The History of Waterpower
Moving water was one of the earliest energy sources to be harnessed to reduce the workload of people and animals. No one knows exactly when the waterwheel was invented, but irrigation systems existed at least 5,000 years ago, and it seems probable that the earliest waterpower device was the noria, a waterwheel that raised water for irrigation in attached jars. The device appears to have evolved no later than the fifth century B.C., perhaps independently in different regions of the Middle and Far East.
The earliest waterpower mills were probably vertical-axis mills for grinding corn, known as Norse or Greek mills, which seem to have appeared during the first or second century B.C. in the Middle East and a few centuries later in Scandinavia. In the following centuries, increasingly sophisticated waterpower mills were built throughout the Roman Empire and beyond its boundaries in the Middle East and northern Europe. In England, the Saxons are thought to have used both horizontal0 and vertical-axis wheels. The first documented English mill was in the eighth century, but three centuries later about 5,000 were recorded, suggesting that every settlement of any size had its mill.
Raising water and grinding corn were by no means the only uses of the waterpower mill, and during the following centuries, the applications of waterpower kept pace with the developing technologies of mining, iron working, paper making, and the wool and cotton industries. Water was the main source of mechanical power, and by the end of the seventeenth century, England alone is thought to have had some 20,000 working mill. There was much debate on the relative efficiencies of different types of waterwheels. The period from about 1650 until 1800 saw some excellent scientific and technical investigations of different designs. They revealed output powers ranging from about 1 horsepower to perhaps 60 for the largest wheels and confirmed that for maximum efficiency, the water should pass across the blades as smoothly as possible and fall away with minimum speed, having given up almost all of its kinetic energy. (They also proved that, in principle, the overshot wheel, a type of wheel in which an overhead stream of water powers the wheel, should win the efficiency competition.)
But then steam power entered the scene, putting the whole future of waterpower in doubt. An energy analyst writing in the year 1800 would have painted a very pessimistic picture of the future for waterpower. The coal-fired steam engine was taking over, and the waterwheel was fast becoming obsolete. However, like many later experts, this one would have suffered from an inability to see into the future. A century later the picture was completely different: by then, the world had an electric industry, and a quarter of its generating capacity was water powered.
The growth of the electric-power industry was the result of a remarkable series of scientific discoveries and development in electrotechnology during the nineteenth century, but significant changes in what we might now call hydro (water) technology also played their part. In 1832, the year of Michael Faraday’s discovery that a changing magnetic field produces an electric field, a young French engineer patented a new and more efficient waterwheel. His name was Nenoit Fourneyron, and his device was the first successful water turbine. (The word turbine comes form the Latin turbo: something that spins). The waterwheel, unaltered for nearly 2,000 years, had finally been superseded.
Half a century of development was needed before Faraday’s discoveries in electricity were translated into full-scale power stations. In 1881 the Godalming power station in Surrey, England, on the banks of the Wey River, created the world’s first public electricity supply. The power source of this most modern technology was a traditional waterwheel. Unfortunately this early plant experienced the problem common to many forms of renewable energy: the flow in the Wey River was unreliable, and the waterwheel was soon replaced by a steam engine.
From this primitive start, the electric industry grew during the final 20 years of the nineteenth century at a rate seldom if ever exceeded by any technology. The capacity of individual power stations, many of them hydro plants, rose from a few kilowatts to over a megawatt in less than a decade.
Paragraph 1: Moving water was one of the earliest energy sources to be harnessed to reduce the workload of people and animals. No one knows exactly when the waterwheel was invented, but irrigation systems existed at least 5,000 years ago, and it seems probable that the earliest waterpower device was the noria, a waterwheel that raised water for irrigation in attached jars. The device appears to have evolved no later than the fifth century B.C., perhaps independently in different regions of the Middle and Far East.
1. The word “harnessed” in the passage is closest in meaning to
O known
O depended on
O recognized
O utilized
2.In paragraph 1, uncertainty is expressed about all of the following aspects of the early development of waterpower EXCEPT
O when exactly the very first waterpower devices were invented
O when exactly the very first waterpower devices were developed
O whether water was one of the earliest sources of power to be used by humans
O whether the very earliest waterpower devices arose independently
Paragraph 2: The earliest waterpower mills were probably vertical-axis mills for grinding corn, known as Norse or Greek mills, which seem to have appeared during the first or second century B.C. in the Middle East and a few centuries later in Scandinavia. In the following centuries, increasingly sophisticated waterpower mills were built throughout the Roman Empire and beyond its boundaries in the Middle East and northern Europe. In England, the Saxons are thought to have used both horizontal0 and vertical-axis wheels. The first documented English mill was in the eighth century, but three centuries later about 5,000 were recorded, suggesting that every settlement of any size had its mill.
3.According to paragraph 2, what was true of the waterpower mills built throughout the Roman Empire?
O Most had horizontal-axis wheels
O Their design was based on mills that had long been used in Scandinavia
O Their design was more popular beyond the Empire’s boundaries than it was within the Empire.
O They are more advanced than the mills used in the Middle East at an earlier time.
Paragraph 3: Raising water and grinding corn were by no means the only uses of the waterpower mill, and during the following centuries, the applications of waterpower kept pace with the developing technologies of mining, iron working, paper making, and the wool and cotton industries. Water was the main source of mechanical power, and by the end of the seventeenth century, England alone is thought to have had some 20,000 working mill. There was much debate on the relative efficiencies of different types of waterwheels. The period from about 1650 until 1800 saw some excellent scientific and technical investigations of different designs. They revealed output powers ranging from about 1 horsepower to perhaps 60 for the largest wheels and confirmed that for maximum efficiency, the water should pass across the blades as smoothly as possible and fall away with minimum speed, having given up almost all of its kinetic energy. (They also proved that, in principle, the overshot wheel, a type of wheel in which an overhead stream of water powers the wheel, should win the efficiency competition.)
4. The phrase “the application of waterpower” in the passage is closest in meaning to
O the uses to which waterpower was put
O the improvement made to waterpower
O the method by which waterpower was supplied
O the source of waterpower available
Paragraph 4: But then steam power entered the scene, putting the whole future of waterpower in doubt. An energy analyst writing in the year 1800 would have painted a very pessimistic picture of the future for waterpower. The coal-fired steam engine was taking over, and the waterwheel was fast becoming obsolete. However, like many later experts, this one would have suffered from an inability to see into the future. A century later the picture was completely different: by then, the world had an electric industry, and a quarter of its generating capacity was water powered.
5.According to paragraph 4, which of the following was discovered as a result of scientific and technical investigations of waterpower conducted between 1650 and 1800?
O Some types of small waterwheel can produce as much horsepower as the very largest wheels.
O Waterwheels operate more efficiently when water falls away from their blades slowly than when water falls away quickly.
O Waterwheel efficiency can be improved by increasing the amount of kinetic energy water contains as it passes over a waterwheel’s blades.
O Unlike other types of waterwheels, the overshot wheel is capable of producing more than 60 horsepower units of energy.
6.The word “pessimistic” in the passage is closest in meaning to
O negative
O unlikely
O surprising
O incomplete
7.The term “by then” in the passage refers to
O by the time steam power entered the scene
O by the year 1800
O by the year 1900
O by the time waterwheel was becoming obsolete
Paragraph 5: The growth of the electric-power industry was the result of a remarkable series of scientific discoveries and development in electrotechnology during the nineteenth century, but significant changes in what we might now call hydro (water) technology also played their part. In 1832, the year of Michael Faraday’s discovery that a changing magnetic field produces an electric field, a young French engineer patented a new and more efficient waterwheel. His name was Nenoit Fourneyron, and his device was the first successful water turbine. (The word turbine comes form the Latin turbo: something that spins). The waterwheel, unaltered for nearly 2,000 years, had finally been superseded.
8.According to paragraph 5, why did waterpower become more importantly by 1900?
O Better waterwheel designs improved the efficiency of waterpower.
O Waterpower was needed to operate steam engines.
O Waterpower was used to generate electricity.
O Waterwheels became more efficient than coal-powered engines.
9. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.
O The growth of the electric-power industry stimulated significant changes in hydro technology and scientific progress in electrotechnology in the nineteenth century.
O The changes in hydro technology that led to the growth of the electric-power industry also led to discoveries and developments in electrotechnology in the nineteenth century.
O Advances in electrotechnology in the nineteenth century and changes in hydro technology were responsible for the growth of the electric-power industry.
O In the nineteenth century, the scientific study of electrotechnology and hydro technology benefited greatly from the growth of the electric-power industry.
10.The word “unaltered” in the passage is closest in meaning to
O unimproved
O unequaled
O unchanged
O unsatisfactory
Paragraph 6: Half a century of development was needed before Faraday’s discoveries in electricity were translated into full-scale power stations. In 1881 the Godalming power station in Surrey, England, on the banks of the Wey River, created the world’s first public electricity supply. The power source of this most modern technology was a traditional waterwheel. Unfortunately this early plant experienced the problem common to many forms of renewable energy: the flow in the Wey River was unreliable, and the waterwheel was soon replaced by a steam engine.
11.The discussion of the history of electric power production in paragraph 6 supports which of the following?
O 1832 marked the beginning of the industrial production of electric power.
O Turbines using Benoit Fourneyron’s design were eventually used to generate electric power.
O benoit Fourneyron quickly applied Michael Faraday’s discovery about electric fields to acquire a pattern for a new and more efficient waterwheel.
O Practical advances in hydro technology were more important to the development of electric power than were advances in the theoretical understanding of electricity.
Paragraph 7: From this primitive start, the electric industry grew during the final 20 years of the nineteenth century at a rate seldom if ever exceeded by any technology. The capacity of individual power stations, many of them hydro plants, rose from a few kilowatts to over a megawatt in less than a decade.
12.According to paragraph 7, what problem did the early power station in the town of Godalming in Surrey, United Kingdom, face in providing electricity?
O The traditional waterwheel is used was not large enough to meet the demand for energy.
O The flow of the River Wey, on which the power station depended, was unreliable.
O The operators of the Godalming power station had little experience with hydro technology.
O The steam engine that turned the waterwheel was faulty and needed to be replaced.
Paragraph 3: Raising water and grinding corn were by no means the only uses of the waterpower mill, and during the following centuries, the applications of waterpower kept pace with the developing technologies of mining, iron working, paper making, and the wool and cotton industries. Water was the main source of mechanical power, and by the end of the seventeenth century, England alone is thought to have had some 20,000 working mill. There was much debate on the relative efficiencies of different types of waterwheels. ■The period from about 1650 until 1800 saw some excellent scientific and technical investigations of different designs. ■They revealed output powers ranging from about 1 horsepower to perhaps 60 for the largest wheels and confirmed that for maximum efficiency, the water should pass across the blades as smoothly as possible and fall away with minimum speed, having given up almost all of its kinetic energy. ■(They also proved that, in principle, the overshot wheel, a type of wheel in which an overhead stream of water powers the wheel, should win the efficiency competition.) ■
13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.
Happily, serious studies began to be conducted to help resolve disagreements.
Where would the sentence best fit?
14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary
because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.
Ever since the development of waterwheel, which occurred no later than 500 B.C., people have used moving water as a source of power.
●
●
●
Answer Choices
O The first water-powered machines were probably used to grind corn, and as technology advanced, waterwheels were used as the main source of power in many industries.
O In the late nineteenth century an electric power station in England began using water power from a nearby river, creating a dependable source of power that quickly replaced the steam engine.
O In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, design improvements I waterwheels led to discoveries of how to increase their efficiency and power output.
O Almost every large town in England had a waterpower mill, allowing England to become the world’s leader in industries that depended on water for their power.
O Waterpower mills were probably invented about the same time in the Middle East and Scandinavia and then spread to England by about the second century B.C.
O After declining in importance in the early 1800’s, waterpower came back into demand by the end of the century as a means to power electric plants and water turbines.
参考答案
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14. The first water-powered machines… Waterpower mills were probably… After declining in importance in…
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2020年托福阅读模拟试题及答案（卷九） 托福阅读文本： The Native American peoples of the north Pacific Coast created a highly complex maritime culture as they invented modes of production unique to their special environment. In addition to their sophisticated technical culture, they also attained one of the most complex social organizations of any nonagricultural people in the world. In a division of labor similar to that of the hunting peoples in the interior and among foraging peoples throughout the world, the men did most of the fishing, and the women processed the catch. Women also specialized in the gathering of the abundant shellfish that lived closer to shore. They collected oysters, crabs, sea urchins, mussels, abalone, and clams, which they could gather while remaining close to their children. The maritime life harvested by the women not only provided food, but also supplied more of the raw materials for making tools than did fish gathered by the men. Of particular importance for the native tool kit before the introduction of metal was the wide knife made from the larger mussel shells, and a variety of cutting edges that could be made from other marine shells. The women used their tools to process all of the fish and marine mammals brought in by the men. They cleaned the fish, and dried vast quantities of them for the winter. They sun-dried fish when practical, but
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推荐主题 ●【托福听力技巧】学会听结构和找题点 ●【托福口语】教你如何三天搞定托福口语 ●【托福复议】详解托福复议怎么能提分 ●【托福阅读高分】学会不求甚解 ●【托福综合写作】一周内如何练就速记 ●【ACT宠妃】逗号的逆袭（转） 【阅读】新托福阅读艺术类文章大汇总ARTS The House of Native American Tribe The earliest American folk art portraits The Music of Films Barbara Kasten The Works of Joyce Carol Oates The Printed Word The Art Nouveau Style Arts and Crafts Movement The House of Native American Tribe Keywords: United States, pueblos, buildings, chambers, niches Another early Native American tribe in what is now the southwestern part of the United States was the Anasazi. By A. D. 800 the Anasazi Indians were constructing multistory pueblos-massive, stone apartment compounds. Each one was virtually a stone town, which is why the Spanish would later call them pueblos, the Spanish word for towns. These pueblos represent one of the Anasazis' supreme achievements. At least a dozen large stone houses took shape below the bluffs of Chiaco Canyon in northwest New
最近看到周围很多同学考托福，就想起来很久之前自己准备托福时候的情景。当时就很想等到闲下来写一写经验，可是一直都很忙。我写这个主要也是因为网上流传好多托福经验，但是我发现这些经验根本不靠谱，因为好多人是先考的GRE，那再考托福不就是练练听力口语吗，阅读作文直接秒杀，所以那些经验对于像我一样四级基础的人都是浮云，按照那个做肯定没什么用处，因为你跟他们基础差很多。我当时考了托福100分，觉得有用的同学就看看，觉得没什么用的就别耽误大伙儿准备托福的宝贵时间。 从前往后依次是：单词问题，写作(写作29分一周速成)，阅读，听力，口语等考试材料的问题，还有就是托福分数的高低。 (一)单词问题(如果你掌握六级以上词汇可以不用背单词) 先说一下我背单词的经历。 这个单词真是让我非常无语的东西其实。我所有种类的英语书里单词书最多，可以说除了新东方托福红宝其它的我全有，什么托福21天，词以类记，托福词汇，词根词缀字典，非常之多。最后我发现我真正也没有背多少，感觉词汇就是我的一大桎梏，总是懒得背，因为太多了实在是，总是背了前面忘了后面，于是就懒得去看了，这可能也是我突破托福的一个瓶颈吧。到了最后考试的时候，我也是只有《托福21天词汇》背到了12天(前面已经忘记了嗯多)，词以类记看了3页，别的单词书除了当字典用用就没正式看过。估计很多同学都跟我差不多吧(除了某熊)，不过其实单词不是决定托福高低的唯一因素! 再说说单词的用处。单词就是阅读和听力上比较重要，因为到了口语和写作的部分是靠你自己的英语输出，你一定会用你最熟悉最擅长的单词去描述议论，那些仅仅知道意思的词是不可能在非常短的时间内第一反应出现的，比如你想说“好”，你第一反应肯定是good，而不会是unprecedented这种有点矫情的词儿。阅读上面，背单词一定是有帮助的!不过单词背到了一定量，它的边际效用也就递减了，你再背太多也没什么意义。我觉得最好就是背到你做阅读的时候关键词都知道是什么意思就行了。 (二)写作 先说说我的写作准备。我到临考前一周时间开始准备口语和作文的。在这一周时间里我攒了个独立的模板，然后列了列机经里面作文的提纲就去考试了，结果竟然是29分，让我很惊讶。 先说说独立写作。 我因为打字还比较快，所以在思路成熟以后独立一般都能字数450+，考试时候写了475+。个人感觉，字数占到作文成功的70%因素。开始我觉得这有点奇怪，可是后来想
2019托福阅读：模拟试题及答案解析（6） 【托福】 Although only 1 person in 20 in the Colonial period lived in a city, the cities had a disproportionate influence on the development of North America. They were at the cutting edge of social change. It was in the cities that the elements that can be associated with modern capitalism first appeared — the use of money and commercial paper in place of barter, open competition in place of social deference and hierarchy, with an attendant rise in social disorder, and the appearance of factories using coat or water power in place of independent craftspeople working with hand tools. "The cities predicted the future," wrote historian Gary. B. Nash, "even though they were but overgrown villages compared to the great urban centers of Europe, the Middle East and China." Except for Boston, whose population stabilized at about 16,000 in 1760, cities grew by exponential leaps through the eighteenth century. In the fifteen years prior to the outbreak of the War for independence in 1775, more than 200,000 immigrants arrived on North American shores. This meant that a population the size of Boston was arriving every year, and most of it flowed into the port cities in the Northeast. Philadelphia's population nearly doubted in those years, reaching about 30,000 in 1774, New York grew at almost the same rate, reaching about 25,000 by 1775. The quality of the hinterland dictated the pace of growth of the cities. The land surrounding Boston had always been poor farm country, and by the mid-eighteenth century it
2005年11月份托福阅读真题及答案 Questions 1-10 As Philadelphia grew from a small town into a city in the first half of the eighteenth century, it became an increasingly important marketing center for a vast and growing agricultural hinterland. Market days saw the crowded city even more crowded, as line fanners from within a radius of 24 or more kilometers brought their sheep, cows, pigs, vegetables, cider, and other products for direct sale to the townspeople. The High Street Market was continuously enlarged throughout the period until 1736, when it reached from Front Street to Third. By 1745 New Market was opened on Second Street between Pine and Cedar. The next year the Callowhill Market began operation. Along with market days, the institution of twice-yearly fairs persisted in Philadelphia even after similar trading days had been discontinued in other colonial cities. The fairs provided a means of bringing handmade goods from outlying places to would-be buyers in the city. Linens and stockings from Germantown, for example, were popular items. Auctions were another popular form of occasional trade. Because of the competition, retail merchants opposed these as well as the fairs. Although governmental attempts to eradicate fairs and auctions were less than successful, the ordinary course of economic development was on the merchants' side, as increasing business specialization became the order of the day. Export merchants became differentiated from their importing counterparts, and specialty shops began to appear in addition to general stores selling a variety of goods. One of the reasons Philadelphia's merchants generally prospered was because the surrounding area was undergoing tremendous economic and demographic growth. They did their business, after all, in the capital city of the province. Not only did they cater to the governor and his circle, but citizens from all over the colony came to the capital for legislative sessions of the assembly and council and the meetings of the courts of justice. 1. What does the passage mainly discuss? (A) Philadelphia's agriculture importance
老托福阅读真题及答案解析 托福从听、说、读、写四方面进行英语能力全面考核。托福频道为大家提供了这四个方面的资料，希望对大家有所帮助。 Aviculturists, people who raise birds for commercial sale, have not yet learned how to simulate the natural incubation of parrot eggs in the wild. They continue to look for better ways to increase egg production and to improve chick survival rates. When parrots incubate their eggs in the wild, the temperature and humidity of the nest are controlled naturally. Heat is transferred from the bird's skin to the top portion of the eggshell, leaving the sides and bottom of the egg at a cooler temperature. This temperature gradient may be vital to successful hatching. Nest construction can contribute to this temperature gradient. Nests of loosely arranged sticks, rocks, or dirt are cooler in temperature at the bottom where the egg contacts the nesting material. Such nests also act as humidity regulators by allowing rain to drain into the bottom sections of the nest so that the eggs are not in direct contact with the water. As the water that collects in the bottom of the nest evaporates, the water vapor rises and is heated by the incubating bird, which adds significant humidity to the incubation environment. In artificial incubation programs, aviculturists remove eggs from the nests of parrots and incubate them under laboratory conditions. Most commercial incubators heat the eggs fairly evenly from top to bottom, thus ignoring the bird's method of natural incubation, and perhaps reducing the viability and survivability of the hatching chicks. When incubators are not used, aviculturists sometimes suspend wooden boxes outdoors to use as nests in which to place eggs. In areas where weather can become cold after eggs are laid, it is very important to maintain a deep foundation of nesting material to act as insulator against the cold bottom of the box. If eggs rest against the wooden bottom in extremely cold weather conditions, they can become chilled to a point where the embryo can no longer survive. Similarly, these boxes should be protected from direct sunlight to avoid high temperatures that are also fatal to the growing embryo. Nesting material should be added in sufficient amounts to avoid both extreme temperature situations mentioned above and assure that the eggs have a soft, secure place to rest. 1. What is the main idea of the passage ? (A) Nesting material varies according to the parrots' environment. (B) Humidity is an important factor in incubating parrots' eggs. (C) Aviculturists have constructed the ideal nest box for parrots. (D) Wild parrots' nests provide information useful for artificial incubation. 2. The word "They" in line 2 refers to
托福阅读28分高分备考要求 托福阅读高分策略相比口语写作而言相对简单，但是也是一大挑战。下面就来和大家谈谈要拿到托福阅读高分策略28+都有哪些需要了解的呢? 托福阅读高分策略 想得28分以上，一般就是错3个左右，也就是不含加试一篇一个。给自己的要求：不能错词汇题以外的任何题 阅读时间： 15分钟一篇，一篇13/14道题。(官方要求是20分钟一篇) 13道题中除了4道词汇题，1道多选题之外，其他题目一般是在第三段/第四段，大概第8题/第9题的样子，是一段会出2道理解题的段落。题目编排，近几年的TPO一般第一篇第二篇文章偏难，生词多，第三篇简单难度类似早期TPO。 在题目上一般是(细节词汇，细节作用，细节词汇，细节词汇改写，细节词汇，黑点大意)规律就是每一段都会出细节题(In paragraph n...)再加一道其他题，早期一段只有一道题的情况几乎不存在了。 简单的文章可能会出比较难的大意题，尤其是对比型的简单文章。用上面的标准控制时间，用下面的方法去读的话，20分钟一般都是够用的。 托福阅读高分障碍： 速度：1’大概150-170字，生词量一般而且前后不出现感觉自相矛盾需要停下来想的情况下。 选项：词汇量一般，有时词汇题的相似词汇不造句都感觉不出区别。 新托福阅读真题训练技巧： 1，粗看下文章的段数，对每段大概几道题有个预期。(比如只有5段，那长段肯定是3道题)粗看每段第一句话，对文章的整体意思心中有数。 2，每段段首变成中文理解，以迅速的进入状态，并记忆主要意思。(就算只有一道词汇题，这段的段首也要读) 3，每读一段整理一次逻辑，A支持的观点是，A的观点的问题是B的观点是。(记忆法，图像帮助理解，逻辑帮助记忆，生成图像来理解含义，对逻辑部分用色彩记忆红黄绿记忆法，每一段的第一句作为逻辑中心标记黄色。 这段如果讲倒推如原因，在脑中的逻辑框架就在红色的区域生成记忆，如果正推将后果等就在绿色区域生成图像，读完全文留下来的会是每一排都是红黄绿三色的逻辑关系，每一段都纵向罗列，如下)红——黄——绿 4，鉴于每段都会出细节题，如果有词汇题等先只看一句话，做完了要看到细节题问的什么再看文章，鉴于有四个选项，选一个对的或者不对的，看的时候自己要边看边总结，比如总结出三个步骤，解释了三个方面的问题，或者其他。5，要检查，每个不确定的题都标上guess回来看，我不确定的题错的概率还是非常高的。如果不走神的理解全文，一般15分钟是够的，还能剩下几分钟检查。 新托福阅读真题做题策略： 词汇题、句子改写题——只读该句不读完整段耗时3分钟 词汇题看好单词的词性、发出者(是人，是物)，保持一致的最对，看这一句即可。 In the past,whole cities grew from the arduoustask of cutting and piling stone upon. Some of the world’s finest stonearchitecture can be seen in the ruins of the ancient Inca city of Machu Picchu high in the eastern Andes Mountains of Peru.猜词是保证不了完全准了，根据意思，这道题排除BD，剩下AC很是纠结，但
2020年托福阅读模拟试题及答案（卷七） 托福阅读文本： Aviculturists, people who raise birds for commercial sale, have not yet learned how to simulate the natural incubation of parrot eggs in the wild. They continue to look for better ways to increase egg production and to improve chick survival rates. When parrots incubate their eggs in the wild, the temperature and humidity of the nest are controlled naturally. Heat is transferred from the bird's skin to the top portion of the eggshell, leaving the sides and bottom of the egg at a cooler temperature. This temperature gradient may be vital to successful hatching. Nest construction can contribute to this temperature gradient. Nests of loosely arranged sticks, rocks, or dirt are cooler in temperature at the bottom where the egg contacts the nesting material. Such nests also act as humidity regulators by allowing rain to drain into the bottom sections of the nest so that the eggs are not in direct contact with the water. As the water that collects in the bottom of the nest evaporates, the water vapor rises and is heated by the incubating bird, which adds significant humidity to the incubation environment. In artificial incubation programs, aviculturists remove eggs from the nests of parrots and incubate them under laboratory conditions. Most commercial incubators heat the eggs fairly evenly from top to bottom,
老托福阅读真题及答案：PASSAGE 11 Plants are subject to attack and infection by a remarkable variety of symbiotic species and have evolved a diverse array of mechanisms designed to frustrate the potential colonists. These can be divided into preformed or passive defense mechanisms and inducible or active systems. Passive plant defense comprises physical and chemical barriers that prevent entry of pathogens, such as bacteria, or render tissues unpalatable or toxic to the invader. The external surfaces of plants, in addition to being covered by an epidermis and a waxy cuticle, often carry spiky hairs known as trichomes, which either prevent feeding by insects or may even puncture and kill insect larvae. Other trichomes are sticky and glandular and effectively trap and immobilize insects. If the physical barriers of the plant are breached, then preformed chemicals may inhibit or kill the intruder, and plant tissues contain a diverse array of toxic or potentially toxic substances, such as resins, tannins, glycosides, and alkaloids, many of which are highly effective deterrents to insects that feed on plants. The success of the Colorado beetle in infesting potatoes, for example, seems to be correlated with its high tolerance to alkaloids that normally repel potential pests. Other possible chemical defenses, while not directly toxic to the parasite, may inhibit some essential step in the establishment of a parasitic relationship. For example, glycoproteins in plant cell walls may inactivate enzymes that degrade cell walls. These enzymes are often produced by bacteria and fungi. Active plant defense mechanisms are comparable to the immune system of vertebrate animals, although the cellular and molecular bases are fundamentally different. Both, however, are triggered in reaction to intrusion, implying that the host has some means of recognizing the presence of a foreign organism. The most dramatic example of an inducible plant defense reaction is the hypersensitive response. In the hypersensitive response, cells undergo rapid necrosis — that is, they become diseased and die — after being penetrated by a parasite; the parasite itself subsequently ceases to grow and is therefore restricted to one or a few cells