英语语言学复习要点

英语重要知识点
以下为英语的重要知识点：
1. 词汇：要掌握常用单词及其词义、常用短语和习惯用语，以及词汇分类（名词、动词、形容词、副词等）和它们在句子中的作用。

2. 语法：了解主谓一致、时态、语态、修饰语和从句等语法知识，以及它们在构成不同类型的句子中的应用。

3. 发音：正确的发音对于交流和理解非常重要，需注意英语重音和音标的学习。

4. 阅读理解：阅读能力是英语学习的关键，需要提高阅读速度和理解能力，了解不同文体和文章类型。

5. 写作技巧：掌握写作技巧，如段落结构、主题句、论据等，以及避免常见的写作错误，如语法错误和拼写错误。

6. 听力技能：听力技能是了解英语语音、语调和语速的关键，可以通过听英语广播、观看英语影视剧和与外国人交流来提高。

7. 口语表达：英语口语能力是交流的核心，需要提高口语表达的自信度，增强口头交流能力。

8. 文化背景：了解英语国家的文化和历史背景，能够更好地理解英语的含义和文化背景。

英语知识点60个英语是一门全球通用的语言，对于很多人来说，学习英语是一个必要的过程。

在学习英语的过程中，我们需要掌握一些基本的知识点。

下面是60个英语知识点的介绍。

1.词汇量：学习英语的基础是掌握足够的词汇量。

2.语法：了解英语的基本语法规则，如主谓宾结构等。

3.时态：学习英语的时态，如现在时、过去时、将来时等。

4.翻译：学习如何正确地翻译英语句子。

5.句型：掌握各种句型的用法，如陈述句、疑问句等。

6.主谓一致：确保主语和谓语在人称和数上保持一致。

7.介词：了解介词的用法和意义。

8.连词：学习连接词的用法，如and、but、or等。

9.冠词：学习冠词的用法，如a、an、the等。

10.数词：学习如何用英语表示数字。

11.比较级和最高级：学习形容词的比较级和最高级的用法。

12.非谓语动词：了解不定式、动名词和分词的用法。

13.代词：学习代词的用法，如人称代词、指示代词等。

14.名词：了解名词的单数和复数形式的变化规则。

15.形容词：学习形容词的用法和修饰名词的位置。

16.副词：了解副词的用法和修饰动词的位置。

17.动词时态：学习动词的时态，如一般现在时、过去进行时等。

18.语气：了解陈述语气、祈使语气和虚拟语气的用法。

19.省略句：学习如何使用省略句。

20.直接和间接引语：学习如何使用直接和间接引语。

21.定语从句：学习如何使用定语从句来修饰名词。

22.状语从句：了解状语从句的用法和位置。

23.主语从句：学习如何使用主语从句。

24.宾语从句：了解宾语从句的用法和位置。

25.同位语从句：学习如何使用同位语从句。

26.倒装：了解语序倒装的用法和情况。

27.复合句：学习如何构建复合句。

28.强调句：了解如何使用强调句。

29.题目：学习如何理解和回答问题。

30.议论文：了解如何写一篇英语议论文。

31.书面表达：学习如何用英语进行书面表达。

32.阅读理解：学习如何理解和解答阅读理解题目。

33.听力理解：了解如何听懂英语的口语表达。

英语基础必须掌握的知识点英语基础涵盖了多个知识点，以下是一些必须掌握的知识点：
1. 词汇，掌握常用单词的拼写、发音和词义。

建议学习常用词汇表，并逐渐扩大词汇量。

2. 语法，了解英语的基本语法规则，包括句子结构、时态、主谓一致、动词形态变化等。

掌握基本的句型，如陈述句、疑问句、否定句等。

3. 时态，熟悉各种时态的用法，如一般现在时、过去时、将来时等。

了解时态的表示方式和常见的时间状语。

4. 语音，掌握英语的音标，了解英语发音规则和重音的位置。

学习正确的发音，包括元音、辅音和连读规则。

5. 阅读理解，培养阅读理解能力，包括快速阅读、理解文章主旨、抓取关键信息、推断词义等。

阅读各类英文材料，如新闻、故事、科技文章等。

6. 写作技巧，学习书写规范的英文句子和段落，包括语法正确、用词准确、逻辑清晰。

培养写作习惯，提高写作表达能力。

7. 听力技巧，训练听力理解能力，包括听懂日常对话、听取信
息细节、辨别语气和语调等。

多听英语广播、音频材料和英语电影，提高听力水平。

8. 口语表达，练习口语交流能力，包括日常对话、描述事物、
表达观点等。

多参与英语口语练习，与他人进行交流对话。

9. 习惯用语和惯用表达，熟悉英语中的常用习惯用语和惯用表达，如常见的谚语、俚语和成语等。

了解它们的用法和意义，丰富
语言表达。

10. 文化背景，了解英语国家的文化背景和习俗，包括礼仪、
节日、习惯等。

这有助于更好地理解和运用英语。

以上是英语基础必须掌握的一些知识点，通过不断学习和实践，可以提高英语水平。

英语知识总结（精华）英语是全球通用的语言之一，具有很高的实用性和较强的国际交流能力。

为了更好地学习和掌握英语，以下是一些英语知识的总结和要点：一、基础语法知识：1.词汇：掌握常用的英语词汇，包括名词、动词、形容词、副词等。

2.时态：了解各种时态的用法和相应的时间标志词，如一般现在时、一般过去时、一般将来时等。

3.句型结构：掌握基本句型结构，包括陈述句、疑问句、否定句以及复合句的构成和使用方法。

4.从句：了解主从复合句的构成和使用，包括宾语从句、定语从句、状语从句等。

5.语态：掌握主动语态和被动语态的转换和使用方法。

二、拼写和发音：1.拼写规则：掌握基本的拼写规则和拼写技巧，包括字母的读音和拼写规则，以及词汇的变形和拼写规则。

2.发音：了解英语中的发音规则和音标符号，包括元音和辅音的发音，以及重音和连读的规则。

三、阅读技巧：1.识别词义：通过上下文和词根词缀等方法来推测词义。

2.理解主旨：抓住关键信息，了解文章的主要内容和目的。

3.掌握排除法：通过排除错误选项，选择正确答案。

4.注意细节：注意细节信息，如数字、地点、时间等。

四、口语表达：1.培养语感：多听多说，模仿英语母语者的发音和语调，培养语感。

2.学习常用表达：掌握常用的口语表达方式，包括问候、道歉、感谢、请求等。

3.练习口语：多与他人进行英语口语练习，积累口语表达的经验和自信心。

4.注重语音语调：注意语音语调的准确性，避免重读错误和口音干扰。

五、写作技巧：1.选择合适的词汇和短语：注意使用恰当的词汇和短语，表达清晰准确的意思。

2.灵活运用句型和句式：避免句子结构重复，使用丰富多样的句型和句式。

3.逻辑清晰：合理组织文章结构，将各个段落和句子连接起来，使逻辑关系清晰明确。

4.练习写作：多写多练，积累写作经验和提高写作水平。

5.审查修改：写完文章后，对文章进行审查和修改，检查语法错误和逻辑问题。

六、语言学习方法：1.多听多说：培养英语语感和听说能力。

英语语法中的语法总结与复习方法语法是英语学习中重要的一部分，掌握好语法规则能够帮助我们更准确地表达意思。

然而，许多学习者在学习语法时感到困惑和无从下手。

本文将介绍一些语法总结与复习方法，帮助大家更好地学习和掌握英语语法。

一、掌握基本语法知识在开始语法学习之前，首先需要掌握基本的语法知识，包括主谓宾结构、时态、语态、修饰语等基本概念。

了解这些基础概念将有助于我们理解和分析复杂的语法规则。

二、学习语法规则学习语法需要系统地掌握各种语法规则，例如名词的单复数形式、动词的时态和语态变化、代词的使用等。

可以通过查阅语法书籍、参加语法课程或者在网上搜索相关资源来学习语法规则。

同时，要注重理解规则的应用，并进行大量的练习以巩固所学知识。

三、总结语法要点语法知识繁多，我们可以通过总结语法要点来记忆和理解。

可以将语法要点整理成表格、图表或者笔记等形式，以便于我们随时回顾和复习。

例如，可以将各种时态的构成和用法整理成表格，以帮助我们更清晰地记忆。

四、应用语法知识学习语法并不仅仅是为了记忆规则，更重要的是能够灵活运用。

在实际的英语学习和交流中，我们应该尽量多地使用语法知识，例如在写作和口语表达中积极运用各种语法结构。

通过不断的实践，我们将更加熟练地掌握和运用语法知识。

五、多做练习和巩固复习是巩固语法知识的关键。

可以通过做练习题、参加语法测验或者使用语法学习网站等方式进行复习和巩固。

同时，也可以参考语法练习书籍和教材，选择适合自己的练习内容进行学习。

通过大量的练习，我们可以更好地理解和掌握语法知识。

六、模仿和分析范例阅读英语文章和文本是提高语法水平的有效方式之一。

可以选择一些经典的英语文章，通过分析其语法结构和使用方式来提高语法意识和水平。

同时，也可以模仿这些范例，将所学的语法知识应用到自己的写作和表达中。

七、寻求帮助和互动学习语法过程中，难免会遇到难以理解或者混淆的地方。

这时，我们可以寻求老师、同学或者其他学习者的帮助，进行讨论和交流。

英语最主要知识点总结英语作为全球通用语言，是我们在学习、工作和生活中必不可少的一门语言。

掌握好英语的基本知识点对于我们提高英语水平至关重要。

在本文中，我将为大家总结英语学习的最主要知识点，帮助大家系统地学习和掌握英语。

一、词汇与语法知识 1. 词汇量的积累：英语的词汇是学习和运用英语的基础，我们应该通过不断地阅读、听力练习和复习来扩大自己的词汇量。

2. 语法规则的掌握：了解和掌握英语的基本语法规则，包括时态、语态、句型结构等，可以帮助我们正确地表达和理解英语。

二、阅读与听力技巧 1. 阅读技巧：在阅读英语文章时，可以使用扫读和略读的方式快速获取整体理解，同时注意关键词和上下文语境的理解。

2. 听力技巧：提高听力水平需要不断地进行听力训练，可以选择听英语新闻、音乐或者英语原版电影，同时要注意提高听力的速度和准确度。

三、口语与写作能力 1. 口语表达：通过多与英语母语人士交流，提高口语表达能力，也可以通过参加英语角或者组织英语演讲活动来提高口语能力。

2. 写作技巧：写作是英语学习的重要环节，我们可以通过多写、多读、多积累范文和写作技巧来提高自己的写作能力。

四、文化背景和交际礼仪 1. 文化背景：了解英语国家的文化习俗和传统，有助于我们更好地理解英语的语言和表达方式。

2. 交际礼仪：在与英语母语人士的交流中，遵守交际礼仪是非常重要的，比如礼貌用语、面部表情和姿态等。

五、学习方法和习惯养成 1. 学习方法：选择适合自己的学习方法，如创设语言环境、制定学习计划和使用学习工具等，可以更高效地学习和掌握英语知识。

2. 习惯养成：养成良好的学习习惯，如坚持每天学习一定的时间、复习和总结已学知识等，能够帮助我们更好地巩固和提高英语水平。

六、练习和实践的重要性 1. 多练习：通过各种口语、听力、阅读和写作练习来提高英语能力，如模拟考试、角色扮演和语言游戏等。

2. 实践应用：将所学的英语知识应用到实际生活中，如与外国友人交流、参加英语角和国际交流活动等。

英语语言学复习资料注: 1.试题类型为选择题,填空题,语料分析题和问答题.2.未标习题的章节为一般了解.Chapter 1Language and Linguistics: An Overview1.1 What is language?1.2 Features of human languages(i) Creativity (or productivity)Productivity is the first and foremost striking feature of human language._________ is the first and foremost striking feature of human language.A. DualityB. ArbitrarinessC. CreativityD. Displacement(ii) Duality( ) Language contains two subsystems, one of speaking and the other of writing. (iii) Arbitrariness( ) The Swiss linguist de Saussure regarded the linguistic sign as composed of sound image and referent.(iv) Displacement( ) Modern linguistics is prescriptive rather than descriptive.( ) Language can be used to refer to things real or imagined, past, present or future.(v) Cultural transmission(vi) Interchangeability(vii) Reflexivity1.3 Functions of language(i) The ideational function(ii) The interpersonal function(iii) The textual functionWhich of the following does not belong to the language metafunctions illustrated byM.A.K. Halliday?A.Ideational functionB. Interpersonal functionC．Textual function. D. Logical function1.4 Types of language( ) Chinese is an agglutinating language.1.5 The myth of language: language origin1.6 Linguistics: the scientific study of language1.6.1 Linguistics as a science1.6.2 Branches of linguistics(i) Intra-disciplinary divisions(ii) Inter-disciplinary divisions1.6.3 Features of modern linguisticsChapter 2 Phonetics: The Study of Speech Sounds2.1 The study of speech soundsThe study of speech sounds is called ________.A. PhoneticsB. Articulatory phoneticsC. PhonologyD. Acoustic Phonetics2.2 The sound-producing mechanism2.3 Phonetic transcription of speech sounds2.3.1 Unit of representation2.3.2 Phonetic symbols2.4 Description of English consonants2.5 Description of English vowels( ) Not all vowels are voiced.2.6 Phonetic features and natural classesI. Write the phonetic symbol that corresponds to the articulatory description. (10%) Example: vowel front high [i:]1．bilabial nasal2．voiced labiovelar glide3．literal liquid4．voiced bilabial stop5．front high laxII. Transcribe the sound represented by the underlined letter(s) in the words and then describe it. (10%)Example: heat [i:] vowel front high1．write2．actor3．city4．worry1．yesChapter 3 Phonology: The Study of Sound Systems and Patterns3.1 The study of sound systems and patterns( ) The study of speech sounds is called Phonology.3.2 Phonemes and allophones3.3 Discovering phonemes3.3.1 Contrastive distributionSip and zip, tip and dip, map and nap, etc, are all ______.A. minimal pairsB. minimal setsC. allophonesD. phomes3.3.2 Complimentary distribution( ) The voiceless bilabial stop in pin and the one in spin are in complementary distribution.Pronounce the words key and core, ski and score, paying attention to the phoneme /k/. What difference do you notice between the first pair and the second pair in terms of the phonetic features of the voiceless velar stop? (10%)3.3.3 Free Variation( ) If segments appear in the same position but the mutual substitution does not result in change of meaning, they are said to be in free variation.3.3.4 The discovery procedure3.4 Distinctive features and non-distinctive features3.5 Phonological rules3.6 Syllable structureEvery syllable has a(n) _______, which is usually a vowel.A. onsetB. nucleusC. codaD. rhyme3.7 Sequence of phonemes3.8 Features above segments3.8.1 Stress3.8.2 Intonation3.8.3 Tone( ) Tone is the variation of pitch to distinguish utterance meaning.Which of the following does not belong to suprasegmental features?B.Stress B. IntonationC. ToneD. Syllable3.8.4 The functioning of stress and intonation in EnglishI.How would you read the phrases in the two columns? What does each of them mean? (10%)Column I Column IIa. a bluebird a blue birdb. a lighthouse keeper a light housekeeperII.Explain the ambiguity of the following sentences. (10%)1. Those who went there quickly made a fortune.2. A woman murdererChapter 4 Morphology: The Study of Word Structure4.1 Words and word structure1.________ is defined as the study of the internal structure and the formation of words.A. MorphologyB. SyntaxC. LexiconD. Morpheme4.2 Morpheme: the minimal meaningful unit of language4.3 Classification of morphemes4.3.1 Free and bound morphemes( ) In the phrases a herd of cattle, a flock of sheep, both cattle and sheep contain only one morpheme.In the phrases a herd of cattle, a flock of sheep, both cattle and sheep contain _____ morphemes.A. oneB. twoC. threeD. four4.3.2. Inflectional and derivational morphemes4.4 Formation of English words4.4.1 Derivation4.4.2 Compounding( ) The meaning of compounds is always the sum of meaning of the compounds. ( ) A greenbottle is a type of bottle.( ) Compounding, the combination of free morphemes, is a common way to form words.4.4.3 Other types of English word formationTell the process of word formation illustrated by the example and find as many words as you can that are formed in the same way. (10%)a) flub) OPECc) Nobeld)televisee) better (v.)_____ is a process that puts an existing word of one class into another class.A. ClippingB. BlendingC. EponymD. ConversionChapter 5 Syntax: the Analysis of Sentence Structure5.1 Grammaticality5.2 Knowledge of sentence structure5.3 Different approaches to syntax5.4 Transformational-generative grammar5.4.1 The goal of a TG grammar5.4.2 Syntactic categories5.4.3 Phrase structure rules5.4.4 Tree diagramsDraw two tree diagrams of the following ambiguous sentence. (10%)Pat found a book on Wall Street.5.4.5 Recursion and the infinitude of language5.4.6 Subcategorization of the lexicon5.4.7 Transformational rules5.5 Systemic-functional grammar5.5.1 Two perspectives of syntactic analysis: chain and choice5.5.2 The three metafunctions5.5.3 Transitivity: syntactic structure as representation of experienceMaterial processesRelational processesMental processesVerbal processesBehavioral processesExistential processesIdentify the type of transitivity process in each of the following sentences. (10%)1. John washed the car.2. John likes the car.5.5.4 Mood and modality: syntactic structure as representation of interaction5.5.5 Theme and rheme: syntactic structure as organization of message Chapter 6 Semantics: the Analysis of Meaning6.1 The study of meaning6.2 Reference and sense6.2.1 Reference6.2.2 Sense6.3 Classification of lexical meaningsBoth pretty and handsome mean good-looking but they differ in ________ meaning.A. collocativeB. socialC. affectiveD. reflected6.3.1 Referential meaning and associative meaning6.3.2 Types of associative meaning6.4 Lexical sense relations6.4.1 Synonymy6.4.2 Antonymy6.4.3 Homonymy6.4.4 Polysemy6.4.5 HyponymyExplain the relation between bank1(the side of a river) and bank2(the financial institute). (5%)6.5. Describing lexical meaning: componential analysis6.6 Words and concepts6.6.1 Categorization6.6.2 Prototypes6.6.3 Hierarchies6.7 Semantic relations of sentencesTell the semantic relation within the given sentence and that between the two sentences.(15%)a)My uncle is male.b)The spinster is married.c)Jim is an orphan. Jim lives with his parents.d)Sam is the husband of Sally. Sally is the wife of Sam.e)He has gone to London. He has gone to England.6.8 Metaphors6.8.1 From rhetorical device to cognitive device6.8.2 The components of metaphors6.8.3 Features of metaphorsChapter 7 Pragmatics: Analysis of Meaning in Context7.1 The pragmatic analysis of meaning7.2 Deixis and reference7.3 Speech ActsWhat are the three dimensions that a speech act consists of?7.4 Cooperation and implicatureWhat are the four maxims of the Cooperative Principle?7.5 The politeness principle7.6 The principle of relevance7.7 Conversational structure______ refers to having the right to speak by turns.A．Adjacency pairs B. Turn-talkingC．Preferred second parts D. Insertion sequencesChapter 8 Language in Social Contexts8.1 Sociolinguistic study of languageHow do sociolinguists classify the varieties of English?8.2 Varieties of a language1. ______ is a term widely used in sociolinguistics to refer to “varieties according to use.”A. RegisterB. FieldC. ModeD. Tenor2. British English and American English are ______ varieties of the English language.A. functionalB. socialC. regionalD. standard8.3 Grades of formality8.4 Languages in contactHow do you distinguish pidgin from Creole?8.5 Taboos and euphemisms8.6 Language and culture8.7. Communicative competenceChapter 9 Second Language Acquisition9.1 What is second language acquisition?In _____ stage, children use single words to represent various meanings.A. telegraphicB. two-wordC. holophrasticD. babbling9.2 Factors affecting SLA9.3 Analyzing learners' language_____ is the approximate language system that the learner constructs for use in communication through the target language.A. MetalanguageB. InterlanguageC. SignD. Esperanto9.4 Explaining second language acquisitionChapter 10 Linguistics and Foreign Language Teaching10.1 Foreign language teaching as a system10.2 Contribution of linguistics: applications and implications10.3 Linguistic underpinning of syllabus design10.4 Method as integration of theory and practice10.5 Linguistics in the professional development of language teachers。

英语语言学知识整理Chapter 1 Introduction语言学的定义：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.问题：How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language?→It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.What the linguist has to do “first, then, but”:①to observe and collect language facts and generalizations are made about them.②to formulate some hypotheses about the language structure.③to check the hypotheses thus formed repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity.The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)问题: What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?→phonetics（语音学）→the study of sounds→phonology（音位学）→study how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning→morphology（形态学）→study the way in which symbols or morphemes are arranged and combined to form words.→syntax（句法学）→the study of rules of forming sentences →semantics（语义学）→the study of meaning→pragmatics（语用学）→the context of language useSociolinguistics（社会语言学）：The studies of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch.Psycholinguistics（语言心理学）：Relate the study of language to psychologyApplied linguistics（应用语言学）：In a narrow sense it refers to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Some important distinctions in linguistics:①prescriptive（规定性）/descriptive（描写性）②synchronic（共时）/diachronic（历时）③speech（口语）/writing（书面语）④langue（语言）/parole（言语）（the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure——Course in General Linguistics）⑤competence（语言能力）/performance（语言应用）（the American linguist N. Chomsky）⑥traditional grammar （传统语法）/modern linguistics（现代语言学）问题：in what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?①linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.②modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.③modern linguistics does not force languages into a La tin-based framework.问题：Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?In modern linguistics, a synchronic (不考虑历史演进的, 限于一时的) approach seems to enjoy priorityBecause it is believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.Synchronic descriptions are often thought of as being descriptions of language in its current existence, and most linguistic studies are of this type.问题：For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today’s world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.Spoken language reveals more true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised”record of speech. And linguists’data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regarded as authentic.语言的定义：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Design features of language（7个识别特征）①arbitrariness 任意性（at the syntactic level）②productivity 能产性，创造性Secondary units（底层结构sounds）③duality 双层性Primary units （上层结构units of meaning）④displacement 不受时空限制性（handle generalization and abstraction）⑤cultural transmission 文化传递性⑥interchangeability 互换性⑦convention 约定性Functions of language：三大主要功能：The descriptive functionThe expressive functionThe social functionRoman Jacobson（6种首要因素，结构主义语言学家）①speaker addresser→emotive 感情功能②addressee→conative 意动功能③context→referential所指功能④message→poetic 诗学功能⑤contact→phatic communion交感功能⑥code→metalinguistic 元语言功能Other functions:②informative f. 信息功能③interrogative f. 询问功能④expressive f. 表达功能⑤evocative f. 感染功能⑥directive f. 指令功能⑦performative f. 行使（权力）功能M.A.K. Halliday①ideational②interpersonal（indicate/establish/maintain/social relationships）③textual问题：How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?The distinction between langue and parole was made by Saussure, langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently, while parole varies from people to people, and from situation to situation.The distinction between competence and performance proposed by the American linguists Chomsky, competence is a deal user’s kno wledge of the rules of his language, and the performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Imperfect performance is caused by social and psychological factors.Saussure makes this distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. In his opinion, parole is simple a mass of linguistic facts, too varied confusing for systematic investigation, and that linguistics should do is to abstract langue from parole, i.e., to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks what linguists should study is the ideal speaker’s competence, not his performance, which is too haphazard to be studied.问题：What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?①arbitrariness 任意性（at the syntactic level）②productivity 能产性，创造性Secondary units（底层结构sounds）③duality 双层性Primary units （上层结构units of meaning）④displacement 不受时空限制性（handle generalization and abstraction）⑤cultural transmission 文化传递性⑥interchangeability 互换性⑦convention 约定性Chapter 2 PhonologyPhonetics: （语音学）①the study of the phonic medium of languageⅠstudy the sounds from the speaker’s point of view→articulatory phonetics（发音语音学）Ⅱlook at the sounds from the hearer’s point of view→auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）Ⅲstudy the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves→acoustic phonetics（声学语音学）③study how sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived.Organs of speech:⒈three important areas①The pharyngeal cavity→the throat②the oral cavity→the mouth③the nasal cavity→the nose⒉The pharyngeal cavity→windpipe/glottis/larynx/vocal cords⒊the oral cavity→tongue/uvula/soft palate(velum)/hard palate/teeth ridge(alveolus)/teeth/lipsInternational Phonetic Alphabet （IPA）①diacritics 附加符号②broad transcription（宽式标音）→the transcription with letter-symbols only③narrow transcription（严式标音）→the tran scription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics Classification of English speech sounds①two broad categories of speech sounds in English: V owels/consonants②two ways to classify the English consonants: In terms of manner of articulationIn terms of place of articulation③In terms of manner of articulation:Stops/fricatives/affricates/liquids/nasals/glides④In terms of place of articulation:Bilabial/labiodental/dental/alveolar/palatal/velar/glottal⑤bilabial Labio-dental dental alveolar palatal velar glottalstops VL p t kVD b d gfricatives VL f θs ?hVD v ez ?affricates VL (t?) t?VD (d?) d?nasals VD m n ?liquids VD l/rglides VD w jClassification of English vowels⒈criteria :（monophthongs）单元音The position of the tongue in the mouth: front/central/backThe openness of the mouth: close vowels/semi-close vowels/semi-open vowels/open vowelsThe shape of the lips: unrounded/roundedfront central backclose i: u:i uSemi-close e ?::Semi-openopen ? ??a a:⒉diphthongs 双元音/ei //ai //au //?u //?i //i? //ε?// u? /Phonology 音韵学，语音体系Difference of phonology and phonetics:①Phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages.②Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds areused to convey meaning in linguistic communication.Phone（音素）: A phone is a phonetic unit or segment.Phoneme（音位）: It is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particularsound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.Allophone（音位变体）: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.Phonemic contrast（音位对立）Complementary distribution（音位变体的互补分布）Minimal pairs（最小对立体）：含音位的单词的全部音标Minimal set（最小对立集）：is used to find the important sounds in language.Phonological Analysis（音位分析）Principle: certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phase, whereas other sounds do not. Phonetically similar sounds:描述音位关系Free variants: 音位的自由变体differences instead of by any distribution rule.Some rules in phonology①sequential rules: 序列规则If a word begins with a / l / or a / r /, then the next sound must be a vowel.If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules: The first phoneme must be / s /The second phoneme must be / p / / t / / k /The third phoneme must be / l // r // w /②ass imilation rule:同化规则③deletion rule：省略规则Suprasegmental features 超音段特征≠超音段（比音位更大的语言单位）①stress（单词，句子层面）：the location of stress in Englishdistinguishes meaning.Syllable音节：A syllable nucleus (often a vowel) with optional initial and final margins (often consonants)单音节词多音节词英语单词都有重读音位学中，单词由音节构成，音节由音位构成。

英语语言文学考研刘润清《新编语言学教程》考研考点复习笔记本章要点：1. The definition and main branches of linguistics study语言学的定义和研究的范围2. The definition and the origins of language语言的定义与起源3. The design feature and the function of language语言的特征和功能4. Some major concepts in linguistics语言学中重要的概念本章考点：1. 有关语言学的常考考点(1) 语言学的定义，现代语言学与传统语法学研究的区别。

(2) 语言学中几组重要概念，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义。

(3) 普通语言学的主要分支学科及各自的研究范畴。

(4) 宏观语言学及应用语言学的主要分支及各自的研究范畴。

2. 有关语言的常考考点(1) 语言的定义；语言的基本特征(任意性、二重性、多产性、移位性、互换性、专门性和文化传递性)；(2) 语言的功能(寒暄、指示、信息、疑问、表达、劝说和施为)；(3) 语言的起源(叮咚说、唱歌说、哒哒说、汪汪、噗噗、哟嘿吼理论等。

) 本章内容索引：I. Definition of linguisticsII. Linguistics vs. traditional grammarIII. Scope of linguistics1. Microlinguistics2. MacrolinguisticsIV. Definition of languageV. Origins of language1. Ding-Dong Theory2. Sing-Song Theory3. Pooh-Pooh Theory4. Yo-He-Ho Theory5. Ta-Ta Theory6. Bow-Wow TheoryVI. Design features of language1. Arbitrariness2. Duality3. Productivity4. Interchangeability5. Displacement6. Specialization7. Cultural transmissionVII. Functions of language1. Phatic function/communion2. Directive function3. Informative function4. Interrogative function5. Expressive function6. Evocative function7. Performative functionVIII. Some major concepts in linguistics1. Descriptive and prescriptive grammar2. Synchronic and diachronic linguistics3. Langue and parole4. Competence and performance5. Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations6. Functionalism and formalismI. Definition of linguistics (语言学的定义)【考点：名词解释】The scientific or systemic study of language, which is always guided by the- three canons of science: exhaustiveness, consistency and economy.语言学是对语言的科学或系统的研究。

英语复习备考的技巧英语复习备考的技巧有哪些怎样学英语是最快最有效的呢?一是将自己沉浸在语言环境中，并且需要多听多看多读;二是多记多背，利用零碎时间背单词、看语法;三是为自己设定目标，督促自己在一段时间内达到某个水平。

下面小编给大家整理了关于英语复习备考的技巧的内容，欢迎阅读，内容仅供参考!英语复习备考的技巧首先，从提高阅读能力开始。

怎样学英语，每天精做一个阅读理解，限时做三个阅读。

具体做阅读的方法就是先读一遍，看看能不能读懂，画出所有的不认识的单词和句子。

然后查出所有陌生单词记到本子上。

限时做的三个阅读要求就没这么高了，但是依然要注意单词和句子，尤其是句子，一定要把你觉得能用的到且逼格比较高的句子记下来。

记下这些单词之后，在早读的时候读这些单词和句子，记不住就做到尽量熟悉。

重点了解各种句子结构，特别是翻译的技巧，比如倒装句之类的。

虽然老师在课上会讲很多，听得我们云里雾里的，但是理解句子最重要。

每个月小结一次，适时调整任务量和所用的阅读文章，精读的文章尽量选干货多、难度适中且题材比较贴近生活的。

学英语的方法第一，学习英语最最重要的就是词汇量。

从现在开始，就好好背单词，如果没有相关英语的课程，那我建议你下个英文单词app，如果有英语相关的课程，那我建议，首先你需要记会的就是课上学过的单词，其次才是那些单词书，以及软件上面的单词哦。

第二，就是培养语感。

我认为语感是建立在语法的基础上，所以要语感好，起码语法得过关，这个就需要疯狂刷题了，在刷题的过程中，不同的语法自然就熟稔于心啦，至于刷什么题，某宝都有哦，可以搜搜看，找那种专门练习语法，解析很详细的呦。

另外语感还来自于一个方面，那就是读背课文，做阅读了，怎么说呢，每天学完英语就张口读啊，然后喜欢看美剧就张口跟读啊，看到比较有趣的短文可以背啊，途径真的很多，但是真的，做起来很难，坚持更难哦。

第三，英语学习我觉得最重要的，就是克服惰性，培养兴趣。

任何学习，不认真努力学，不坚持学都很难进步，更不能三天打鱼两天晒网，一定要有长远的计划。

Exercises for Lecture 1 Introduction2009年09月20日15:05I. <blank filling>1. By ‘scientific’ is meant linguistics is based on the s ystematic investigation oflinguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of languagestructure.2. In his study of a language a linguist usually tries to collect and observe languagefacts, make generalizations, formulate hypotheses, and fully prove the validity of these hypotheses.3. General linguistics deals with the study of language as a whole.4. General linguistics studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models andmethods applicable in any linguistic study, in contrast to those branches of study which relate linguistics to the research of other areas.5. The difference between general linguistics and a linguistic branch such assemantics lies in the fact that general linguistics studies language as a whole,whereas a linguistic branch such as semantics deals with the particular area. For instance, semantics studies the particular aspect of language, or meaning.6. Linguistics includes phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics,pragmatics, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, and applied linguistics and so on.7. There are different independent branches of linguistics because language is acomplicated entity with multiple layers and facets, so it is hardly possible for the linguists to deal with it all at once. They have to concentrate on one aspect of it at a time.8. Phonetics is the study of sounds used in linguistic communication.9. Phonology deals with how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning incommunication.10. Morphology is the study of the way in which linguistic symbols are arranged and combined to form words.11. Syntax is the study of the rules of the combination of words to form grammaticallypermissible sentences in languages.12. Semantics is the study of meaning.13. Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context of language use.14. Sociolinguistics is the study of the social aspects of language and its relation withsociety.15. Psycholinguistics is the study of the relation of language to psychology.16. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of such practicalproblems as the recovery of speech ability. The study of such applications isgenerally known as applied linguistics. But in a narrow sense applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.17. Descriptive linguistics is a linguistic study which aims to describe and analyze thelanguage people actually use.18. Prescriptive linguistics is a linguistic study which aims to lay down rules for“correct and standard” behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say.19. Modern linguistics is mainly descriptive.20. The aim of prescriptive linguistics is to lay down rules for “c orrect and standard”behavior in using language, or to set models for language users to follow.21. The task of modern linguistic is to describe the language people actually use,whether it is “c orrect” or not.22. The difference between prescriptive and descriptive linguistics is that prescriptive linguistics is to lay down rules for language users, whereas descriptive linguistics is to describe the language phenomena as they are. Therefore, the former is subjective, while the latter is objective and more scientific.23. Modern linguistics is supposed to be objective, because it aims to describelanguage as it is.24. Synchronic linguistics is the description of a language at some point of time inhistory.25. Diachronic linguistics is the description of a language as it changes through time. Itis also termed historical linguistics.26. The difference between synchronic and diachronic linguistics is that the formerdeals with language at some point of time in history, while the latter over a period of time.27. Modern linguistics favors synchronic approach because it is less difficult andconcerned with the current existence of language.28. The two major media of linguistic communication are speech and writing.29. Modern linguistics regards as primary speech, or the spoken language.30. F. de Saussure is regarded as the founder of modern linguistics.31. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of aspeech community. It is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by.32. Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. It is the concrete use of theconventions and the application of the rules, or the naturally occurring language events.33. Langue is the abstract linguistic system whereas parole is concrete and is therealization of langue in actual use. Langue is relatively stable, while parole varies from person to person and from situation to situation.34. According to Chomsky, competence is the ideal user’s knowl edge of the rules of hislanguage.35. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of the ideal user’sknowledge of the rules of his language in linguistic communication.36. N. Chomsky proposed the distinction between competence and performance.37. Noam Chomsky is an American linguist, who is famous for his syntactic studies allover the world, and who focuses on the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.38. Saussure’s langue and parole and Chomsky’s competence and p erformance differin that the former takes a sociological view of language, whereas the latter apsychological perspective.39. The difference between traditional grammar and modern linguistics is thattraditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive, that traditional grammar tended to emphasize the importance of writing while modern linguistics gives priority to speech, and that traditional grammar forced languages into a Latin-based framework while modern linguistics does not.40. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.41. According to Sapir, language is a purely human and non-instinctive method ofcommunicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily producedsymbols.42. According to Hall, language is ‘the institution whereby humans communicate andinteract with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory symbols.’43. According to Chomsky, language is ‘a set (finite or infinite) of s entences, eachfinite in l ength and constructed out of a finite set of elements.’44. Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguishit from any animal system of communication.45. Productivity refers to the fact that language makes possible the construction andinterpretation of new signals by its users, which is why they can produce andunderstand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before. This feature is unique to human language.46. Displacement is the property that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. This feature provides speakers with an opportunity to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time and place.47. Double articulation refers to the duality of structure, the fact that language is asystem, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.II. <true or false>Identify whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F).1. Linguistics is the systematic study of language.True.2. Linguistics deals with a particular language.False.Linguistics studies not any particular language, e.g. English, Chinese, Russian, Arabic, and Latin, but it studies languages in general.3. Linguistics is scientific because it is helpful to language use.False.Linguistics is scientific because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.4. The task of a linguist is to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system.True.5. Linguistics is generally divided into general and specific linguistics.False.We have general linguistics and applied linguistics. We do not have specific linguistics.6. General linguistics deals with the general aspects of language application.False.General linguistics deals with language as a whole, not with language application in particular.7. General linguistics does not study theories of language.False.General linguistics does study theories of language.8. Phonetics studies human sound patterning and the meaning of sounds in communication.False.Phonetics studies the way human sounds are produced.9. Phonology studies how a sound is produced.False.Phonology studies human sound patterning and the meaning of sounds in communication.10. Morphology is the study of sentences.False.Morphology is the study of the rules of word formation.11. Syntax is the study of the rules of words.False.Syntax is the study of the rules of the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages.12. Semantics is the study of word meaning.False.Semantics is the study of meaning.13. Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context of language use.True.14. Sociolinguistics deals with the relation between language and society.True.15. Psycholinguistics deals with the relation of language to psychology.True.16. Applied linguistics means the language application to specific areas.False.It means the application of findings in linguistic studies to the solution of such practical problems as the recovery of speech ability, or, in a narrow sense, the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.17. Modern linguistics aims at prescribing models for language users to follow.False.Modern linguistics aims at describing language as it is.18. Synchronic linguistics deals with a series of language phenomena at the same time.False.It deals with language phenomena over a period of time.19. Diachronic linguistics is also called historical linguistics.True.20. Langue means competence.False.They are similar, but differ in that the former is related to sociology and is a matter of social conventions, while the latter is concerned with psychology and is a property of the mind of each individual.21. Parole is a French word; it means the concrete language events.True.22. F. de Saussure was a Swiss linguist.True.23. N. Chomsky is an American linguist.True.24. According to Chomsky, the internalization of a set of rules about his language enables a speaker to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous.True.25. Chomsky regards competence as an act of doing things with a sentence.False.He regards it as an internalized set of rules of the learner’s language.26. Performance is the focus of Chomsky’s linguistic study.False.Competence, instead.27. Details of language system are genetically transmitted.False.They are not transmitted, but have to be taught and learned instead.28. Displacement of language means language use in a far-away place.False.Displacement of language means language use not subject to time and place.29. Arbitrariness of language means language can be used freely.False.Arbitrariness means language is arbitrary by nature, i.e. there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. But language is not entirely arbitrary; certain words are motivated, which make up only a small percentage of the vocabulary of a language, though.30. Duality of language means language is a two-level system.True.。

学习英语的基础知识点归纳总结
英语是全球通用的语言之一，研究英语的基础知识点对于掌握
这门语言非常重要。

下面是一些常见的英语基础知识点的归纳总结：
1. 词汇
- 词汇是英语研究的基础，掌握常见的单词和词组对于表达自
己的意思至关重要。

可以通过阅读、听力和词汇练来扩展词汇量。

2. 语法
- 英语语法是英语研究的重要组成部分。

掌握基本的句子结构、时态、语态和语法规则，可以帮助我们正确地表达和理解意思。

3. 发音
- 英语的发音有其独特的规则和特点。

正确的发音可以使我们
更加清晰地表达自己的意思并有效地与他人交流。

4. 听力
- 听力是英语研究中必不可少的技能之一。

通过听英语电影、音乐、新闻和其他自然语言的材料，可以提高自己的听力技巧和理解能力。

5. 阅读
- 阅读英语材料有助于我们扩展词汇量、理解语法以及培养阅读理解能力。

可以选择适合自己水平的英文书籍、新闻文章和网站来提高阅读能力。

6. 写作
- 通过书写英语文章、日记、作文等，可以提高自己的写作能力和语言组织能力。

可以从简单的句子开始写作，逐渐提高难度。

7. 口语
- 口语是英语交流的关键技能之一。

可以通过与他人对话、参加英语口语角和模拟对话等方式来提高自己的口语表达能力。

8. 文化背景
- 研究英语不仅仅是研究语言，也是了解英语国家的文化、风俗和惯。

了解文化背景可以更好地理解和运用英语。

以上是学习英语的基础知识点的归纳总结。

通过系统学习和实践，我们可以提高自己的英语水平，更好地与世界交流。

简明英语语言学知识点汇总LG GROUP system office room 【LGA16H-LGYY-LGUA8Q8-LGA162】新编简明英语语言学知识点汇总1 IntroductionWhat is linguistics?Scientific study of language.Interpretation:①try to answer the basic questions and probe into various problems related to language;②linguistics studies not any particular language but language in general;③scientific study because based on systematic investigation of linguistic data.The scope of linguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called general linguistic.Some important distinctions in linguisticsWhat is languageDefinitions of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Characteristics:①language is system,elements of language are combined according to the rules;②language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what it stands for, A rose by any other name would smell as well;③language is vocal because the primary medium for all language is sound;④language is human -specific,different from animal communication.Design features of languageProposed by American linguist Charles Hockett:comparing the animal & human communication are five major design features of human language:①arbitrarinessNo logical connection between meaning and sounds(except onomatopoetic and compound words)②productivityIt makes to possible to construction and interpretation of new signal by its users.③dualityLanguage is a system which consists of two structures. At the lower level there is a structure of sounds,which are meaningless by the sounds can grouped or regrouped together into a larger numbers of units of meaning such as morpheme or words,which are found at the higher level of system(carp & park).Then the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite numbers of sentences;④DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speakers;⑤cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis,the details of any language systems are not genetically transmitted, but insteadhave to be taught and learned.(language is culturaltransmitted[language not mutually intelligible] while animal call system is genetically transmitted)Functions of languageThree main functions of language which distinct from each other but actually overlapping to some degree:①descriptive functionThe primary function of language;The Sichuan earthquake is the most serious one China has ever suffered.②expressive functionSupply information about the user’s feeling,preference,prejudices and value, will never come to this coffee shop again.③social functionServes to establish and maintain social relations between people. How can I help you, Sir?Others:Russian-born structural linguist Roman Jakobson：six elemens (function)of a speech:Addresser-emotive (动机) addressee-conative(意动) context-referential message-poetic contact-phatic communioncode-metalinguisticBritish linguistic Halliday:①ideational function (语篇功能)[included descriptive & expressivefunctin] is to organize the speaker ’s experience of the real or imaginary world.②interpersonal function is to indicate ,establish,or maintainsocial relationship between people.[social function]③textual function is to organize written or spoken texts to coherewithin themselves and fit to the particular situation in which they are used.The phonic medium of languageSpeech sounds produced by human speech organ Two major media of communication:speech and writing;what is phonetics?The study of phonic medium of language;it is concerned with all the sounds that occurs in the world ’s language.发音语言学听觉语言学) 声学语言学) organs of speech Pharyngeal cavity(咽喉) Nasal cavity （鼻腔）Oral cavity （口腔）Voicing:vibration of the vocal cordsh →aspiration [phonetician more interested in] classification of English speech sounds Monophthongs ：phonologyphonology & phoneticsStem: believable (除掉所有的语法成份,Base：unbelievable (un的词基)Prefix:change meaningSuffix: change meaning and parts of speechInflectional morpheme:signify tense number caseWord formation:①Clipping（shortening & abbreviation）[no change of part of speech]gym expo memo disco burger quake fridge script②back-formation[change of part of speech]editor-edit hawker-hawk beggar-beg baby-sister--baby-sit Butcher-butch donation-donate orientation-orient(ate)③conversion(functional shift): N-v v-n a-v a-n④acronyms[pronounced as words]CEO B2B IT CPI IAD WTO BBS(FOR BULLETIN BOARD SYSTEM)APEC AIDS UNESCO UCLA IDD⑤initialism[produced as letters]FBI EEC⑥blendingSmoke+fog=smogTaikong+astronaut=taikonaut⑦compoundingBittersweet landlady⑧onomatopoeiaBlast rustle5.SemanticsSome views concerning the study of meaning:1)the naming theory,plato,words →objectsLimitations: √N ×ADJ ADV V√Concrete ×abstract2)the conceptualist viewSemantic triangle,ogden & richardswords→mind→wordsLimitations:what is the precisely link symbol and concept unclarify 3)ContextualismFirth。

Unit 1Competence (语言能力): the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language . Performance (语言运用): the actual use of language in concrete situations. Arbitrariness (符号特性): there is no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing.Productivity(creativity): Language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. We can use it to create new meanings.Duality: The structural organization of language into two abstract levels: meaningful units (e. g. words in written language) and meaningless segments (e.g. sounds, letters in spoken language).Displacement: Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.Six basic functions of language:Emotive:the addresser expressed his attitude to the topic of situation of communication.Conative (意动功能): the addresser aims to influence the addressee’s course of action or ways of thinking.Referential (所指功能): the addresser conveys a massage or information.Poetic (诗/美学功能): the addresser uses language for the sole purpose of displaying the beauty of language itself.Phatic communion (寒暄/交互功能): the addresser tries to establish or maintain good interpersonal relationships with the addressee.Metalinguistic (元语言功能): the addresser uses language to make clear the meaning of language itself.Unit 2Broad transcription (宽式转写) : When we use a simple set of symbols in our transcription, it is called a broad transcription.Narrow transcription (严式转写) : The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription.Both are phonetic transcriptions (语音转写)so we put both forms in square brackets [ ].Phone: A phone is a phonetic unit or segment.Phoneme: A phoneme is a phonological unit; It is a unit that is of distinctive value; It is an abstract unit;Allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.Assimilation rule: assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.Intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively keown as intonation.Unit 3Allomorphs: the variant forms of a morpheme are called its allomorphs. Morphemes: It is the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function.Unit 4Major lexical categories: Major lexical categories are often assumed to be the heads (中心语/中心成分) around which phrases are built: n., v., adj. and prep.Minor lexical categories: Minor lexical categories include determiner (Det限定词), degree words (Deg程度词), qualifier (Qual修饰语) and so on.Inversion:a transfomation known as inversion moves the auxiliary from the Infl position to a position to the left of the subject.The XP rule: XP→(specifier) X (conplement)Do insertion---- Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position.Wh Movement: move the wh phrase to the beginning of the sentence.Unit 5Sense: Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form; It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; It is abstract and de-contextualized; It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.Reference: reference is what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.Predication (述谓结构): Predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.A predication consists of argument(s) (变元) and predicate (谓词).Argument: An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal elements in a sentence.Predicate: A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.Unit 6Context: Context a basic concept in the study of pragmatics. It is generally considered as constituted knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer, such as cultural background, situation (time, place, manner, etc.), the relationship between the speaker and the hearer, etc.….Sentence meaning: It is abstract and context-independent; it’s the literal meaning ofa sentence.Utterance meaning: It is concrete and context-dependent; It’s the intended meaning of a speaker; It is the product of sentence meaning and context. Therefore, it is richer than the meaning of the sentence.Locutionary act (言内行为): Locutionary act is the act of saying words, phrases, clauses…; it is an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.Illocutionary act (言外行为): Illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’sintention; it is the act performed in saying something.Perlocutionary act (言后行为): Perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.Unit 8Speech variety: refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers.Sociolect: refers to the linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class. Register: the type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.Creole (克里奥尔语) : when a pidgin (洋泾浜语) has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is said to have become a creole.其他概念：Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. Phonetics: A branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. Phonology: Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages; It aims to ‘discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur’. Morphology: refers to the part of the grammar that is concerned with word formation and word structure.Syntax: Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formatoin of sentences.Semantics: The study of meaning is known as semantics.Pragmatics:It is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.。

英文重点知识点归纳总结英语作为一门国际语言，在全球范围内被广泛使用和学习。

掌握英语的重点知识点对于提升英语能力至关重要。

本文将对英语中的重点知识点进行归纳总结，帮助读者更好地掌握英语。

一、词汇1. 词义辨析：英语中存在许多词义相近的词汇，需要正确理解其区别并能够准确使用。

例如：buy、purchase、acquire等词的区别。

2. 同义词替换：在写作和口语表达中，经常需要使用同义词替换，以避免重复使用相同的词汇。

例如：like可以替换为enjoy、appreciate 等。

3. 词根词缀：掌握常见的词根和词缀有助于扩大词汇量，理解单词的构成和含义。

如tele-表示“远程”，telephone、television等。

二、语法1. 时态：时态是英语语法中的重点，包括一般现在时、过去时、将来时等。

了解各个时态的用法及构成规则能够使句子表达更加准确。

2. 从句：从句是构成复杂句的重要组成部分，包括宾语从句、定语从句、状语从句等。

正确使用从句可以丰富句子结构，提高表达能力。

3. 虚拟语气：虚拟语气用于表达与事实相反、与现实不符合的假设和愿望。

掌握虚拟语气的常见用法能够使表达更加丰富。

例如：If I were you, I would...三、写作技巧1. 句型多样性：在写作中使用不同的句型结构可以使文章更加丰富有趣。

除了简单句，还可以运用并列句、复合句、倒装句等。

2. 连词的运用：适当使用连接词能够使句子之间的逻辑关系更加明确，表达更加连贯。

例如：however、therefore、in addition等。

3. 表达观点：在论述观点时，需要使用一些常用的表达方式来引领思路和陈述观点。

例如：In my opinion、Personally speaking等。

四、听力技巧1. 听懂关键信息：在听力材料中，有许多无关或次要的信息。

关注关键信息并能够准确地捕捉到关键词汇和句子可以提高听力理解能力。

2. 掌握听写技巧：听写是提高听力和拼写能力的重要训练方法。

英语知识点大全英语是全球通用的语言之一，具有广泛的应用领域。

了解英语的知识点对于学习和掌握这门语言至关重要。

在本文中，我们将介绍一些常见的英语知识点，帮助你提高英语水平。

1.语法知识点：英语语法是学习英语必备的基础知识点。

包括词类、句子结构、时态、语态等方面的内容。

掌握这些知识点可以帮助你正确理解和使用英语。

2.词汇知识点：英语词汇是英语学习中的重要组成部分。

学习和掌握常用的词汇可以帮助你更好地阅读、写作和交流。

记忆和扩充词汇量是提高英语水平的关键。

3.阅读理解知识点：阅读是提高英语能力的有效方法之一。

掌握阅读理解的技巧和策略可以帮助你更好地理解和分析英语文章。

这包括理解主题、段落结构、推理和推断等技巧。

4.听力技巧：听力是英语学习中的重要方面。

通过听英语材料，你可以提高听力理解和口语表达能力。

练习听力技巧可以帮助你更好地理解和跟上英语对话和演讲。

5.口语表达知识点：英语口语是日常交流和沟通的重要方式。

练习口语表达可以帮助你提高听说能力和流利度。

学习常用口语表达和练习口语对话是提高口语能力的关键。

6.写作技巧：英语写作是锻炼英语综合能力的重要方面。

通过写作，你可以提高词汇和语法运用能力。

学习写作技巧可以帮助你提高写作水平，包括句子结构、段落组织和篇章连贯等方面。

7.标点符号使用：标点符号在英语写作中起到重要的作用。

正确使用标点符号可以使文章结构清晰，表达准确。

学习标点符号的使用规则是提高写作能力的关键。

8.英语文化和语境：英语学习不仅涉及语言知识，还涉及英语文化和语境。

了解英语国家的文化差异和习惯用语可以帮助你更好地理解英语材料和进行交流。

9.常用俚语和习语：英语中有许多常用的俚语和习语，掌握这些表达方式可以使你的英语更地道和自然。

学习和运用俚语和习语是提高英语表达能力的关键。

10.学习资源和工具：在学习英语过程中，合理利用学习资源和工具可以提高学习效果。

这包括英语教材、字典、语言学习网站和应用程序等。

Key to Exercises for Lecture 2 PhonologyI. <blank filling>1.Phonetics is the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the soundsthat occur in the world’s languages.2.Phonetics look at speech sounds from three distinct but related perspectives: the speaker, thehearer, and the way sound travel. This gives rise to three branches of phonetics: articulatory phonetics; auditory phonetics; acoustic phonetics.3.Articulatory phonetics is a study of sounds from the speaker’s point of view, i.e., how aspeaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds.4.Auditory phonetics is a study of sounds from the hearer’s point of view, i.e., how the soundsare perceived by the hearer.5.Acoustic phonetics is a study of how sounds travel by looking at the sound waves, thephysical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another. 6.Spectrographs are machines used by acoustic phoneticians to record human sound waves forthe description of the physical properties of the stream of human sounds.7.T he man’s articulatory apparatus is contained in the pharyngeal cavity (the throat), the oralcavity (the mouth), and the nasal cavity (the nose).8.The ‘pharyngeal’ means the throat.9.B y ‘oral cavity’ is meant the mouth.10.The nose is the si mple term for ‘the nasal cavity’?11.T he word ‘language’ derive from t he Latin word ‘l ingua’.12.The original meaning of ‘language’ is t he ‘t ongue’.13.‘V oicing’ is the v ibration of the vocal cords, a feature of all vowels and some consonants inEnglish.14.‘Voiceless’ is a feature of sounds without vibration, or when the vocal cords are drawn wideapart, letting air go though without causing vibration.15.The sound [k] or [g] is produced when obstruction is created between the back of the tongueand the velar area.16.The sounds [t] and [d] are pronounced when obstruction is created between the tip of thetongue and the alveolar ridge.17.T he sounds [θ] and [ð] are produced when p artial obstruction is created between the upperfront teeth and the tip of the tongue.18.The sounds [ f ] and [ v ] are produced when obstruction is created between the upper teethand the lower tip.19.The sounds [ p ] and [ b ] pronounced are produced when partial obstruction is createdbetween the lips.20.The nasal consonants in English are [m], [n] and [ ].21.The International Phonetic Alphabet came into being towards the end of the nineteenthcentury.22.The basic principle of IPA is to use one letter selected from major European languages torepresent one speech sound.23.Diacritics are a set of letter-symbols the IPA gives its users to bring out the finer distinctionsthan the letters alone may possibly do.24.Broad transcription is the transcription with letter-symbols only.25.Narrow transcription is the transcription with diacritics. For instance, the sound [l] istranscribed as dark or clear sound in different contexts.26.Broad transcription is used in dictionaries.27.Vowels and consonants are the two broad categories of the speech sounds in English.28.The essential difference between vowels and consonants is that in the production of the former,the air stream coming from the lungs meets with no obstruction whatsoever, whereas in the production of the latter, it is obstructed in one way or another.29.Consonants are usually classified in two ways: in terms of manner of articulation and in termsof place of articulation.30.Consonants can be grouped into stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals, glides in terms ofmanner of articulation.31.Consonants can be grouped into bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar, glottal interms of place of articulation.32.Liquids in English are one type of consonants, or [ l ] and [ r ], produced when the airflow isobstructed but allowed to escape through the passage between part or parts of the tongue (the tip or the sides) and the roof of the mouths.33.Glides in English are one type of consonants, sometimes called ‘s emivowels’, or [w] and [j],produced with a narrow passage between the lips or between the tongue and the hard palate to cause some slight noise from the local obstruction.34.V owels are usually classified in terms of the position of the tongue in the mouth, the opennessof the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.35.Vowels can be grouped into front, central, back vowels in terms of the position of the tonguein the mouth.36.Vowels can be grouped into close, semi-close, semi-open, open vowels in terms of theopenness of the mouth.37.Vowels can be grouped into rounded and unrounded vowels in terms of the shape of the lips.38.Vowels can be grouped into short and long in terms of length.39.Phonology and phonetics are similar in that both are concerned with the same aspect oflanguage, the speech sounds.40.Phonology and phonetics differ in their approach and focus. Phonology deals with how speechsounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. Phonetics, however, is interested in all human speech sounds and deals with how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, and so on. Hence, phonetics is general, whereas phonology tends to be more specific and related to the meaningful use of the sounds.41.A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. All speech sounds we hear and produce in linguisticcommunication are phones.42.A phoneme is a phonological unit of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit; it is not anyparticular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. For example, /p/ is a phoneme in the English sound system, which is realized as aspirated (as in ‘peak’) or unaspirated (as in ‘speak’) in different contexts.43.Allophones are all the different phones that can represent a phoneme in different phoneticcontexts.44.A phonemic contrast is fo rmed when two distinctive phonemes (as in ‘pet’ and ‘bet’) arerelated to each other.plementary distribution arises when allophones of a phoneme are related to each other inthat they do not distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution.46.A minimal pair is such a pair of different forms as identical in every way except for one soundsegment which occurs in the same place in the strings (as ‘pill’ and ‘till’).47.The sequential rules are the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particularlanguage.48.If there are three consonants at the initial of an English word, they should be combinedaccording to the rules as follows:(1) The first phoneme must be / s /;(2) The second phoneme must be / p / or / t / or / k /;(3) The third phoneme must be / l / or / r / or / w /.49.The assimilation rule is a rule that assimilates one sound to another by ‘c opying’ a feature of asequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar (as in ‘impossible’).50.The deletion rule is a phonological rule that tells us when a sound is to be deleted although itis orthographically represented. For example, [g] deletion occurs before a final nasal consonant, as in ‘signature’.51.The suprasegmental features include stress, tone and intonation, which are above the level ofthe segments.52.There are generally two kinds of stress: word stress, sentence stress.53.Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocalcords, and which can distinguish meaning like phonemes, as in ‘ma’.54.Intonation is the collective expression of meaning when pitch, stress and sound length are tiedto the sentence rather than the word in isolation.55.The difference between tone and intonation is that while the former is pitch variation that candistinguish meaning, the latter is the combination of pitch, stress and sound length in the sentence to realize meaning.56.Nucleus refers to the major pitch change in an intonation unit. Within one intonation unit, thenucleus normally falls on the last stressed syllable.II. <true or false>1. Writing is more basic than speech.False.Speech is more basic than writing.2. There have been some 2,500 languages in the world.False.There have been over 5,000 languages in the world.3. About two thirds of languages in the world have not had written form.True.4. Linguists are interested in all sounds.False.Linguists are only interested in sounds produced by humans through their speech organs and have a role to play in linguistic communication.5. The limited range of sounds that are meaningful in human communication constitute the phonic medium of language.True.6. Phonetic similarity, not phonetic identity, is the criterion with which we operate in the phonological analysis of languages.True.7. The greatest source of modification of the air stream is found in the oral cavity.True.8. The narrowing of space between the hard palate and the front of the tongue results in the sound [j].True.9. [k], [g] and [n] are velar sounds.False.The first two are velar sounds, while the last one is alveolar.10. [i] is a semi-close vowel.False.It is a close vowel.11. [h] is the glottal sound.True.12. [ei] is a monophthong.False.It is a diphthong.13. Phonology is of a general nature.False.Phonology is concerned with the functions of sounds in linguistic communication and is not of a general nature.14. Phonetics deals with speech sounds in all human languages.True.15. A phone does not necessarily distinguish meaning.True.16. A phoneme is a phonetic unit.False.It is a phonological unit.17. ‘Tsled’ is a possible word in English.False.18. English is a tone language.False.English is NOT a tone language.III. <explanation>Explain the following:1. the two kinds of transcription in the following words: leaf; pitLeaf. Its broad transcription is [li:f], where each of the three letter-symbols [l], [i:] and [f] represents a sound respectively. Its narrow transcription is still [li:f], but its clear [l] is different from the dark [ł] as in ‘feel’ ([fi:ł]).Pit. Its broad transcription is [pit], where each of the three letter-symbols [p], [i] and [t] represents a sound respectively. Its narrow transcription is [phit].2. the possible different reading of the sentence ‘That’s not the book he wants.’A. 'That’s 'not the 'book he ‘ wants. (falling tone: fact)B. 'That’s 'not the 'book he ‚ wants. (rising tone: question)C. ‘ That’s 'not the 'book he ‚ wants. (fall-rise tone: implying ‘some other book’)3. the possible advantages in the use of the Chinese language instead of English.One is that we can use one sound to realize a number of meaning. Another is that very often Chinese characters can remind people of the images of the relevant objects of the world. Still another is that the Chinese language has a rich handwriting culture, which may help distinguish one person from another, and so on.。