第一章
词汇与词汇学的基本概念
词汇学学习之初，有必要去澄清一些关于词和词汇的基本概念。词语word是一个难以捉摸的概念，需要在开始就认真关注。发音和意义之间的关系，声音和形式之间的关系，词语和词汇之间的关系。另外，我们将注意一些关于词汇分类的共识的规则，并且在本章一定程度上研究每类词语。
1.1一个词是什么？
词语是什么？多年来已经引起了语言学家的关注。争议较大。尽管已经提出了很多的定义，没有一个是最好的。学者们仍然没有在词语的定义上达成一致。
当我们谈起一个词语，我们倾向于根据视觉条件来思考。在这个角度，一个词可以被定义为平印在或者写在纸上的字母的有意义的集合。当根据口语定义的时候，词被看成是一个发音或发音的集合，是由人的发音器官自由的发出的。根据语义学家的意见，一个词是一个意义单位。语法学家，则认为一个词是在句中起作用的自由形式。等等。总结起来，词语的定义包含以下几点：
（1）一个最小的自由形态
（2）一个发音的集合体
（3）一个意义单位
（4）能独自影响句子的形式
因此，我们能说“词语是语言最小的自由形式，拥有固定的声音和意义以及句法作用。”
词语可以是简单词或者合成词，然而全部必须服从这些标准。Man和fine是简单词，但是他们都有读音，意义和句法意义。每个都能单独出现在句子中。自然他们都是词。也有像是misfortune和management这样的复合词，他们都是多音节词，可以用来作主语，宾语和预示性词语。尽管misfortune可以被进一步分为mis和fortune，前者不能作为词单独使用。相似的，management可以被分成manage和ment，但是后者不能自由使用。Blackmail能被分为black和mail，而且都能作为独立的句子单位使用，然而词的意思绝对不是两个部分的组合。Black是颜色，针对white，mail指示“被邮局运送的东西”，然而当它们放在一起，组合形式意味着“强迫，利用不光彩的秘密要人送钱或行动作为答复。”因此blackmail是一个不同的词。
1.2读音和意义
词语是一个符号，代表着世界上其他的事物。每种世界文化已经赞成一定的读音将代表一定的人，事，地方，特性，过程，行动，当然是在语言系统之外。这种象征性的联系几乎总是主观的，并且“在代表事物和思想的声音和实际的事物和思想之间没有法定关系。”一只狗被称作“狗”，并不是因为那读音和三个字母能自动的指示那讨论中的动物。它只是象征性的。它们之间的关系是约定俗成的，因为同种语言的人们赞成用一串声音说那动物。在不同的语言中相同的概念可以用不同的声音表达。Woman，在德语中是frau，在法语中是femme。在中国话中是funu。另一方面，相同的读音也表示不同的意义，如mi：t用来表示会议，肉和边界。骑士和夜晚，尽管代表不同的事物，仍然有相同的读音。
1.3读音和形式
通常认为，自然语言的书写形式是口语形式的书写记录。自然书写形式应该和口语形式相一致。换而言之，发音应该和形式相一致。这在英语中是相当正确的在早期也就是古代英语中。那时候的口语比今天更忠实的代表书面语。随着语言的发展，越来越多的不同出现在口语和书面语之间。内因是因为英语字母表采用罗马字母，罗马字母没有独立的字母代表每个读音，因此一些字母代表两个读音或者组合在一起发音。
Alphabet字母表
另一个原因是发音比拼写的变化快，在一些时候还拉开了距离。在最近五百年里，尽管口语发音已经出现了显著的变化，却没有相应的拼写变化。
第三个原因是一些早期的书写员发明了一些不同。在早年拼写差别不是问题，因为人们不常看印刷体，而且拼写不像今天这样固定。结果，没人能够肯定一些英语词汇该如何拼写。有时候人们故意把拼写改变为一条直线或者只是为了方便识记。在印刷术传到英国以前，每样东西都是手写的。那些书写员，那些靠为他人写作谋生的人经常繁忙工作，为了应付国王，主教和商人的需要。一个问题是几个字母用简短垂直的笔画书写象是iuvmw和n都看上去很相像。因此，他们的书写体引起了误解。为了部分解决这个问题，他们把mnv之前的u 改成o.这就是sum cum wuman wunder变成some come woman wonder monk的原因。某些时候，书记员可能认为没有单词应该以u或者v结尾。因此，及时的，e被加入那样的词语象是live have true 但是没有发音。
At some point在某个时候
到1500年年末，印刷已经变得非常普及。它有助于固定单词的拼写。标准化使得拼写不容改变。字典在拼写终结中得到好处。同时，读音继续如往常变化，以此带来了更多的不同。最后借词来了，这是丰富英语词汇的重要途径。当英语从其他语言中借鉴单词时，它同样借用了拼写。早期的借词被同化，后来的则不再遵守英语的发音和拼写规则，例如……
英语的书写因此是发音形式不完善的代表。历史上一次又一次，一些英美学者尝试去改革英语的拼写，但是不成功。尽管差别，至少百分之八十的单词读音和拼写一致。就算是那些拼写不规范的也有更多的规律和用处，超出我们的认识。例如，象是hymn condemn bomb他们的最后一个字母是不发音的。但是他们扩展为更长的单词，沉默的字母就要发音，hymnal
1.4词汇
所有一种语言中的词构成了它的词汇。术语“词汇”使用在不同的地方。他不仅用来代表一种语言中的单词总数，他还能代表所有特定历史时期的单词，例如古代英语词汇，中古词汇和现代英语词汇。我们也用他来代表所有特定方言的词汇，一本书的词汇，一种学术的词汇和一个人的词汇。英语是高度发展的世界语言之一。自然词汇是最大最丰富的之一。今天的英语笼统估计词汇量超过100万。
1.5词类
英语词汇由所有种类的词汇组成。它们可以根据不同的标准或者不同的目的进行分类。根据使用频率，单词可以分为基础词和非基础词。可以根据概念分成实词和虚词，可以根据来源分为本地词和借词。
1.5.1基础词和非基础词
基础词是几世纪积累的词汇的基础，构成语言的核心。尽管基础词占英语词汇比例小，它仍然是最重要的组成部分。这些词有明显的特征。
1所有的民族特征。
基础词代表我们身边世界中最常见的事物和非凡的现象。这是所有说那种语言的人都要知道的，这包括和下面方面相关的词：
自然现象：雨雪火，水，太阳月亮春夏风山
人的身体和亲属：头足手脸父母兄弟姐妹儿子女儿
动植物：橡树松树草梨苹果树马牛羊猫狗小鸡
动作，尺寸，范围，状态：来去吃听打带好邪恶老年轻热冷重白黑
数词代词介词连接词：一十百我你你的，谁，在里，在外，在下，和但直到如同
这些词不能被英语会话者回避。不能不考虑词源教育专业地区文化等等。
2.稳定性
基础词已经被使用若干世纪，例如人火山水太阳月亮。由于它们代表生活需要的普遍事物，它们很可能保持不变。稳定性只是相对的，实际上基础词正在进行着变化。象是弓箭马车骑士，过去是常见的，现在都删出了词库，同时象是“电，机器，汽车，飞机，微机无线电电视”这些代表新事物和现代生活方式的词，已经进入了词库，但是这个变化是缓慢的，更多的是加入而不是清除。
3.生产力
基础词大多是词根。它们每个都能单独使用同时可以和其他词根或词缀一起构成新词：例如足：片段，足球，人行道，页脚，脚步，立足的，未婚的，愚昧的，男仆，立足点，脚印和许多其他的。同样的，dog是忠实的，狗性，狗车，便宜，折角，平局，混战，狗窝狗刨小憩这些词的父亲，只是说了一点。
4.意义分歧
术语基础词的赐予经常拥有一个以上的意思因为它们中的大多数都已经发生了意义变化根据使用，变得一词多义。一个例子将满足解释的需要动词take可能是说：从一地搬运到其他地方；未经允许或者错误的移动或使用，获得抓住，独立自强，用手抓住，愿意接受，忍受，需要（特定数量的时间）；完成相关的行动，测试或者测量，写下，有预想效果或者工作成功。
5.搭配能力
基础词中许多在一些设定表达，习惯用法，谚语和类似的东西中出现。例子是很多的。以心为例，变心，不在心上，金子的心，在心上。伤害心，穿过心，呼喊心声，吃掉心，心在嗓子眼，心和手，心和灵魂，心上下浮动，挂心，把心挂在袖子上，全心全意等等。当然，不是所有的基础词都有这些特点。代词和数词有全国使用范围和稳定性，但是无歧义，生产和组合能力有限。因此，全民性是区别通用词和其他词的最重要特征。
没有上面描述特征的词，不属于语言的正常核心。它们包括下面：
1.术语。包括特定学科和学术领域的技术术语，例如在医学上：光扫描，肝炎，消化不良，青霉素；在数学上：代数，三角学，微积分；音乐上，交响乐，管弦乐队，奏鸣曲，协奏曲，教育上：视听教学，自休大学，微型教学等等。
2.行话。用于特定的词汇，通过特定艺术，科学，商业和专业领域的成员在彼此之间交流，例如在商业：底线是不能逃避的暗示，无法避免的结果，最终版本。“。垒球数字是说估计，讨价碎片是说被谈判中一方控制的好处，在马赛中：抓他回来是说不让他赢，抓他进来是说强迫马匹在比赛开始跑到后面以便在最后提速；在医学中：多疑是指怀疑多虑，人格面貌是指人的人格面貌。Hypo指皮下注射器；在战争中：buster是炮弹。总体来说，圈外人理解这些词有困难。
3.俚语粗话
属于低等语言，处在标准通用语言，（包括每人用的非正式词汇）和团体内部语言包括cant(任何下等团体的行话)，jargons,argot,所有这些词汇都和特定的人群联系或者大部分能被特定人群使用。特定词被标示为“俚语”不是因为他们的写法和发音，而是因为他们的用法。面团和面包，例如，是标准的当他们作为食物术语。但是当标示俚语时则标示金钱。类似的，“草”和“壶”相应的有标准或者正式的使用意义，就是“植物的类型”和“烹饪器皿”,但是作为俚语使用为“大麻”。那样的词象是海狸（女孩），吸烟的，熊（警察），捉住（谈话），叫喊（呼叫）
收到（理解），x光（雷达）都是俚语。“头”的概念可以用“坚果”“圆屋顶”“上面的”“豆子”“大块”表示，诸如此类。同样的，“喝醉”可以用超过三百个单词表示，象是“提高”“愉快”“高兴”“舒服”“沸腾”“草率”“紧张”“敲掉”“蓝眼”“薯条”“瘫痪”“腌制”“僵硬”“击昏”。
这些例子说明很多俚语都是通过改变或延伸现有单词的意义决定的，尽管一些俚语大体来说是新成员。俚语被广泛使用。有时几乎每个人都使用俚语，还有一些人经常使用大量俚语。那些不去办公室或者很少过正常生活的人，还有那些经常和亲近的朋友一起而不是和同事或者极少的熟人在一起的人，使用俚语最多，因为俚语生动，直率，印象深刻而且感人。正如一些人所说的，俚语避免了自负的感觉。他是“卷起袖子立刻能够工作的语言”。
4.黑话
通常是指罪犯的黑话。他的应用被限制在下层文化团体，外人很难理解他。例如“罐头起子”（万能钥匙）蘸（偷钱包）说服者（匕首）。
5.方言词
是争论中的方言者所用的词。例如，“美丽”（澳大利亚英语：很好的）“鸡”（澳英语：小鸡）“狂妄”（澳英：小农夫）“站”（澳英：大农场）“老的”（苏格兰英：老的），bluid（苏格兰英语：血）“咕咕”（苏格兰英语：奶牛）“轭”（苏格兰英语：家）lough（爱尔兰英语：湖）“沼泽”（爱尔兰英语：沼泽）
6.古语
是曾经一度普遍使用现在却被限制使用的词和形式。他们主要出现在古诗，法律文件，宗教作品和演讲中。这里有例子：thou（你）ye（复数你们）thee（宾格你）wilt（will）brethren （兄弟）troth（宣誓）quoth（说）aught（任何事）hereof（于此，不是至此）从此（从那）其中（in what）。
7.新词
是新建立的词或者表达，或者已经采用新意的词。这里是从12000词中找到的例子：
“微电子学“：电子学分支处理综合管路问题。
“未来学”：在现代趋势上针对未来可能性进行的研究
“aids”：获得免疫缺乏综合征
“电子邮件”：电子邮件，通过计算机系统进行的信息传送。
“internet”：连接商业和私人用户的国际计算机网络。
异化：以服药的形式退出现实和社会。（自杀）
1.5.2内容词和功能词
根据概念，词语可以分为内容词和功能词。内容词显示清楚的概念，因为被认为是概念词。他们包括名词，动词。形容词，副词和数词。表示物体，现象，动作，品质，状态，程度，数量等等。“地”“云”“跑”“走”“明亮”“黑暗”“决不”“经常”“五”“十二月”都是内容词。
功能词没有他们自己的概念。因此，他们也称作“空词”。由于他们的主要功能是去表达概念间的关系，词语间和句子间的关系，他们被认为是“结构词”。介词，连词，辅助词和冠词属于这一类，例如on of upon and but do be a 和其他。
内容词，构成了英语词汇的主体，是数量多的。并且那数量还在增长，然而，功能词，只占词汇的很少一部分，保持稳定。然而，功能词平均在表达上做了更多的工作，和内容词相比。根据stuart等人所说，九个功能词，就是and be have it of the to will you占据英语表达的四分之一。这被下面的例子证明是合理的。总共二十七个单词，只有九个是内容词，其他都是功能词。
和孩子们一起玩有趣。
肯定是他们忘记了地址。
我看那电影次数越多，我越喜欢它。
1.5.3本地词和外来词
直到词源被关注，英语单词可以划分为本地词和外来词。本地词在五世纪由日尔曼人带到英国，盎格鲁，撒克逊，还有朱特人，因此被认为是盎格鲁撒克逊词汇。盎格鲁撒克逊源头词数量很少，大约在50000到60000之间，但是他们构成了基本词储的主流，并且处在语言的核心。因此，真正的基础词储也是真正的本地词。和基本词储的特征相分离，和外来词相对比，本地词还有两个其他特征：
1.风格中性。由于本地词表示人类社会中最常见事物，他们被所有人使用，在所有地方使用，在所有场合使用，在任何时候使用。因此，他们没有独特的特点。这可以在同义词之间的比较中看出。
被用E标示的是本地词，其他的都是借词。风格上，本地词没有正式和非正式之分，然而从法国和拉丁来的借词是文雅的和学术的，因此适合在正式风格中使用。
2. 使用频繁
在日常听说中本地词最常使用。关于借词的使用比例或许正好相反。正在使用的本地词大约占百分之七十到九十。这数字可以被下面的资料证明：
这些资料不能用于所有的使用情况，并且对学术领域和科学开发，在那些领域更多的法语词拉丁词和希腊词被使用。
从外国带来的词被认为是“借词”“借代词”或者“所借的”英语是沉重的借贷者，已经采用了来自世界上其他主要语言的词。据估计，英语借词组成了现代英语词汇的百分之八十。正如“百科全书美国历史”中所说，英语有沉重的借贷。在任何词典中百分之八十的词条是借词。英语以明显的词汇复杂和异类著称，因为它广泛的借词。Baugh把英国词汇比作“世界性的词汇”，揭示了英语词汇的本质。根据同化程度和借词的风格，我们可以把借词分成四类。1. 同化词
居民词是过去早期借词，现在很好的溶入和英语。换句话说他们遵守英语的发音和拼写方法。其中一些如此成功的同化以至于只有经过训练的专业人士才能晓得他们的源头。这样的词是从拉丁语希腊语法语和斯堪的纳维亚语中来的早期借词。例如“港口”从portus来，cup从cuppa来，shift从skipta来（古代诺思语）shirt从skyrta来，change从changier来，pork从porc来。
2. 非同化词
侨语是保留了原始发音和拼写的借词。这些词可以立刻被识别出源头在国外。象是decon blitzkrieg，“磕头”“市场”“王侯”“情况疑问”“乐曲”“埃米尔”，他们都是去命名一些东西。
3.译借词。
翻译借词是从英语中的现有材料中取材构成，但是模仿其他语言的构成方式。那样的词也能划分。
4. 借义词
这类词不是参考形式借来，但是他们的意义是借来的。换句话说，英语为现有的词借来了新的意义。用dream来举例。这词最初表示“高兴”“音乐”，它现在的意义是来自于挪威语。“先锋”曾经一度表示“探索者”或者“作探索工作的人”，现在用了新意义“少年先锋队成员”，从俄国借鉴。Dumb的“愚蠢”含义来自于德语“dumm”。同样的，fresh已经在德语frech的影响下采用了“无礼”的意义。
词汇学的基本知识 词汇学是研究词语的学问，它是传统语言学（语法、语音、词汇）的一个分支。词汇学的 主要研究的内容是：词的性质、词的构成、词义的本质及发展、词的各种关系（同音、同 义、反义等）。 一、什么是词 词是有意义的能够独立运用的造句的最小单位，它具有固定的语音形式。汉语词的划分有一 定的困难，因为在书写时词和词之间是不分开的。就“独立运用”而言，许多虚词和量词是 不能独立运用的。于是增加了一条补充，一句话中把能独立运用的词划分出去，剩写的也是词。如：“我把这本书包了个书皮。”这个句子中的“本”“个”和“把”也是词。汉语中词 和短语的界限也不很清楚。一般可以用扩展插入法来区分。能插入的是短语，不能插入的是 词（意义不能变）。比如：钢笔——钢的笔、白菜——白的菜、白布——白的布、吃饭——吃 了饭、鸡蛋——鸡的蛋、睡觉——睡不睡觉。“钢笔”不能插入词，“白菜”插入后意思变了，它们肯定是词。“白布”可以插入且意思不变，可以做为短语。“吃饭”可以插入，“鸡蛋”可 以插入，但“鸡蛋”的频度很高，可以把它做为词。睡觉可以插入，但两个语素的组合是固 定的，把这类词做为离合词（理发、洗澡、打仗等）。 一个语素（有意义的汉字）能独立运用就是词。（米、吃、红、个、从） 两个语素组合后，意义不是它们的简单相加，就是词。（钢笔、金鱼、） 两个语素组合后，不能扩展插入词，就是词。（钢笔，白菜） 两个语素组合后，虽能扩展插入词，但它们是不能用别的语素替换的，则是一种特殊的词 ——离合词。 两个语素组合后，虽能扩展插入词，但它们的使用频度很高，且大家约定俗成认为它是词。（“鸡蛋”是词、“鹰蛋”就有人认为是短语）。 综上所述，汉语的词与短语之间的界限是有模糊地带的。 人们对客观世界的认识形成了概念，词是反映概念的，但它们之间的关系不是一一对应的。 比如，“月亮”、“月球”对应的是一个概念，“人民”这个词可以对应不同的概念。 二、现代汉语词汇的构成 词汇由词和固定的短语——熟语、谚语等构成。 词可以从不同的角度分类： 1.语法分类——实词、虚词（词类） 2.结构分类——单纯词、合成词 3.音节分类——单音节词、多音节词 4.常用——常用词汇（基本词汇）、一般词汇 5.口语词汇——书面词汇 6.普通话词汇——方言词汇 7.汉语词汇——外来语词汇 8.古词语——新词语 熟语可以包括成语、谚语、歇后语等。成语表意凝炼、形象，在书面语中广泛运用。它来源 于古代的典故，有的选取原句中最能概括原句意思的成分（乘风破浪——愿乘长风，破万里浪），有的用四个字概括寓言、故事等（刻舟求剑、狐假虎威），有的增加个别字（短兵相接——车错毂兮短兵接）。成语的意思有的是语素义的简单相加（汗流浃背、无稽之谈、自圆其说）；多数成语的意思不是语素义的相加，有的意思是约定俗成的（高山流水——表示知己知音），有的是取字面的比喻义（水落石出——比喻真相毕露了）。
英语词汇学 第一部分选择题 I. Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers .Choose the one that would best complete the statement and put the letter in the bracket（30％） 1. Degradation can be illustrated by the following example[ ] A. lewd → ignorant B. silly → foolish C. last → pleasure D. knave → boy 2. Homophones are often employed to create puns for desired effects of: [ ] A. humour B. sarcasm C. ridicule D. all the above 3. The four major modes of semantic change are _____. [ ] A. extension, narrowing, elevation and degradation B. extension, generalization, elevation and degradation C. extension, narrowing, specialization and degradation D. extension, elevation, amelioration and degradation 4. The use of one name for that of another associated with it is rhetorically called _____. [ ] A. synecdoche B. metonymy C. substitution D. metaphor 5. Idioms adjectival in nature function as _____. [ ] A. adjectives B. attributes C. modifiers D. words 6. Grammatical context refers to _____ in which a word is used. [ ] A. vocabulary B. grammar C. semantic pattern D. syntactic structure 7. In the idiom 'in good feather', we change 'good' into 'high, full' without changing meaning. This change of constituent is known as _____ . [ ] A. addition B. replacement C. position-shifting D. variation 8. The word "laconic" is _____. [ ] A. onomatopoeically motivated B. morphologically motivated C. semantically motivated D. etymologically motivated 9. CCELD is distinctive for its _____. [ ] A. clear grammar codes B. language notes
《英语词汇学教程》参考答案 Chapter 1 1. The three definitions agree that lexicology studies words. Yet, they have different focuses. Definition 1 focuses on the meaning and uses of words, while definition 2 on the overall structure and history. Definition 3 regards lexicology as a branch of linguistics and focuses on the semantic structure of the lexicon. It is interesting to note that the three definitions use different names for the object of study. For Definition 1, it is words, for Definition 2 the vocabulary of a language, and for Definition 3 the lexicon. 2. (1) They can go into the room, and if they like, shut the door. (2) You boys are required to give in your homework before 10 o’clock. (3) I watch the football match happily and find it very interesting. 3. (1) W hen it follows ‘-t’ and ‘-d’, it is pronounced as [id]; (2) When it follows voiceless consonants, it is pronounced as [t]; (3) When it follows voiced consonants and vowels, it is pronounced as [d]. 4. (1) They are words that can be included in a semantic field of “tree”. (2) They represent the forms of the verb “fly” and have a common meaning. (3) They belong to a lexical field of “telephone communication”. (4) They are synonyms, related to human visual perception. Specifically, they denote various kinds of “looking”. 5. (a) 'blackboard: a board with a dark smooth surface, used in schools for writing with chalk (the primary stress in on black); 'blackbird: a particular kind of bird, which may not necessarily be black in color (the primary stress in on black); 'greyhound: a slender, swift dog with keen sight (the primary stress in on black); 'White House: the residence of the US President in Washington (the primary stress in on black). (b) 'black 'board: any board which is black in color (both words receive primary stress); 'black 'bird: any bird which is black in color (both words receive primary stress); 'grey 'hound: any hound that is grey in color (both words receive primary stress); 'white 'house: any house that is painted white (both words receive primary stress). 6. There are 44 orthographic words, i.e. sequences of letters bounded by space. There are 24 open class words and 20 closed class words. 7. (a) The ‘bull’ is literal, referring to a male bovine animal. (b) ‘Take the bull by the horn’is an idiom, meaning (having the courage to) deal with someone or something directly. (c) ‘Like a bull in a china shop’is an idiom, meaning doing something with too much enthusiasm or too quickly or carelessly in a way that may damage things or upset someone.
《英语词汇学教程》（2004 年版）练习答案 Chapter 1 7. Choose the standard meaning from the list on the right to match each of the slang words on the left. a. tart: loose woman b. bloke: fellow c. gat: pistol d. swell: great e. chicken: coward f. blue: fight g. smoky: police h. full: drunk i. dame: woman j. beaver: girl 8. Give the modern equivalents for the following archaic words. haply = perhaps albeit = although methinks = it seems to me eke = also sooth = truth morn = morning troth = pledge ere = before quoth = said hallowed = holy billow = wave / the sea bade = bid 12. Categorize the following borrowed words into denizens, aliens, translation loans, and semantic loans. Denizens: kettle, die, wall, skirt, husband Aliens: confrere, pro patria, Wunderkind, mikado, parvenu Translation loans: chopstick, typhoon, black humour, long time no see Semantic loans: dream Chapter 2 1. Why should students of English lexicology study the Indo-European Language Family? The Indo-European Language Family is one of the most important language families in the world. It is made up of most of the languages of Europe, the Near East and India. English belongs to this family and the other members of the Indo-European have more or less influence on English vocabulary. Knowledge of the Indo-European Language Family will help us understand English words better and use them more appropriately. 2. Make a tree diagram to show the family relations of the modern languages given below.
《英语词汇学教程》（2004年版）练习答案 【Chapter 1】 7．tart: loose woman bloke: fellow gat: pistol swell: great chicken: coward blue: fight smoky: police full: drunk dame: woman beaver: girl 8. haply = perhaps albeit = although methinks = it seems to me eke = also sooth = truth morn = morning troth = pledge ere = before quoth = said hallowed = holy billow = wave/ the sea bade = bid 【Chapter 2】 Ex.1 The Indo-European Language Family is one of the most important language families in the world. It is made up of most of the languages of Europe, the Near East and India. English belongs to this family and the other members of the Indo-European have more or less influence on English vocabulary. A knowledge of the Indo-European Language Family will help us understand English words better and use them more appropriately. 2. Indo-European Language Family Balto-Slavic Indo-Iranian Celtic Italian Hellenic Germanic
Language Language is a system of symbol based on physiology, psychology, and physics. It’s a special social action and a carrier of information used for human communication in a society. The relationship between Language, Society, and Thought: 1. any language reflects the culture of the society in a particular period. Therefore language is the mirror reflecting the culture of a society. 2. Language is a product of society. Language is inseparable from human society. 3. Language is used as a means of communication in a society. Outside society there is no language. 4. Society depends upon language for its existence. For example, there are many words connected with carriage. Buggy, a light one-horse carriage with two wheels. Coach, a large closed four-wheel horse-drawn carriage. 5. moreover, man’s thought is indispensable to language just as language is indispensable from society. We know that language is used to express man’s thought. The process of thinking is closely connected with language. That is to say, without thinking, there would be no human language. 6. language serves society as a means of intercourse between people. Linguistics is the scientific study of language. The scope of linguistics include phonology, syntax, semantics, phonetics, philology, lexicology, stylistics, general linguistics, descriptive linguistics…… Lexicology is a branch of linguistics concerned with the study of the vocabulary of a given language. It deals with words, their origin, development, history, structure, meaning, and application. Aim of English Lexicology is to give a systematic description of the English vocabulary. It offers students an insight into the origin and development of the English vocabulary. The significance of English Lexicology: help the learners to enlarge their vocabulary and improve their ability to analyze and use the words. Two approaches to the study of English Lexicology: synchronic and diachronic. Synchronic means describing a language as it exists at one period of time. Diachronic means concerned with the historical development of a language. For example: January, February, march, synchronically, they are the words of the months of one year. Diachronically, they are all borrowed words. Synchronically, we consider words like eventful, talkative as derivatives. Diachronically, they are hybrids, that is, words that are made of two parts, each from a different language. Etymology is the study of the origin and history of words and their meanings. Significance: 1.to provides background information and knowledge about the history, origin and development of the English language. 2. To increase the learner’s enjoyment and real understanding of English words from their changes of forms including their spelling and pronunciation to that of meanings. English is classified as a Teutonic language, that is, a Germanic language. English belongs to the Low West Germanic branch of the Indo-European family. Division of the history of the English language: 1. the period from 450 to 1150 is known as the Old English or Anglo-Saxon period. It’s described as the period of full inflection. 2. The period from 1150 to 1500 is known as the Middle English period, also as the period of leveled inflections. 3. The period from 1500 to the present day is called the Modern English period, also as the period of lost inflection. There are two classes of language in the world: synthetic and analytic. A synthetic language is one which shows the relation of word in a sentence largely by means of inflection. An analytic language is one which indicates the relation of words in a sentence by means of word order, preposition or auxiliary verbs, rather than by inflection. Old English the a synthetic language, while Modern English is an analytic language. Modern English can be divided into two parts: the early Modern English period and the Late Modern English period. Dean Swift was a conservative and he opposed the tendency to shorten words, such as ad
[0057]《英语词汇学》 第一次作业 [论述题] Exercise 1 Definitions Define the following terms with illustrative examples. 1. aliens 2. denizens 3. homophones 4. metonymy 5. dialect 6. backformation 7. acronym 8. semantic loan 9. bilingual dictionary 10. polysemy 参考答案： Exercise 1 Definitions 1. aliens Aliens are words borrowed from a foreign language without any change of the foreign sound and spelling. These words are immediately recognizable as foreign in origin. For examples, "coup d'état”, "résumé”, "régime”, etc. are all Aliens of French borrowings. 2. denizens Denizens are easily associated with already existing native words. They are successfully assimilated. They are foreign words which have been conformed to native English in accent, form (spelling) and even in adoption of an English affix. E.g. uncertain (the English prefix un- + certain, French by origin). 3. homophones Homophones are words identical in sound but different in spelling and meaning, e.g. sun, son; piece and peace; etc. 4. metonymy Metonymy is one way of meaning transference whereby the name of one thing is changed for that of another, to which it is related by association of ideas. For example, when I say "I am reading Shakespeare (meaning Shakespeare's works), I am using metonymy. 5. dialect Dialect refers to a variety of a language peculiar to some districts and having no normalized literary form. For example, Shanghai dialect is spoken peculiarly in Shanghai but there's no literary work peculiarly written in Shanghai dialect. 6. back formation
《英语词汇学教程》参考答案 (注：参考答案仅供参考。有些题目的答案并非是唯一的) Chapter 1 1. The three definitions agree that lexicology studies words. Yet, they have different focuses. Definition 1 focuses on the meaning and uses of words, while definition 2 on the overall structure and history. Definition 3 regards lexicology as a branch of linguistics and focuses on the semantic structure of the lexicon. It is interesting to note that the three definitions use different names for the object of study. For Definition 1, it is words, for Definition 2 the vocabulary of a language, and for Definition 3 the lexicon. 2. (1) They can go into the room, and if they like, shut the door. (2) You boys are required to give in your homework before 10 o’clock. (3) I watch the football match happily and find it very interesting. 3. (1) when it follows ‘-t’ and ‘-d’, it is pronounced as [id]; (2) when it follows voiceless consonants, it is pronounced as [t]; (3) when it follows voiced consonants and vowels, it is pronounced as [d]. 4. (1)They are words that can be included in a semantic field of “tree”.
试题三 第一部分选择题 I. Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that would best complete the statement and put the letter in the bracket.(30%) 1.According to the degree of similarity, homonyms can be classified into ( ) A. perfect homonyms B. homonyms C. homophones D. all the above 2.Transfer as a mode of semantic change can be illustrated by the example ( ) A. ad for “advertisement” B. dish for “food" C. fond for “affectionate” D. an editorial for “an editorial article" 3.It is a general belief that the meaning does not exist in the word itself, but it rather spreads over ( ) A. the reader’s interpretation B. the neighbouring words C. the writer's intention D. the etymology of the word 4.Which of the following is a prefix of time and order? A. extra- B. pro- C. re- D. semi- 5.Which of the following dictionaries is not a specialized dictionary? A. The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology B. Chamber's Encyclopedic English Dictionary C. Longmont Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs D. Webster's New Dictionary of Synonyms 6.Which of the following statements is Not true? A. Reference is the relationship between language and the world. B. The relationship between a word and its referent is arbitrary. C. Concept is universal to all men alike. D. Sense denotes the relationships outside the language. 7.The words which occur before or after a word and may affect its meaning form ( ) A. physical context B. grammatical context C. lexical context D. linguistic context 8."Smith is an architect. He designed World Trade Center. "The clue provided in the context is ( ) A. definition B. explanation C. example D. hyponym 9.The term "vocabulary" is used in different ways because of all the following reasons EXCEPT that ( ) A. it can refer to the common core of a language B. it can refer to the total number of the words in a language C. it can represent all the words used in a certain historical period D. it can stand for words in given dialect or field 10.The idiom "a dark horse" is a ( ) A. simile B. metaphor
《英语词汇学》重要术语 One: 1. Native words 本族词 Words of Anglo-Saxon origin or of Old English are native words. 2. Loan words 借词 Words borrowed from other languages are loan words or borrowed words. 3. Slang words 俚语 Slang words are those words of a vigorous, colourful, facetious, or taboo nature, invented for specific occasions, or uses, or derived from the unconventional use of the standard vocabulary. 4. Function words 功能词 Function words are often short words such as determiners, conjunctions, prepositions, auxiliaries that serve grammatically more than anything else. 5. Content words 实义词 Content words are used to name objects, qualities, actions, processes or states, and have independent lexical meaning. 6. Free forms 自由形式 Forms which occur as sentences are free forms. Two: 1. Morphemes 语素 Morphemes are the smallest meaningful linguistic units of English language, not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms. 2. Allomorphs 语素变体 Allomorphs are any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds. 3. Free morpheme 自由语素 Free morpheme is one that can be uttered alone with meaning. 4. Bound morpheme 粘着语素 Bound morpheme cannot stand by itself as a complete utterance and must appear with at least one other morpheme, free or bound. 5. Root 词根 Root is the basic unchangeable part of a word and it conveys the main lexical meaning of the word. 6. Affix 词缀 Affix is a collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. 7. Inflectional affix 屈折词缀 Inflectional affix serves to express such meanings as plurality, tense, and the comparative or superlative degree. 8. Derivational affix 派生词缀 Derivational affix is the kind of affixes that has
1、American women were________the right to vote until1920after many years of hard struggle. 1.A.ignored 2.B.neglected 3.C.denied 4.D.refused 2、The antonym of soft is in“a________voice”and in“a________cushion”. 1.A.rough,hard 2.B.rough,rough 3.C.hard,rough 4.D.hard,hard 3、The figure of speech employed in“My father is a sanitary engineer”is _________. 1.A.hyperbole 2.B.euphemism 3.C.litotes 4.D.metonymy 4、Mrs.Smith is afraid that she and her husband don’t see_________on New Year Resolutions. 1.A.face to face 2.B.eye to eye 3.C.back to back
4.D.heart to heart 5、Among the synonymous group,old man,daddy,dad,father and male parent,_______ would most probably used by a lawyer in the court. 1.A.dad 2.B.old man 3.C.father 4.D.male parent 6、Our teacher is now not with us.Aha!When the________is away,the________ will play. 1.A.tiger,monkeys 2.B.cat,mice 3.C.hawk,birds 4.D.old,young 7、I could give an opinion________,but I would rather think about it. 1.A.off the sleeve 2.B.off the cuffs 3.C.off the cuff 4.D.off the sleeves 8、Choked traffic has been a(n)________to urban transportation system. 1.A.archenemy 2.B.primary enemy