第七章
The essential elements suggested by this framework include 1) speech community(言语社团), 2) situation(场景), event and act, and 3) mnemonic SPEAKING components(交际民族学模式)
an important figure in American anthropological linguistics---Benjamin Lee Whorf and his famous hypothesis concerning language, thought, and culture: Sapir-Whorf Hypotheses(萨丕尔-尔夫假说)
What this hypothesis suggests is this: Our language helps mould our way of thinking and,
Consequently, different languages may probably express speakers? uniqu e ways of understanding the world.
two versions of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis have been developed, a strong version and a weak version. The strong version of the theory refers to the claim the original hypothesis makes, emphasizing the decisive role of language as the shaper of our thinking patterns.
The weak version of this hypothesis, however, is a modified type of its original theory, suggesting that there is a correlation between language, culture, and thought, but the cross-cultural differences thus produced in our ways of thinking are relative(相对), rather than categorical(绝对).
some social factors that are believed to influence our language behavior in a social context. Among these factors, some major ones include a) class; b) gender; c) age; d) ethnic identity; e) education background; f) occupation; and g) religious belief.
社会语言学(the sociolinguistics of language)
cross-cultural communication
1.When in Rome do as the Romans do 入乡随俗
2.Put yourself in other?s shoes 换位思考
3.One culture?s meat is another culture?s poison 萝卜青菜各有所爱
Honesty and sincerity are key points to mutual understanding
第八章
If we divide meaning into two major sides: the side more closely related to the words used, the more constant, inherent side of meaning (which is studied under the heading of semantics) and the side more closely related to the context,the
more indeterminate side, or something extra (which is studied under the heading of pragmatics)
Speech Act Theory is the first major theory in the study of language in use Austin revised the notes and changed the title from Words and Deeds (《言与行》)to How to Do Things with Words(《怎样用词做事》),
Austin?s first shot at the theory is the claim that there are two types of sentences: performatives and constatives.
Austin argues that sentences like the following do not describe things. They cannot be said to be true or false. The uttering of these sentences is, or is a part of, the doing of an action. So they arc called PERFORMATIVES.
Ex. 8-2 said by a chemistry teacher in a demonstration of an experiment is not a performative. It is a description of what the speaker is doing at the time of speaking.The speaker cannot pour any liquid into a tube by simply uttering these words. He must accompany his words with the actual pouring. Otherwise one can accuse him of making a false statement. Sentences of this type are known as CONSTATIVES.
A Theory of the Illocutionary Act 行事行为理论
In his(Austin) opinion, there are three senses in which saying something may be understood as doing something. The first sense is an ordinary one(普通意义). That is, when we speak we move our vocal organs and produce a number of sounds, organized in a certain way and with a certain meaning.
For example, when somebody says “Morning!”, we can ask a question like “What di d he do?” instead of “What did he say?” And the answer could be that he produced a sound, word or sentence------“Morning!” The act performed in this sense is called a Locutionary Act (发话行为).
Within this act, however, Austin suggests that there is another act. In other words, when we speak, we not only produce some units of language with certain meanings, but also make clear our purpose in producing them, the way we intend them to be understood.
In the example of “Morning!” we can say it has the force(语力) of a greeting, or it ought to have been taken as a greeting. This is the second sense in which to say something is to do something, and the act performed is known as an Illocutionary Act(行事行为).
The third sense in which to say something can mean to do something concerns the consequential effects of a locution upon the hearer.By telling somebody something the speaker may change the opinion of the hearer on something, or mislead him, or surprise him, or induce him to do something, etc. Whether or not these effects are intended by the speaker, they can be regarded as part of the act that the speaker has performed. This act, which is performed through, by means of, a locutionary
act, is called a Perlocutionary Act (取效行为)
.The second major theory in pragmatics is t he theory of conversational implicature （会话含义理论）, proposed by another Oxford philosopher Herbert Paul Grice. This theory first became known to the public at Harvard in 1967. Part of the lectures was published in 1975 under the title of “Logic and Conversation”, on which we base our present introduction.
The Cooperative Principle 合作原则
Grice noticed that in daily conversations people do not usually say things directly but tend to imply them. In order to avoid the logical use of implication(蕴含), which we touched on in the section on logical semantics, Grice coined the term implicature(含义)
Cooperative Principle, or CP Grice introduced four categories of maxims as follows: QUANTITY 数量QUALITY 质量RELATION 关系MANNER 方式
Characteristics of Implicature 含义的特征
(1)Calculability 可推导性
(2)Cancellability 可取消性
(3)Non-detachability 不可分离性
(4)Non-conventionality 非常规性
Relevance Theory 关联理论This theory was formally proposed by Dan Sperbe r (斯波伯) and Deirdre Wilson (威尔逊) in 1986.
The definition of this theory: Every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance. 每一个明示交际行动，都传递一种假定：该行动本身具备最佳关联性。
From the speaker?s side, communication should be seen as an act of making clear one?s intention to express something. This act th ey call ostensive act(明示行为). There are three definitions of relevance (关联性) in this book. The first one relates it to a context (语境). The second relates it to an individual (个体). And the last definition involves the phenomena (现象).
程度条件(content condition)的问题。这个问题主要出现在与语境相联系的定义中程度条件1：如果一个设想在一个语境中的语境效应大，那么这个设想在这个语境中就具有关联性。
程度条件2：如果一个设想在一个语境中所需的处理努力小，那么这个设想在这个语境中就具有关联性。
第十章
CAI (计算机辅助教学), we mean the use of computer in a teaching program
CALL especially refers to the use of a computer in the teaching or learning of a second or foreign language.
Technology：
1 Customizing, template, and authoring programs 定制，模块和编程
2 Computer networks
3 Compact disk technology 软盘技术
4 Digitized sound 数字化语音
5 USB
Machine Translation (MT) refers to the use of machine (usually computers) to translate texts from one natural language to another
MT can be divided into two types: Unassisted MT and Assisted MT. Unassisted MT takes pieces of text and translates them into output for immediate use with no human involvement. Assisted MT uses a human translator to clean up after, and sometimes before, translation in order to get better quality results
History of Development
(1)The independent work by MT researchers MT研究者的独立工作
(2)Towards good quality output 瞄准高质量的输出
(3)The development of translation tools
Research Methods
(1)The linguistic approach
(2)The transfer approach 转移法
(3)The interlingual approach 语际法
(4)The knowledge-based approach
(a) Linguistic knowledge independent of context
（b) Linguistic knowledge that relates to context, sometimes called pragmatic knowledge (pragmatics)
（c) Common sense/real world knowledge (non-linguistic knowledge) Chomsky suggested that the corpus could never be a useful tool for the linguist, as the linguist must seek to model language competence rather than performance. Computer Mediated Communication (CMC) 计算机介入的信息交流
1 Mail and News
2 PowerPoint
With regard to PowerPoint, we have to make sure what we are talking about: PowerPoint as a tool (software) , PowerPoint?s deck (成套) of slides as a text (语篇), and PowerPoint presentation as a genre(语篇类型)
PowerPoint tool is a software used to write outlines or create the presentation visuals on the slides.PowerPoint text has been broadly understood as the
product (材料，成品) created visually(可视), graphically, acoustically(可听), or audio-visually(可视听).
As for PowerPoint as a genre, it refers to a recurring type of activities, just like we talk about a letter, a note, a story, a dialogue, a novel, a speech, a play
3 Blog 博客
4 Chatroom
5 Emoticons and Smileys表情符号和笑眯眯
第十一章
a recent movement called Focus On Form seems to take a more balanced view on the role of grammar in language learning.
The key point in Focus On Form is that although language learning should generally be meaning-focused and communication-oriented (交流为导向), it is still necessary and beneficial to focus on form occasionally.
Despite the advantages of authentic (真实的，原汁原味的) input, strong views have also been expressed that any input must be comprehensible if it is to have any effect on learning. According to Krashen?s Input Hypothesis (1985), learners acquire language as a result of comprehending input addressed to them.
Krashen brought forward the concept of “i+ 1” principle,
Inspired by Krashen?s Input Hypothesis, many res earchers have conducted studies on kinds of optimal input, two of which are “premodified (预先调整)input” and “interactively (交互) modified input”
Interlanguage is often understood as a language system between the target language and the learner?s native langu age.
Interlanguage is a dynamic language system, which is constantly moving from the departure level to the native-like level.
The Discourse-based View of Language 基于语篇的语言focuses on complete spoken and written texts and on the social and cultural contexts in which such language operates.
Communicative competence refers to what a learners knows about how a language is used in particular situations for effective and appropriate communication.
The Communicative Language Teaching ( CLT 交际教学法) and Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT 任务型语言教学法) are the best known examples of such a theory.
There are two broad types of tasks: real-world (真实的) tasks and pedagogical (教学的) tasks
The most important part of syllabus design is selecting and sequencing language items(教学内容).
In most cases, the process of syllabus design in foreign language teaching mainly includes selecting and grading what is to be taught. Selection involves two sub-processes: First, the restriction of the language to a particular dialect and register (语域); and second, the selection from within the register of the items that are to be taught according to criteria such as frequency of occurrence, learnability(难易度) and classroom needs.
After a list of language items have been selected, the next process is to put them into the most appropriate order for practical teaching purposes. This process is often referred to as grading (分级), which is subdivided into two distinct operations. The first is to arrange the items into blocks of the right size for the various years, terms, months, weeks, days and classes of the teaching course; while the second operation deals with the problem of the sequence in which the items in the blocks are to be taught. So we shall use the term …staging?(分阶段) to refer to the division of the course into time segments, and …sequencing? (排序) to refer to the problem of deciding the order in which the items should be taught.
Types of Syllabus
1)The structural syllabus
Influenced by structuralist linguistics
(2)The situational syllabus 情景教学大纲
(3)The communicative syllabus 交际教学大纲
(4)The task-based syllabus
So when we think with the current understanding of TBLT and its application in practice, a task is an act in which students use the target language to do something, usually with a non-linguistic purpose (以非语言操练为目的).
Below are six principles that the majority of pro-task researchers agree that teachers can follow when design tasks:
(i) A task should have a clear purpose.
here we mean communicative purposes rather than pure pedagogical purposes.
ii) A task should have some degree of resemblance to real-world events.
(iii) A task should involve information seeking, processing and conveying.
iv) A task should involve the students in some modes of doing things.
(v) A task should involve the meaning-focused use of language. 任务要以表达意义为主
(vi) A task should end with a tangible product 任务结束后要有明确的结果Current Trends in Syllabus Design
1)The co-existence of the old and the new
2)The emphasis on the learning process
3)The inclusion of non-linguistic objectives in syllabus
4)The emergence of the multi-syllabus
The study of the roles that the native language plays is known as the research of Language Transfer, by which is meant the psychological process whereby prior learning is carried over into a new learning situation,
Contrastive Analysis（CA）is a way of comparing languages (e.g., Ll and L2) in order to determine potential errors for the ultimate purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what does not need to be learned in a second language learning situation
In the literature on error analysis, errors (错误) and mistakes (失误) are often differentiated. Errors usually arise from the learner? s lack of knowledge; it represents a lack of competence. In other words, the learner does not know the right form or is unable to use language correctly. Mistakes often occur when learners fail to perform their competence. In other words, the learner has already learned the knowledge or skill but simply fails to function correctly due to lack of attention or other factors.
In terms of the source of errors, errors are often divided into interlingual errors and intralingual errors. Interlingual errors
The procedure of error analysis consists of the following steps:
(1)Recognition (识别错误). Dealing with a sentence produced by the language learner ,we should first ask whether the sentence is grammatically correct. If the answer is positive, then we further check whether the sentence is appropriate in the communicative context
(2)Description (描述错误). If the erroneous sentence is intelligible, we compare it with the correct sentence produced by a native speaker and list the errors and mistakes. If the meaning of the sentence is not clear, we may refer to the learner?s native language to find out what he means and carry out a contrastive analysis. Taking into consideration the use of language in social contexts, we can describe mistakes as well as errors.
(3)Explanation (解释错误). When an error is recognized and described, we attempt to answer the question “Why did the learner commit this error?” In other words, we make hypothesis about the psychological processes which have caused the learner to commit the error
The two most important factors in a corpus are the size (长度) and types of texts selected.
Types of Corpora
a.General corpora
b.Specialized corpora
c.Sample corpora
d.Monitor corpora
What Uses Can We Make of Corpora?
1)Frequency information (频度信息)
2)Context and co-text (上下文本) information
3)Grammatical information
4)Collocation and phraseology information
5)Pragmatics information
第十二章
Modern linguistics began from the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure(1857-1913), who is often described as “ father of modern linguistics”
Cours de linguistique generale
Saussure? s ideas were developed along three lines: linguistics, so ciology, and psychology.
His linguistic theories on the nature of the linguistic sign, Langue (语言) vs. Parolr (言语), Syntagmatic (组合) vs. Paradigmatic (聚合), and Synchronic vs. Diachronic,
The Prague School 布拉格学派
its most important contribution to linguistics is that it sees language in terms of FUNCTION.
The Prague School is best known and remembered for its contribution to phonology and the distinction between phonetics (语音学) and phonology (音位学). The most influential scholar’ in this connection is Trubetzkoy (特鲁别茨柯) whose most complete and authoritative statements of principle are formulated in his Principles of Phonology
Trubetzkoy argued that phonetics belonged to parole whereas phonology belonged to langue
FUNCTIONAL SENTENCE PERSPECTIVE ( FSP) （句子的前景功能）is a theory of linguistic analysis which refers to an analysis of utterances (or texts) in terms of the information they contain (用所含信息来分析话语或篇章).
The point of departure is equally present to the speaker and to the hearer---it is the ground on which they meet and is called the THEME (主位). The goal of discourse presents the very information that is to be imparted (给予) to the hearer, and is called
the RHEME (述位).
The London School
Firth Malinowski Halliday
Malinowski?s Theo ries The most important aspect of his theory concerned the functioning of language
Firth?s own study focused on the context of situation (情景语境) as Malinowski did. Recognizing that sentences are infinitely various, he used the notion of “typical context o f situation” to generalize them
弗斯对语言学的第二个重要贡献是韵律分析(Prosodic Analysis)，叫作韵律音位学(Prosodic Phonology)
Halliday has developed the ideas stemming from Firth?s theories in the London School. His Systemic-Functional ( SF ) Grammar is a sociologically oriented functional linguistic approach
Systemic-Functional Grammar has two components: Systemic Grammar and Functional Grammar
The central component of a systemic grammar is a chart of the full set of choices available in constructing a sentence, with a specification (详细说明) of the relationships between choices.
The axis of chain represents syntagmatic (组合) relations; the axis of choice represents paradigmatic (聚合) relations
the original functional range of the child?s language is gradually reduced to a set of highly coded and abstract functions, which are meta-functions (元功能): the ideational (概念), the interpersonal (人际), and the textual (语篇) functions.
The Ideational Function (概念功能）is to convey new information, to communicate a content that is unknown to the hearer.
The ideational function mainly consists of “transitivity”(及物性) and “voice” (语态)
及物性是表现概念功能的从句语法。它包含很多过程
Material processes
Mental processes
Relational (关系) processes
Verbal (言语) processes
Behavioral processes
Existential processes
The Interpersonal Function embodies all uses of language to express social and
personal relations. This includes the various ways the speaker enters a speech situation and performs a speech act.
Interpersonal function is realized by Mood (语气) and Modality (情态) . Mood shows what role the speaker selects in the speech situation and what role he assigns to the addressee (听话人).
Mood is made up of two parts: the “Subject” (主语) and the “Finite” (限定成分) element.
the Textual Function refers to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spoken or written discourse into a coherent (条理分明的) and unified (统一的) text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences. American Structuralism
Early Period: Boas and Sapir
Thus, there were only differences in language structure, while there is no difference between languages in terms of being more or less reasonable or advanced.
The principal representative of American descriptive linguistics is L. Bloomfield.
the adult?s use of language is also a process of stimulus-response 强化
Chomsky transformational-Generative (TG) Grammar. The publication of his Syntactic Structures
TG Grammar has seen five stages of development. The Classical Theory aims to make linguistics a science. The Standard Theory deals with how semantics should be studied in a linguistics theory. The Extended Standard Theory focuses discussion on language universals and universal grammar. The Revised Extended Standard Theory (or GB) focuses discussion on government (管辖) and binding (约束). The latest is the Minimalist Program (最简方案
The Innateness Hypothesis 天赋假设
Chomsky believes that language is somewhat innate, and that children are born with what he calls a Language Acquisition Device ( LAD) ，which is a unique kind of knowledge that fits them for language learning. He argues that children are born with knowledge of the basic grammatical relations and categories, and this knowledge is universal.
Chomsky puts forward three different levels to evaluate grammars on: the Observational Adequacy (充分) level, the Descriptive Adequacy level, and the Explanatory Adequacy .level
Chomsky puts forward three kinds of grammar: finite state grammar, phrase structure grammar, and transformational grammar.
Chomsky believes that it is necessary to work out a grammar that, with a finite set of rules, can generate all the grammatical sentences in a language without generating a single non-grammatical sentence. Then a grammar is seen as a system of finite rules generating an infinite number of sentences, and the rules must meet the following requirements: (1) Generative; (2) Simple; (3) Explicit; (4) Exhaustive (穷尽性); (5) Recursive (回归性). 见P310-311
1、语言学的三大发源地 中国、印度、希腊—罗马。 最初的语言学是是为了给遗留下来的政治、哲学、历史、宗教、文学等古典文献作注解，而不是探索语言的规律。这时候的语言学还不是一门独立的学科。2、语言符号的特点 语言符号具有任意性和线条性的特点。 （1）任意性是指语言符号的声音形式和意义内容的结合是任意的，二者没有必然联系。比如：粤方言中读“人”，读作[zen]，新会话读作[ng? n]，开平话有的读作[ng? n] 、[ngin]，台山话读作[ngin]，闽南话读作[n^ng]，但是表达的意义是一样的。 （2）线条性指的是语言符号的能指在时间上呈线性排列。在交际过程中，语言符号只能一个跟着一个按时间顺序出现，形成延续的线性序列，绝不可能在同一时间说出两个符号。如：“庄”的语音形式就是由zh-u-a-ng四个音素依次出现而形成的。 3、组合关系和聚合关系 （1）组合关系是指构成线性序列的语言成分之间的结构关系。即两个或两个以上同一性质的结构单位（例如音位与音位、词与词等等），按照线性的顺序可以前后连接起来的横向关系。 （2）聚合关系是指同一结构内相同位置上可以互相替换的语言成分之间的纵向关系。即在语言的组合结构的某一个位置上能够互相替换的几个具有相同作用（组合能力）的单位符号之间的关系。 （3）不仅各级语言符号处在这两种根本的关系之中，构造符号的音位和意义同
样也处于这两种关系之中。 4、语音四要素 （1）音高：声音的高低，取决于发音体（人的发音体是声带）的振动频率。音高在语言中的作用：构成声调和语调。 （2）音强：声音的强弱，取决于发音体振幅的大小。对于语音而言，就是由发音时用力的大小决定的。音强在语言中的作用：构成语调、轻重音。 （3）音长：声音的长短，取决于发音体振动持续时间的长短。音长变化在许多语言中有区别意义的作用。音长在语言中的作用：构成长短音、轻音。如英语中的pool[pu:l]（水池）与pull[pul]（拖、拉）。 （4）音质：一种声音区别于其他声音的个性或特征。它决定于声波振动的形式。音质的不同主要与三个方面的因素有关：发音体、发音方法和共鸣器的形状有关。 5、音位、语流音变、音位变体 （1）一种语言中具有区别词的语音形式作用的最小的语音单位，是针对某种语言而言的。音位是从语音的社会属性的角度划分的单位。 （2）确立音位的原则 ①对立原则：凡是处于对立关系中并能区别词的语音形式的几个音素归纳为不同的音位。例如：在汉语普通话中：［p］［p‘］［t］［t‘］几个音素是对立关系确立的不同的音位； ②互补原则：处于互补关系的音素不能起到区别词的语音形式的作用，可以归纳为一个音位。例如：英语中的[p]和[p‘]，汉语中的[a][A][ɑ]等 ③相似原则：但并不是处于互补关系中的音素都可以归纳为一个音位，还要考虑语音相似原则：例如：在普通话中，[t]只出现在音节的开头，[?]只出现在音节末
语言学概论期末复习 1. diachronic linguistics Linguistics that studies language over a period of time, also known as historical linguistics, study of the Chinese language since the end of the Qing dynasty up to the present. 2. arbitrariness Language is arbitrary for the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural resemblance to their meaning. The link between the linguistic signs and their meanings is a matter of convention, and conventions differ radically across languages. 3. langue According to Saussure, langue refers to the abstract linguistic systems shared by all the members of a speech community. It can be thought of as the generalized rules of the language that members of a speech community seem to abide by. 4. competence Chomsky defines competence as the abstract ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language. According to him, anyone who knows a language has internalized a set of rules about the sequences permitted in his language. This internalized set of rules is termed as a person's competence. 5. morpheme The most basic element of meaning is traditionally called morpheme. The “morpheme' is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit which can not be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning. 6. Morphology Morphology studies morphemes and their different forms and the way they combine in word formation. So it refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed 7. Semantic triangle According to Ogden and Richard's semantic triangle, there is no direct link between language and the world, or between the symbol ( the linguistic elements, the word, the sentence) and referent ( the object in the world of experience). The link is via thought or reference, the concepts of our minds. 8. Lingua franca Lingua franca is the general term for a language that serves as a means of communication between different groups of speakers. 9. componential analysis Componential analysis is a way to analyze lexical meaning, and it defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components. 10. Cooperative Principle Cooperative Principle (CP) was proposed by Paul Grice, under which there are four maxims: the maxim of quantity, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the
题型：填空题10，20%；选择题10，20%；判断4，20%（3句话解释原因）；简答3，18%（四句话作答）；论述1，22%（1/4页纸作答）。 导论 1、中国、印度和希腊-罗马在传统语言文学的研究上都取得了辉煌的成就，是语言学的三大发源地。 2、中国传统语言研究主要抓住汉字，分析它的形体，探求它的古代读音和意义，形成了统称“小学”的文字、音韵和训诂之学，也就是中国传统的语文学。 3、历史比较语言学标志着语言学不再是其他学科的附庸，已经发展成为一门独立的学科。 4、20世纪初，瑞士语言学家索绪尔在《普通语言学教程》中提出观点，语言学从此成为一门现代学科。 5、理论语言学，也称普通语言学，是关于语言的一般规律的理论研究。 第一章语言的功能 1、语言是一种社会现象，和人类社会有着紧密联系。 2、语言的社会功能中最基本的是信息传递功能。 3、如果一个病人大脑左半球发生损伤，他尽管说不出医院的名称、病房、床号，却能找得到。相反，如果大脑右半球受损，尽管能找到医院的名称、病房、床号，却找不到，能说出家的位置却找不到，这说明语言功能存在大脑左边。 4、儿童学习语言的过程是考察语言与思维关系的一条很好途径。 5、儿童语言的习得一定具有先天生理基础，也离不开外界的社会条件。 6、儿童语言能力的开发还有时间的限制，最迟到十二三岁，如果在此之前没有机会学习语言，那么之后其语言习得和心智发展的潜能就失去了。十二三岁是语言习得的关键时期，之一临界期的分工时间也是一致的。 第二章语言是符号系统 1、符号包含形式和意义两个方面。（能指形式，形指意义，符号构成的两个方面，语言学上通常用形式和意义来表述。形式也叫能指，是符号的外壳，是可以被人的感觉器官感知的，因而形式具有物质性。意义也叫所指，是符号形式所代表的内容，也就是现实现象事物。） 2、符号的形式和意义之间是没有本质上、自然属性上的必要联系，在这一点上符号和隐含某种信息的自然的征候不同。 3、语言符号的任意性和线条性，是20世纪初瑞士的语言学家家得·索绪尔作为语言符号的基本性质提出来的。 4、语言符号的语音形式和意义之间没有自然属性上的必然联系，只有社会约定的关系 5、符号和符号组合起来，结构中各个成分的关系称为组合关系，符号在结构中就具有某种相同的作用，它们自然地聚集成群，彼此的关系叫做聚合关系。 第三章语音和音系 1、语音具有自然属性、社会属性的双重属性，从自然属性出发，针对所有人类语言的语音研究，属于语音学的研究；从社会属性出发，针对语音在某一个具体语言的系统中其什么作用的研究，属于音系学的研究。 2、音系学的出发点在于语音在语言系统中的组织方式，属于语言学的核心部分。 3、以语音的自然属性和人类语言共性为研究对象的语音学，把语音最小的线性单位叫做音素。以语音的社会属性和语音在具体语言中的作用为研究对象的音系学，把语音最小的线性单位叫做音位。
名词解释： 1.聚合关系：聚合关系是指在一定条件下，在语言链条的某一环节上，能够互相替换的具有某种相同作用的各个符号 之间形成的纵向关系。 2.语用学：语用学作为语言学的一门新兴的独立学科，它研究在特定情景中的特殊话语，特别是研究在不同语言交际 环境下如何理解和运用语言的过程。 3.菲尔德： 4.索绪尔： 5.音素：音素是从音质的角度划分出来的最小的语音单位。一个音节，往往可以从音质的角度去划分，划分到不能再 分析为止，分析出最小的语音单位，得到的就是音素。 6.音位：音位是某种具体语言或方言里能够区别词、语素的语音形式和意义的最小的语音单位。 7.条件变体：具有互补分布关系的各音素对它们分布的环境总体来说是相互补充的，而对其中某个因素所能出现的特定位置又是相互排斥的。它们彼此间不能区别语素或词的语音形式和意义，所以并归并为一个音位，这些因素就是这个音位的若干变体。这种变体都有各自出现的条件，所以叫做条件变体。 8.超音段音位：在语流中，音高、音强、音长这样的非音质要素也能区别词的语音形式和意义，因此也能归并成音位。由于这些音位不是局限于一个音段音位，而是常常是添加到音段音位的序列（包括音节、词等）上面，它们具有超音段的性质，音位学上把它们叫做超音段音位，也叫非音质音位。超音段音位包括调位、重位、时位。 9.音位的区别特征：一个音位之所以区别于别的音位，是因为它有某种特殊的不同于别的音位的语音特征，这种能区 别音位的语音特征就叫做音位的区别特征。 10.复辅音：一个音节内两个或两个以上辅音的组合叫做复辅音。 11.肌肉紧张度说： 12.语流音变：人们说话时，具体的因素组合在一起，形成长短不一的一段段的语流。在连续的语流中，一个音可能由 于邻近音的影响或自身所处的地位的不同，或说话的快慢、高低、强弱的不同而在发音上产生一些变化， 这种现象教语流音变。 13.理性意义：理性意义是人脑对客观世界的概括反映，也叫概念意义，是词义的核心部分。 14.语义场：在语言学中，凡是具有共同语义特征，在词义上处于相互联系、相互制约、相互作用中的一群词聚合在一 起，在语义上形成一个场，称之为语义场。 15.语义指向：所谓语义指向就是指句子中某一个成分跟句中或句外的一个或几个成分在语义上有直接联系，其中包括 了一般所认为的语义辖域。运用语义指向来说明、解释语法现象，就称为语义指向分析。 16.语素:是语言中最小的音义结合体，是词的构成要素，不能独立运用，但必须有意义。 17.基本词汇：基本词汇是词汇的基础，是语言中词汇的核心部分，它和语言中的语法构造一起构成语言的基础。基本 词汇是由基本词构成的，基本词指语法中产生较早而又稳定、使用频率高的词，它所标记的概念多是与 我们人类生存和人类社会密切相关的事物、现象和行为。 18.形态： 19.语法范畴：把通过一定的语法手段表达出来的同一性质的语法意义进一步综合和概括所形成的意义类别叫语法范畴分析法：即直接成分分析法，又叫“层次分析法”，是对句法结构组合形式层次性进行分析的方法。 21.语法手段：语法意义在不同的语言中有不同的表达方式。把具有共同特点的语法形式概括起来形成的一些类别，称 之为语法方式，也叫“语法手段”。常见的语法方式由综合方式、综合-分析方式、分析方式。 22.文字：文字是用来记录语言的书写符号体系。 23.表意文字：表意文字是用书写符号记录词或语素的意义的文字体系。 24.字母：字母是表音文字的书写符号。 25.地域方言：地域方言也叫“地区方言”，是全民语言在不同地域的变体，是统一的全民语言的分支。 26.亲属语言：凡是从同一种语言分化出来的若干种独立的语言，它们就是亲属语言，亲属语言也是语言分化的结果。 27.隐语：也叫“黑话”，有些社会群体或集团，为了不让外人了解自己谈话的内容，使用自己集团内部约定的特殊词 语进行交际，这种语言变体就是隐语。 28.借词：语言成分的借用，最常见的是借词。借词也叫外来词，是语言形式和语义内容都来自外语的词，即一般所说
名词解释 1、词汇 是一种语言中所有的词和成语等固定用语的总汇 2、音位的自由变体 有些音位在同一语言环境中，可以自由替换，而又不能区别词义，不受前面其他音位的影响，没有任何条件的限制 3，语言 语言是社会现象，是社会交际工具。同时是心里现象，是人类思维的工具 4，自源文字 是在某种语言的基础上自发产生并逐步完善的文字 5，同化和异化 同化现象是指，一个音位受相邻音位的影响儿而又在某个区别特征或音位整体上的趋同现象；异化现象，是指两个本来相同或相近的音位，如果连着发音有困难，则其中一个发生变化，变得跟邻近的音不同或不相近 6，黏着语 没有词的内部屈折，每一个语法范畴义都有一个粘附语素来表示，而一个粘附语素也只表示一种语法范畴义的语言类型 7，语音 即语言的声音，是语言符号系统的载体，人的发音器官发出，负载着一定的语言定义。语言依靠语音实现他的社会功能 8音质音位 以因素为材料，从音质的角度分析音位 9形态 同一个词与不同的词组合就有不同的变化。这些不同的变化形成一个聚合，叫做词形变化，或者叫做形态 10仿意词 是分别将外语中的构词材料按外语中的次序译成本民族语，使构词成分的选择和构词结构的选择与外语一一对应 12区别特征 具有区别音位的语音特征叫区别特征，也叫区别性特征 13符号 社会全体成员共同约定，用来表示某种意义的记号、标记、它包括形式和内容两个方面。它的作用是指称社会现实现象 14，小学 中国传统文学又称小学，包括分析字形的文字学，研究字音的音韵学，解释字义的训诂学，它们是围绕解释和解读先秦典籍展开研究的，因此又被称为经学的附庸 15，言内意外 用语言表达思想时留下的一些意义空白或将真实意义隐含在另一种说法中，或用一种意义采用不同说法以获取不同的效果 16文字 有两个意思，一个是指一个一个的字，一是指语言的视觉符号体系 17国际音标 是国际语音协会于1888年制定并开始使用的，不带民族特色。它的制定原则是：
《语言学概论》期末试卷 1.( 单选题 ) 下列关于“语言”的说法 ,不正确的一项是 (D )(本题 2.0 分) A、语言系统是由多个子系统组合而成的 B、语言是一个符号系统 C、语言符号具有任意性和线条性特征 D、 语言符号的音义关系可以任意改变 2.( 单选题 ) 下列元音音素都是后元音的一组是 ( B)(本题 2.0 分) A、[u, ε] B、[α, Λ] C、[α,y] D、[o, a] 3.( 单选题 ) 下列辅音音素都是塞音的一组是 ( B)(本题 2.0 分) A、[k, 1] B、[p, k] C、[p, n] D、[t, v] 4.( 单选题 ) 从语音的社会功能角度划分出来的最小语音单位是
( A)(本题 2.0 分) A、音位 B、音素 C、音节 D、音渡 5.( 单选题 ) 汉语普通话中的“我”和助词“的”单念时发音分别为[uo]和[te],而在实际语流中 ,“我的”发音是 [uo de],这是语流音变中的( A)(本题 2.0 分) A、顺同化现象 B、逆同化现象 C、弱化现象 D、异化现象 6.( 单选题 ) 语音的本质属性是 (C )(本题 2.0 分) A、物理属性 B、生理属性 C、社会属性 D、心理属性 7. ( 单选题) 英语“ students”中的“ -s”是 ( C)(本题 2.0 分)
A、虚词语素 B、词根语素 C、构形语素 D、构词语素 8. ( 单选题) 从词的构造方式看, 下列各项中属于复合词的是( D)(本题 2.0 分) A、木头 B、念头 C、苦头 D、山头 9.( 单选题 ) 划分词类的最本质的标准是 (A )(本题 2.0 分) A、分布标准 B、意义标准 C、形态标准 D、逻辑标准 10.( 单选题 ) 下面词组中 ,结构类型与其他各组不同的一组是( D)(本题 2.0 分) A、年轻漂亮/朴素大方 B、我们大家/首都北京
英语语言学 一、名词解释 第一课 l.Synchronic 共时性：Said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “poinL in timeA A kind of description which takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind? 2>Langue 语言：The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community? 3>Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for human communication. ^Arbitrariness 任意性：One design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. 第二课 1.Phoneme 音位：Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning? The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. 2
语言学概论(本科)期末复习要点 导言部分 一、语言学、语言学的对象和任务 1．语言学是以语言作为研究对象的科学，它以人类的语言为研究对象。语言学的基本任务是研究语言的规律，具体地说，语言学研究语言的性质、作用、结构，语言的发展变化，使人们懂得有关语言的理性知识，从而提高学习语言和运用语言的水平。 2．中国、印度、希腊－罗马是语言学的三大发源地。 3．我国的小学：小学是我国古代语文学的统称，由训诂学、文字学、音韵学三部分组成。训诂学解释字义，文字学分析字形，音韵学研究字音。 二、语言学在科学体系中的地位 1．语言的研究和其它科学的关系十分密切，不仅与社会科学有联系，而且与自然科学也有十分密切的联系。语言学是一门古老的科学，又是一门年轻的科学。 2．语言交际的过程：语言交际过程可分“编码－发送－传递－接收－解码”五个阶段。 三、语言学的基本类别 根据研究的对象的不同，语言学可以分为以下几类：共时语言学和历时语言学、专语语言学和普通语言学、。各类语言学下面还可以进一步细分，如专语语言学下面可分汉语语言学（例如现代汉语、古代汉语、近代汉语、汉语史等）、英语语言学、俄语语言学等等，普通语言学下面可分语音学、词汇学、语义学、语法学、修辞学等等。 四、语言学流派 比较重要的语言学流派主要有：历史比较语言学、结构语言学、布拉格学派、哥本哈根学派、美国描写语言学派、转换-生成学派、系统-功能学派、社会语言学。各个语言学流派的观点、代表人物有所了解即可，注意布拉格学派、哥本哈根学派以及美国结构语言学派（也称美国描写语言学）都属于结构主义学派，是这一学派的三个分支。关于语言学流派的具体内容阐述，请浏览《语言学网络课件》中的“望远镜”板块。 第一章语言的社会功能 本章需要明确的要点是：第一，语言的两大社会功能；第二，语言是一种社会现象。第一节语言是人类最重要的交际工具1．语言的交际功能：语言是联系社会成员的桥梁和纽带。 2．语言是一种社会现象：弄清楚语言是一种社会现象的内涵，语言不是自然现象，而是社会现象，是一定社会的产物，同社会的关系非常密切。 3．语言是一种特殊的社会现象：没有阶级性，具有全民性特点。语言是人类最重要的交际工具 第二节语言是思维的工具 1．语言和思维的关系 思维活动的过程不可能离开语言而单独进行，思维离不开语言，语言也离不开思维，二者是互相依存，共同发展的。 2．思维能力是全人类共同的，语言是各民族不同 本节其它一些问题可一般了解：一、儿童学习语言的过程，二、思维不能离开语言的实验根据，三、关于聋哑人的思维，聋哑人失去语言能力对他的思维能力的发展产生了严重的消极影响，四、人类思维在机器中的再现。 第二章语言是符号系统 本章有三大要点：语言是符号、语言的任意性特点、语言的层次性第一节语言符号的性质和特点一、什么是符号 1．符号的含义：符号是人们用来指代某种事物的标记。符号是由一定的形式构成的表示一定意义的记号或标记，它包括形式和意义两个方面，指称现实现象。如： 2．符号的构成：符号是由形式和意义两个部分构成的结合体。 二、语言符号及其特点 1．语言符号：从本质上看，语言也是一种符号，也有形式和意义两个方面。注意语言符号同一般符号的区别。 2．语言符号的特点：语言符号具有任意性和线条性的特点 第二节语言符号的系统性一、语言的层级体系 弄清楚语言层级，各个层级的构成及其特点，以及语言二层性的核心。 二、组合关系和聚合关系 1．组合关系：组合关系就是两个同一性质的结构单位（比如音位和音位、词与词等）按照线性的顺序组合起来的关系，也
语言学概论 一、单项选择题（每小题2分，共20分} 1．下列说法只有是正确的。 A．语言是人类最重要的辅助性交际工具。 B．语言就是说话，说话就是语言。 C．语言是一种特殊的社会现象。 D．语言具有地方色彩，说明语言不具有社会性。 2．下列说法只有是错误的。 A．汉语的声调是由音高变化形成的。 B．语言中的轻重音是由音重变化形成的。 C．音位具有区别词形的作用。 I)．音素具有区别词形的作用。 3．下列说法只有是正确的。 A．“老”可以同“新、旧、少、嫩”等构成反义词。 B．“大”和“小”是绝对对立的反义词。 C．“红”与“黑”这对反义词具有非此即彼的关系。 D．反义词“冷”和“热”具有相对性。 4．下列说法只有____正确。 A．意译词如“激光”、“电话”都是借词。 B．仿译词如“机关枪”、“铁路”都是借词。 C．“尼姑”、“和尚”、“玻璃”是借词。 D．“爱神”、“北极熊”、“超人”都是借词。 5．下列词义的变化，属于词义的缩小。 A．“meat”原指菜肴，现在指荤菜。 B．“走”本义是跑，现在指步行。 C．“江”原指长江，今泛指江河。 D．“book”原指一种树木，今指成本的著作。 1．C 2．D 3．D 4．C 5．A 3．下列说法只有( )是正确的。 A.语言是人类最重要的交际工具，文字也是人类最重要的交际工具 B．不同的阶级使用语言具有不同的特点，说明语言具有阶级性 C．人类多种多样的语言说明语言具有任意性特点 D．语言是一种纯自然的现象 4.下列说法只有( )是正确的。 A.语法的组合规则是潜在的 B．语法的聚合规则是潜在的 C．语法的组合规则存在于书面语言中 I)．语法的聚合规则存在”ji【j头沿吉中 5．单纯阋就是由一个( )构成的词。 A．词根 B．词干 【！．词缀
英语语言学期末考试试卷 第一部分选择题 I.Directions: Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter A, B, C or D in the brackets. (2%X10=20%) 1. Saussure’s distinction and Chomsky’s are very similar, but they differ in that ____________. A. Saussure took a sociological view of language while Chomsky took a psychological point of view B. Saussure took a psychological view of language while Chomsky took a sociological point of view C. Saussure took a pragmatic view of language while Chomsky took a semantic point of view D. Saussure took a structural view of language while Chomsky took a pragmatic point of view 2. Language is a system of ____________ vocal symbols used for human communication. A. unnatural B. artificial C. superficial D. arbitrary 3. We are born with the ability to acquire language, _______________. A. and the details of any language system are genetically transmitted B. therefore, we needn’t learn the details of our mother tongue C. but the details of language have to be learnt.
1、How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: linguistics is the scientific study of language. It is a scientific studies because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, what the linguist has to do first is to collect and observe language facts, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. But the hypotheses, thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation; that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things. 2、The design/defining features of human language (Charles Hockett) (1) Arbitrariness ----No logical (motivated or intrinsic) connection between sounds and meanings. ----- No natural and inevitable link between the sound and the meaning Exception: Onomatopoeic words and Some compound words. (2) Productivity/creativity We can speak an endless number of sentences with a limited vocabulary and one sentence can expand into endless theoretically possible sentences in the way of recurring Exception: and bee dancing is used only to indicate food sources, which is the only kind of message that can be sent through the dancing. (3) Duality
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics 1.1 Why study language? 1. Language is very essential to human beings. 2. In language there are many things we should know. 3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically. 1.2 What is language? 1.3 Design features of language The features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication. 1.3.1 Arbitrariness 1.3.2 Duality 1.3.3 Creativity Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences. 1.3.4 Displacement 1.4 Origin of language
丽水学院 —学年第一学期期终考试试卷答案（B卷）课程语言学概论使用班级 班级：学号：姓名： 一、填空题（本大题共14空格，每空格1分，共14分） 1．在中国，早期的语言研究主要是围绕着汉字的字义、字音、字形进行的，产生了训诂学、音韵学、文字学三个分支，统称为“小学”。 2．被尊称为“19世纪的亚里土多德”的德国哲学家和数学家弗雷格于1892年提出预设的概念，他的理论被公认为人工智能的理论基础。 3．每个元音的音质是由舌位前后、舌位高低、圆唇与否3个方面的因素决定的。 4.语言的变异可以分为地域变异、社会变异和功能变异等3类。 5．言语行为理论的创始人是英国道德哲学家奥斯汀，他认为，语句有命题意义和施为意义两层意义。 二、判断是非题：对的写“√”，错的写“×”（本大题共10小题，每小题1分，共10分） （√）1．语言是一种符号系统。 （√）2．肺是人类发音的动力站，声带是发音体。 （×）3．元音发音时，声带不一定振动，辅音发音时，声带一定要振动。（√）4．超音质音位又叫“超音段音位”或“非音质音位”。 （×）5．在现代汉语普通话中，[b]和[p]是两个音位。 （√）6．福建“沙县县”简称为“沙县”体现了语言的经济机制。
（×）7．词序和虚词是俄语最重要的语法手段。 （√）8．语法手段中的“零形式”也表示语法意义。 （√）9．就其实质而言，语法规则表现的就是组合关系或聚合关系。（×）10．湖南江永的“女书”体现了语言的性别变异。 三、选择题（本大题共10小题，每小题1分，共10分） （②）1．语言符号的符号是： ①声音②文字③它所代表的事物④发音器官（④）2．我国青海五屯话是一种： ①皮钦语②洋泾浜③新美拉尼西亚语④克里奥尔语（③）3．合作原则理论的最早提出者是： ①奥斯汀②利奇③格赖斯④莫里斯（④）4．英语的man→men采用的语法手段是： ①异根式②重音③词缀④内部屈折（③）5．关于元音和辅音的区别，正确的描述是： ①元音发音时间短暂，辅音发音时间较长。 ②辅音发音响亮，元音发音不响亮。 ③发辅音气流受阻，发元音气流不受阻。 ④发元音和辅音发音器官的各个部位均衡紧张。 （④）6．俄语、汉语、日语3种语言所属的语法结构类型按次序是：①粘着语-屈折语-孤立语②屈折语-粘着语-孤立语 ③孤立语-屈折语-粘着语④屈折语-孤立语-粘着语（③）7．与“春光明媚”结构相同的组合是： ①阳光的温暖②马上开始
语言学概论试题(1) 一、填空１５% 1、语言中最单纯、最常用、最原始和最能产的词是根词。 2、语言是人类最重要的交际工具，文字是最重要的辅助交际工具。 3、我国古代学者为读懂古书而建立的训诂学、文字学、音韵学组成了我国的语文学，通称为“小学”。 4、英语属于印欧语系的日耳曼语族的西部语支。 5、语音可以从生理角度分析它的产生方式，从物理角度分析它的表现形式（传递过程），从社会功能角度分析它的功能作用。 6、是否能够独立（自由）运用，是区分词和语素的根本特点。 7、现代大多数国家的拼音文字的字母，大多直接来源于拉丁字母。 8、具有不同功能的三种最基本的语法单位是语素、词、句子。 9、语言发展的主要特点是渐变性和不平衡性。 10、我国宪法（１９８２年）第１９条明确规定“国家推广全国通用的普通话”。 二、选择题１０% 1 、中国的传统语文学研究的薄弱环节是（D ） Ａ、文字学Ｂ、语音学Ｃ、词汇学Ｄ、语法学 2、汉语属于（B ） Ａ、屈折语Ｂ、词根语Ｃ、多式综合语Ｄ、粘着语 3、一种语言中数量最少的是（B ） Ａ、音素Ｂ、音位Ｃ、语素Ｄ、音节 4、文字的前身是（C ） Ａ、结绳记事Ｂ、手势Ｃ、图画记事Ｄ、实物记事 5、派生词中包含（B ） Ａ、词尾Ｂ、词根Ｃ、虚词Ｄ、根词 6、语音和语义结合的最小的语言单位是（C ） Ａ、音素Ｂ、义素Ｃ、语素Ｄ、音位 7、汉语单词“忽然”出现的位置是（C ） Ａ、主语位置Ｂ、谓语位置Ｃ、状语位置Ｄ、定语位置 8、以下各种语言变体中，属于社会方言的是 （D ） Ａ、土话Ｂ、客家话Ｃ、客套话Ｄ、黑话 9、下列语素中属于自由语素的是（C ） Ａ、初Ｂ、视Ｃ、人Ｄ、民 10、在语言结构的某一环节上能够互相替换，具有某种相同作用的各个单位之间所形成的关系叫（D ） Ａ、转换关系Ｂ、组合关系Ｃ、层级关系Ｄ、聚合关系 三、名词解释２０% 1、专语语言学: 以具体语言作为研究对象的语言学。 2、组合关系: 指两个以上相连续的语言符号组合而成的线性关系。 3、语流音变:语流中的某些音由于相互影响而发生临时性的变化，这种变化就叫语流音变。 4、语义场: 由具有某些共同义素的一群词类聚而成的场。 5、语法范畴: 把同一性质的语法意义综合和概括所形成的语法意义的类别 四、试以国际音标标出下列各词的读音１０% 1、优秀 2、维持 3、宏观 4、精神 5、离开 五、用义素分析法分析下列各组词9％ 瞻仰[+用眼+往一定方向+崇敬地] 1、｛