
3. Teeth ridge (alveolar)齿龈
4. Hard palate 硬腭
5. Soft palate (velum) 软腭
6. Uvula 小舌
7. Tip of tongue
8. Blade of tongue 舌面
9. Back of tongue
10. V ocal cords 声带
11. Pharyngeal cavity 咽腔 12. Nasal cavity 鼻腔
2.Phone （音素): the smallest perceptible discreet segment of sound in a stream of speech. (in the mouth)
Phoneme （音位）：A sound which is capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of a word from another in a given language is a phoneme. (in the mind)
allophone (音位变体) : phonic variants of a phoneme are called allophone of the same phoneme. / / = phoneme [ ] = phone { } = set of allophones
IPA:the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet .
Minimal pairs 最小对立体
Three requirements for identifying minimal pairs:
1) different in meaning; 2) only one phoneme different;
3) the different phonemes occur in the same phonetic environment.
e.g. a minimal pair: pat -fat; lit-lip; phone-tone
minimal set:
pat, mat, bat, fat, cat, hat, etc
https://www.doczj.com/doc/cf8403399.html,plementary distribution 互补分布
Phonetically similar sounds might be related in two ways.
If they are two distinctive phonemes, they might form a contrast; e.g. /p/and /b/ in [pit] and [bit];
If they are allophones of the same phoneme, then they don’t distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution, i.e. they occur in different phonetic context
Suprasegmental features 超音段特征
—features that involve more than single sound segment, such as stress （重音），length（音程）, rhythm （节奏），tone（音调），intonation（语调）及juncture（音渡）．
Chapter 3 Lexicon/Morphology
1. Word
1.1 Three senses of “word”
(1) A physically definable unit: a cluster of sound segments or letters between two pause or
blank.
(2) Word both as a general term and as a specific term.
(3) A grammatical unit
1.2 Identification of words
Some factors can help us identify words:
(1) Stability
(2) Relative uninterruptibility
(3) A minimum free form
1.3 The classification of word
Words can be classified in terms of:
(1) Variable vs. invariable words (可变词/不可变词)
(2) Grammatical words vs. lexical words (语法词/词汇词)
(3) Closed-class words vs. open-class words (封闭词/开放词)
(4) word class(词类)
(1) Variable vs. invariable words (可变词/不可变词)
the former refers to words having inflective changes（屈折变化）while the latter refers to words having no such endings.
Variable words: follow; follows; following; followed
Invariable words: since; when; seldom; through; hello
(2) Grammatical words vs. lexical words (function words and content words.语法词/词汇词)
The former refers to those words expressing grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions(连词), prepositions（介词）, articles(冠词), and pronouns（代词）;
the latter refers to words having lexical meanings, those which refer to substance, action etc. such as n., v., adj., and adv..
(3) Closed-class words vs. open-class words (封闭词/开放词)
the former refers to words whose membership is fixed or limited; e.g. pron., prep., conj., article. the latter of which the membership is infinite or unlimited. e.g.: n., v., adj., adv.
(4) word class (词类)
The traditionally recognized word classes are: noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjection, article, etc. More word classes have been introduced into grammar: particles 小品词/语助词(go by, look for, come up);
auxiliaries 助词(can, be, will);
pro-form 替代词(do, so);
determiners 前置词/ 限定词(all, every, few, plenty of, this).
2. The formation of word
2.1 Morphology 形态学
Definition：Morphology is a branch of linguistics, which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.
The two fields (p64)
Inflectional morphology: the study of inflections
Derivational morphology: the study of word-formation
3. Lexical change
3.1 Lexical change proper（词本身的变化）
Invention 新造词Blending混合词Abbreviation 缩合词Acronym首字母缩略词
back-formation 逆构词analogical creation 类比造词Borrowing 借词、外来词
definition:
1) Morphology:Morphology is a branch of linguistics, which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.
2) Terminology 术语解释
Morpheme: The smallest unit of meaning, which can not be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.
Free morphemes: morphemes which may constitute words by themselves．
Bound morphemes:morphemes which can not be used by themselves, but must be combined with other morphemes to form words
Inflectional morpheme: a kind of bound morphemes which manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree and case.
Derivational morpheme: a kind of bound morphemes, added to existing forms to create new words. There are three kinds according to position: prefix, suffix and infix.
Chapter 4 Syntax From Word to Text
Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.
Endocentric Constructions:is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.
Exocentric Constructions:refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group Category: refers to the defining properties of these general units:
Categories of the noun: number, gender, case and countability
Categories of the verb: tense, aspect, voice
three kinds of syntactic relations:
relations of position位置关系
Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.
relations of substitutability 可替代性关系
The Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure.
relations of co-occurrence 同现关系
It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.
Immediate Constituent Analysis (IC Analysis)
Immediate constituent analysis is a form of linguistic review that breaks down longer phrases or sentences into their constituent parts, usually into single words. This kind of analysis is sometimes abbreviated as IC analysis,
and gets used extensively by a wide range of language experts.
Endocentric constructions fall into two main types, depending on the relation between constituents: Coordination and subordination
Coordination is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or .
Subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.
Characteristics of subjects
A) Word order: Subject ordinarily precedes the verb in the statement
B) Pro-forms(代词形式) : The first and third person pronouns in English appear in a special form when the pronoun is a subject
C) Agreement with the verb: In the simple present tense, an -s is added to the verb when a third person subject is singular, but the number and person of the object or any other element in the sentence have no effect at all on the form of the verb
D) Content questions (实意问句): If the subject is replaced by a question word (who or what), the rest of the sentence remains unchanged
E) Tag question (反意问句): A tag question is used to seek confirmation of a statement. It always contains a pronoun which refers back to the subject, and never to any other element in the sentence.
Explain the difference between sense and reference from the following four aspects:
1) A word having reference must have sense;
2) A word having sense might not have reference;
3) A certain sense can be realized by more than one reference; 4) A certain reference can be
expressed by more than one sense
The distinction between “sense” and “reference” is com parable to that between “connotation” and “denotation”. The former refers to some abstract properties, while the latter refers to some concrete entities.Firstly, to some extent, we can say that every word has a sense, i.e., some conceptual content; otherwise we would not be able to use it or understand it. Secondly, but not every word has a reference. There are linguistic expressions which can never be used to refer to anything, for example, the words so, very, maybe, if, not, and all. These words do of course contribute meaning to the sentences in which they occur and thus help sentences denote, but they themselves do not identify entities in the world. They are intrinsically non-referring terms. And words like ghost and dragon refer to imaginary things, which do not exist in reality. Thirdly, some expressions will have the same reference across a range of utterances, e.g., the Eiffel Tower or the Pacific Ocean. Such expressions are sometimes described as having constant reference. Others have their references totally dependent on context. Expressions like I, you, she, etc. are said to have variable references. Lastly, sometimes a reference may be expressed by more than one sense. For instance, both ‘evening star’ and ‘morning star’(晚星，启明星), though they differ in sense, refer to Venus.
Chapter 6 Language and cognition
1.What is Cognition?
In psychology it is used to refer to the mental processes of an individual with particular relation to a view that argues that the ming has internal mental states and can be understood in terms of information processing.
Another denefition is mental process or faculty of knowing, including awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment.
2.Cognitive Linguistics
Cognitive linguistics is the scientific study of the relation between the way we communicate and the way we think.It is an approach to language that is based on our experience of the world and the way we perceive and conceptualize it.
3.What are the differences between metaphor & metonymy? Give some examples. Metaphor is a conceptual mapping（概念映射）, not a linguistic one, from one domain to another （从一个语域到另一个语域）, not from a word to another.
Metonymy is a cognitive process in which one conceptual entity, the vehicle（源域）, provides mental access to another conceptual entity, the target（目标域）, within the same domain. The reference point activates the target.
1.Metaphor is used for substitution, while metonymy is used for association.
2. Metaphor can mean condensation and metonymy can mean displacement.
3. A metonymy acts by combining ideas while metaphor acts by suppressing ideas.
4. In a metaphor, the comparison is based on the similarities, while in metonymy the
comparison is based on contiguity.
--For example, the sentence ‘he is a tiger in class’ is a metaphor. Her e the word tiger is used in substitution for displaying an attribute of character of the person. The sentence ‘the tiger called his students to the meeting room’ is a metonymy. Here there is no substitution; instead the person is associated with a tiger for his nature.
.Metaphor is actually a cognitive tool that helps us structure our thoughts and experiences in the world around us.
.Metaphor is a conceptual mapping（概念映射）, not a linguistic one, from one domain to another（从一个语域到另一个语域）, not from a word to another.
Metonymy（换喻，转喻）.It is a cognitive process in which one conceptual entity, the vehicle（源域）, provides mental access to another conceptual entity, the target（目标域）, within the same domain.
2.Psycholinguistics is the study of psychological aspects of language; it usually studies the psychological states and mental activity with the use of language.
Language acquisition (1) Holophrastic stage（单词句阶段）
–Language’s sound patterns
–Phonetic distinctions in parents’ language.
–One-word stage: objects, actions, motions, routines.
2) Two-word stage: around 18m
3) Three-word-utterance stage
4) Fluent grammatical conversation stage
Chapter 7 Language, culture and society
1.the relationship between language and thought?
Generally, the relation of L to C is that of part to whole, for L is part of C.
The knowledge and beliefs that constitute a people’s culture are habitually encoded and transmitted in L.
There exists a close relationship between language and culture. This is evidenced by the findings of anthropologists such as Malinowski, Firth, Baos, Sapir and Whorf. The study of the relation between language and the context in which it is used is the cultural study of language.
2.What’s Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis? Give your comment on it.
Edward Sapir (1884 - 1939) and Benjamin Lee Whorf (1897-1941)
Our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages may probably express speakers’unique ways of understanding the world.
Linguistic determinism: L may determine our thinking patterns.
Linguistic relativity: a. Similarity between language is relative; b. the greater their structural differentiation is, the diverse their conceptualization of the world will be.
Chapter 8 Language in use
Pragmatics: The study of language in use and the study of meaning in context, as well as the study of speakers’ meaning, utterance meaning& contextual meaning.
.What’s your understanding of conversational implicature? Use one or two examples to discuss the violation of its maxims.
People do not usually say things directly but tend to imply them. CP is meant to describe what
actually happens in conversation. People tend to be cooperative and obey CP in communication. Since CP is regulative, CP can be violated. Violation of CP and its maxims leads to conversational implicature.
1.What are the main differences between pragmatics and semantics?
Semantics and pragmatics are both linguistic studies of meaning. The essential difference lies in whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. If it is not, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is, the study is carried out in the area of pragmatics.
Semantics studies sentences as units of the abstract linguistic system while pragmatics studies utterances as instances of the system.
The former stops at the sentence level; the latter looks at bigger chunks of conversation. The former regards sentences as stable products; the latter treats utterances as dynamic processes. The former analyses sentences in isolation; The latter analyses utterances in close connection with their contexts of situation.
2. What does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditional semantics?
答： Generally speaking, pragmatics is the study of meaning in the context. It studies meaning in a dynamic way and as a process. In order to have a successful communication, the speaker and he arer must take the context into their consideration so as to affect the right meaning and intention. T he development and establishment pragmatics in 1960s and 1970s resulted mainly from the expan sion of the study semantics. However, it is different from the traditional semantics. The major diff erence between them lies in that pragmatics studies meaning in a dynamic way, while semantics st udies meaning in a static way. Pragmatics takes context into consideration while semantics does n ot. Pragmatics takes care of the aspect of meaning that is not accounted for by semantics.
3. What are the four maxims of the CP? Try to give your own examples to show how flouting these maxims give rise to conversational implicature?
答： Cooperative Principle, abbreviated as CP. It goes as follows:
Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the ac cepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.
To be more specific, there are four maxims under this general principle:
(1) The maxim of quantity
① Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange) . ② Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.
(2) The maxim of quality
① Do not say what you believe to be false.
② Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.
(3) The maxim of relation Be relevant.
(4) The maxim of manner
① Avoid obscurity of expression. ② Avoid ambiguity.
③ Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).
④ Be orderly.
Chapter 9 Language and literature
1.What is ‘foregrounding’?
In a purely linguistic sense, the term ‘foregrounding’ is used to refer to new information, in contrast to elements in the sentence which form the background against which the new elements
are to be understood by the listener / reader.
In the wider sense of stylistics, text linguistics, and literary studies, it is a translation of the Czech aktualisace (actualization), a term common with the Prague Structuralists.
The English term ‘foregrounding’has come to mean several things at once:
-the (psycholinguistic) processes by which - during the reading act - something may be given special prominence;
-specific devices (as produced by the author) located in the text itself. It is also employed to indicate the specific poetic effect on the reader;
-an analytic category in order to evaluate literary texts, or to situate them historically, or to explain their importance and cultural significance, or to differentiate literature from other varieties of language use, such as everyday conversations or scientific reports.
Literal language and figurative language
-A language is called literal when what is meant to be conveyed is same as what the word to word meaning of what is said. In contrast the figurative language, the words are used to imply meaning which is other than their strict dictionary meaning.
-Literal language refers to words that do not deviate from their defined meaning. Figurative language refers to words, and groups of words, that exaggerate or alter the usual meanings of the component words. Figurative language may involve analogy to similar concepts or other contexts, and may involve exaggerations. These alterations result in figures of speech.
Chapter 11 Linguistics
Applied linguistics: is the study of the relation of linguistics to foreign language teaching, of the ways of applying linguistic theories to the practice of foreign language teaching. Universal Grammar:is a theory in linguistics that suggests that there are properties that all Possible natural human languages have. Usually credited to Noam Chomsky, the theory suggests that some rules of grammar are hard-wired into the brain, and manifest themselves without being taught. There is still much argument whether there is such a thing and what it would be. Syllabus: a syllabus is a specification of what take place in the classroom,which usually contains the aims and contents of teaching and sometimes contains suggestions of methodology. Interlanguage: the type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language is often referred to as interlanguage.
contrastive analysis: A way of comparing L1 and L2 to determine potential errors for the purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what not. Its goal is to predict what areas will be easy
to learn and what will be difficult. Associated in its early days with behaviorism and structuralism. the Input Hypothesis: according to krashen's input hypothesis, learners acquire language as a result of comprehending input addressed to them.
Chapter 12 Theories & schools of modern linguistics
Transformational-Generative Grammar
The five stages of development of TG Grammar:
1) The classical theory (1957)
2) The standard theory (1965)
3) Extended standard theory
4) GB/PP theory (1981)
英语语言文学专业基础 本科目包括英语语言学基础、英美文学基础知识、英语国家概况、英汉互译四部分内容，总分150分，其中英语语言学基础15分，英美文学基础知识70分，英语国家概况15分，英汉互译50分。 I、英语语言学基础（15分） 一、考试要求和内容 该部分主要考查普通语言学的基本概念和基本理论。 二、考试题型 填空题、选择题、判断题、名词解释题。 三、参考书 《新编简明英语语言学教程》，戴炜栋、何兆熊主编，上海外语教育出版社，2002。 II、英美文学基础知识（70分） 一、考试要求 本部分考试旨在考查考生对有关英美文学的基本概念、主要流派、基础知识的理解和掌握情况，以及运用所学的基础理论知识分析、评论简单的文学文本。 二、考试内容 1、英国文学部分 1）古英语诗歌的形成、发展及主要文本。 2）英国中世纪文学的形成和发展、主要诗人及其作品。 3）英国文艺复兴时期的文学：“文艺复兴”产生的历史背景、定义及其主要特征、对英国文学的影响、主要作家及其作品。 4）新古典主义时期（十八世纪）英国文学：启蒙运动形成的原因、启蒙运动的定义、特征及其对英国文学的影响、这一时期主要的作家及其作品。 5）浪漫主义时期（十九世纪早期）英国文学：英国浪漫主义文学形成的历史背景、浪漫主义诗歌的主要作家及其作品、浪漫主义小说的主要作家及其作家品、浪漫主义散文的主要作家及其作品。 6）维多利亚时期（十九世纪中后期）英国文学：英国现实主义文学形成发展的历史背景、这一时期主要的作家及其作品。 7）现代时期（二十世纪）英国文学：英国现代主义文学形成的历史背景、现代主义文学的主要流派、这一时期主要作家及其作品。 2、美国文学部分 1）早期的美国文学：清教主义文学形成与发展、早期美国文学的主要作家及其作品。 2）浪漫主义时期的美国文学：早期浪漫主义文学的主要作家及作品、超验主义时期的主要作家几作品、后期浪漫主义文学的主要作家及作品。 3）现实主义时期的美国文学：美国现实主义文学的形成与发展及主要流派、美国现实主义文学与自然主义文学的异同、这一时期主要的作家及作品。 4）现代时期的美国文学：美国现代主义文学的形成与发展及主要流派、战后美国文学的形成与发展、现代时期美国文学的主要作家及作品。 三、考试题型 填空题、单项选择题、匹配题、名词解释题、文本分析题。 四、参考书 《英国文学简史》（新增订本），刘炳善，河南人民出版社，2007； 《美国文学简史》（第2版），常耀信，南开大学出版社，2003 III、英语国家概况（15分） 一、考试要求 本部分考试旨在考查考生对英美国家的地理、历史、政治、文化、社会习俗、宗教群体、价值观念以及该国人民的思想态度和生活方式的掌握情况。 二、考试题型 填空题、判断题、名词解释题。 三、参考书 《英美概况》（上、下册），张奎武主编，吉林科学技术出版社，2003 IV、英汉互译（50分）
现代语言学 一绪论 1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language 2 Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics. For example, vowels and consonants. 3 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.For example,phone,phoneme,and allophone. 4 Morphology :The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.For example,boy and “ish”---boyish,teach---teacher. 5 Syntax : The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax.For esample,”John like linguistics.” 6 Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example,:The seal could not be found.The zoo keeper became worried.” The seal could not be found,The king became worried.” Here the word seal means different things. 7 Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.For example, “I do” The word do means different context. 8 Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.For example,regional dialects,social variation in language. 9Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to workings of mind is called psycholinguistics. 二音系学 1 Phonetics: The study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics. 2 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. 3 Phone: Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segement. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do,some don’t. 4 Phoneme: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme;it is a unit that is of distinctive value. 5 allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme. 6 Complementary distribution: These two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution. 7 Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segement which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. 8 Stress: When a certain syllable of a word is stressed, it means that the syllable is prounced with great force than the other or others. 9 tones: Tones are pitch variation, which are caused by the different rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phoneme; therefore, the tone is a suprasegemental feature. 10 intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in conveying meaning in almost every language,especially in a language like English{$isbest} 三形态学 1 morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammer which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. 2 inflectional morphology: Inflectional morphology studies the inflections of word-formation.
1、How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: linguistics is the scientific study of language. It is a scientific studies because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, what the linguist has to do first is to collect and observe language facts, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. But the hypotheses, thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation; that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things. 2、The design/defining features of human language (Charles Hockett) (1) Arbitrariness ----No logical (motivated or intrinsic) connection between sounds and meanings. ----- No natural and inevitable link between the sound and the meaning Exception: Onomatopoeic words and Some compound words. (2) Productivity/creativity We can speak an endless number of sentences with a limited vocabulary and one sentence can expand into endless theoretically possible sentences in the way of recurring Exception: and bee dancing is used only to indicate food sources, which is the only kind of message that can be sent through the dancing. (3) Duality
Chapter 6 Pragmatics 语用学 1.What is pragmatics? 什么是语用学？ Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying meaning in a certain context, pragmatics can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study. It places the study of meaning in the context in which language is used. 语用学研究的是说某种语言的人怎样用句子去实现成功的交际。 由于交际的过程从本质来说是在一定的语境中表达意义的过程，因而语用学的本质是一种意义研究。它是一种将语言置于使用的语境中去的意义研究。 2.Pragmatics and semantics 语用学和语义学 Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning, but they are different. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning, the context of use is considered. If it is not considered, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics. 语用学和语义学都是对意义的语言学研究，但两者是不同的。它们的本质区别在于研究意义时是否考虑了语言使用的语境。没有考虑到语境进行的研究就没有超出传统语义学的研究范围；相反，考虑到语境进行的研究就属于语用学的研究范围。 3.Context 语境 Context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. 语境是语言的语用研究中不可缺少的概念。它一般被理解为说话者和听话者所共有的知识。The shared knowledge is of two types: the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place. 共有的知识包括他们所使用的语言方面的知识和双方对世界的认识，包括对世界的总的认识和对正在进行的语言交际所处的环境的具体认识。 4.Sentence meaning and utterance meaning 句子意义和话语意义The meaning of a sentence is abstract, and de-contextualized, while utterance meaning is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. 句子的意义是抽象的，非语境化的，而话语的意义是具体的，受语境制约的。话语意义基于句子意义；它是一个句子的抽象意义在特定语境中的具体体现，或简而言之，在一个语境中的具体化。 5.Speech act theory 言语行为理论 Speech act theory is an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. It was originated with the British philosopher John Austin in the late 50’s of the 20th century. 言语行为理论是语言语用研究中的一个重要理论。它最初是由英国哲学家约翰.奥斯汀在20世纪50年代提出的。 According to speech act theory, we are performing actions when we are speaking.
《英语语言学概论》答案完整版 考核方法：闭卷考试 时间：100分钟 题型： I. 单项选择(15×1?=15?) II．判断(15×1?=15?) III．填空(10×1?=10?) IV．术语解释(5×2? =10?) V．简答题(4×5? =20?) VI. 分析题（30’） 重点掌握的术语： 1. Linguistics语言学 The study of the nature, structure, and variation of language, including phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. 2. design features设计特点 They are a series of features which are uniquely a part of human language and unlikely to be found in the communication system of other creatures. They are displacement, productivity, cultural transmission, arbitrariness, discreteness and duality. 3. Displacement移位 Language can be used to refer to things which are in the past, present or future, real or imagined,or in far-away places. 4. Duality二元性 It is generally the case that language is organized at two levels or layers which is known as the physical level and meaningful level simultaneously. 5. Arbitrariness任意性 It is generally the case that there is no …natural? connection between a linguistic form and its meaning. 6. Manner of articulation发音方法 It is the case that we describe the consonant sounds in terms of how they are articulated. 7. Place of articulation发音部位 It focuses on describing consonant sounds in terms of where they are articulated. 8. articulatory phonetics发音语言学 The general study of the characteristics of speech sounds is called phonetics. And the study of how speech sounds are made, or …articulated? is articulatory phonetics. 9. Phonology音系学 The description of the systems and patterns of the speech sounds in a language. 10. Assimilation同化 It is the process when two phonemes occur in sequence and some aspect of one phoneme is taken or …copied? by the other. For example, the word …can? in the sentence …I can go.?may pronounce as [k??] instead of [k?n] because of the influence of the following sound [g]. 11. Back-formation逆构法，逆序构词 A word of one type is reduced to form another word of different type. For example, the word …donation? first came into use and then the verb …donate? was created from it.
Chapter 12 : Lan guage And Brain 1. n euroli nguistics: It is the study of relati on ship betwee n brain and Ian guage. It in eludes research into how the structure of the brain in flue nces Ian guage lear ning, how and in which parts of the brain Ian guage is stored, and how damage to the brain affects the ability to use Ian guage. 2. psycholinguistics: ____ t he study of Ian guage process in g. It is concerned with the processes of Ian guage acqisiti on, comprehe nsion and product ion. 3. brain lateralizati on: The localizatio n of cog nitive and perceptive fun cti ons in a particular hemisphere of the brain. 4. dichotic listening: A technique in which stimuli either linguistic or non-linguistic are presented through headphones to the left and right ear to determine the lateralization of cog nitive fun cti on. 5. right ear advantage: ___ The phe nomenon that the right ear shows an adva ntage for the perception of linguistic signals id known as the right ear advantage. 6. split brain studies: The experiments that investigate the effects of surgically severing the corpus callosum on cog niti on are called as split brain studies. 7. aphasia: It refers to a number of acquired Ianguage disorders due to the cerebral lesions caused by a tumor, an accide nt and so on. 8. non- flue nt aphasia: Damageto parts of the brain in front of the cen tral sulcus is called non-flue nt aphasia. 9. flue nt aphasia: Damage to parts of the left cortex beh ind the cen tral sulcus results in a type of aphasia called flue nt aphasia. 10. Acquired dyslexia: Damage in and around the an gular gyrus of the parietal lobe ofte n causes the impairment of reading and writing ability, which is referred to as acquired dyslexia. 11. phono logical dyslexia: ___ it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patie nt seems to have lost the ability to use spelli ng-to-so und rules. 12. surface dyslexia: it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patie nt seems un able to recog nize words as whole but must process all words through a set of spell in g-to-so und rules. 13. spo on erism: a slip of ton gue in which the positi on of soun ds, syllables, or words is reversed, for example, Let' s have chish and fips instend of Let' s have fish and chips. 14. prim ing: the process that before the participa nts make a decisi on whether the stri ng of letters is a word or not, they are prese nted with an activated word. 15. freque ncy effect: Subjects take less time to make judgeme nt on freque ntly used words tha n to judge less com monly used words . This phe nomenon is called freque ncy effect.
一、定义 1.语言学Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。 4.识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。 Arbitrariness任意性 Productivity多产性 Duality双重性 Displacement移位性 Cultural transmission文化传递 ⑴arbitrariness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it
第一章 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics Teaching aims: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics. Teaching difficulties: design features of language ; some important distinctions in linguistics Teaching procedures https://www.doczj.com/doc/cf8403399.html,nguage 1.1Why study language?为什么学习语言 A tool for communication交流的工具 An integral part of our life and humanity 人类生活和人性中不可或缺的一部分. If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.如果不能完全理解语言的本质和结构,我们就会对人类的本质一无所知. 1.2What is language?什么是语言 1.2.1different senses of language 语言的不同意义 1. what a person says( concrete act of speech) a person’s consistent way of speaking or writing a particular level of speaking or writing e.g. colloquial language an abstract system 2. A Webster’s New Dictionary offers a frequently used sense of the word “language”: a. human speech 人类的言语 b. the ability to communicate by this means 通过言语来交流的能力 c. a system of vocal sounds and combinations of such sounds to which meaning is attributed, used for the expression or communication of thoughts and feelings; 用来表达或交流思想和感觉的一套声 音及这些声音互相结合的系统 d. the written representation of such a system 系统的文字表达 3. the barest of definition, language is a means of verbal communication.最简洁的定义:语言是言语交 流的一种方式. Language is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiostic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles. Language distinguishes us from animals.因为说和写的交流方式是一种有目的的行为,所以语言是实用性的;因为语言 是社会符号,语言的交流只能在所有参与者广泛理解了人类的那些非言语的暗示,动机,社会文 化角色等等互相关联的因素之后才能有效进行,因此语言又是社会的,约定俗成的.语言使人类 区别于动物. 1.2.2definitions Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. What is communication? A process in which information is transmitted from a source (sender or speaker) to a goal (receiver or listener). A system----since elements in it are arranged according to certain rules systematically, rather than randomly. They cannot be arranged at will. e.g. He the table cleaned. (×) bkli (×) Why do we say language is arbitrary? Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic (logic) connection between a linguistic form and its meaning, between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these sounds refer. This explains and is
1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2. general linguistics: The study of language as a whole. 3. applied linguistics: the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. 4. prescriptive: If linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, ,it is said to be prescriptive.( i.e. to tell people what they should and should not say). 5. descriptive: If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive.(09C) 6. synchronic study: The description of language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study. (06C/ 04) 7. diachronic study: It’s a historical study of language,it studies the historical development of language over a period of time. (06C) 8. langue: Lange refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. 9. parole :Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. 10. competence : The ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.（08F/09C）linguistic competence: universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker. 11. performance : The actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 12. language : Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 13. design features : Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 14. arbitrariness: Arbitrariness refers to there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.(08C) 15. productivity: Language is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by it’s users. 16. duality（double articulation）: Language consists of two sets of structure, with lower lever of sound, which is meaningless, and higher lever of meaning.
英语语言学一、名词解释 第一课 共时性 : Said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical“point\A kind”inoftimedescription. which takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind. 语言 : The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community. : Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for human communication. 任意性 : One design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. 第二课 音位 : Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. 音位变体 : The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme. pair 最小对立体 : When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. 第三课 形态学 : Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed . morphemes派生词素: Some morphemes which change the category or grammatical class of words are ca lled morphemes 曲折词素 : Some bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers and signify such concepts as tense, number, case and so on. 第四课 语法句法: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences. categories 句法范畴 : Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories. structure 深层结构 : Formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’ s subcategorizationrties,iscalledprope deep structure or D- structure. structure 表层结构 : Corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called Surface structure or S- structure. 第五课 指称 : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. 同音异义 : Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, . different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. 上下义关系 : Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. 第六课 语用学 : Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. 话语 : a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication. meaning 话语意义 : Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. act 言外行为 : An illocutionary act is the act expressing the speaker it is the’acts performedintention; in saying something.