外文翻译
原文1
The logic of pension accounting
2. Pensions as an expense
2.1. Early approaches to pension accounting
In the USA and UK, private-sector employer-sponsored pension arrangements began to appear in the second half of the 19th century, and were often associated with large organizations such as railways, in sura nee compa nies and banks (Ha nn ah, 1986: 10 -2; Chan dar and Miranti,2007: 206). Accounting for these arrangements was often very simple. The cost recognized by the employer was effectively the cash paid in a given period. Some schemes operated on a ‘pa-yas-you-go'basis, where the employer made no advance provision for retirement benefits. In this case, the cost each period equaled the benefits paid. In a scheme where the employer made contributions to an external fund invested in securities, out of which benefits would be paid, or made notional contributions to an internal account, the cost would be the contributions arising in each period, possibly augmented by interest on notional contributions if these were not used to purchase securities. However, many employers granted pensions to enable employees to retire, even though no advance provision had been made.
The ‘expens-aes-you-pay'accounting for pensions was rationali zed through the ‘gratuity theory 'of retirement benefits (McGill et al., 2004: 16).This theory proposed that retirement benefits were awarded to retirees at the discretion of the employer, ‘as a kindly act on the par an employer towards old retainers who have served him faithfull y and well '(Pilch and Wood, 1979: 2). Paying a pension was not necessarily an act of pure benevolence, because it could allow an employer to retire an employee who was no longer performing adequately, without incurring public criticism. The gratuity theory implied that the employer received an efficiency gain when superannuated employees retired, and that the appropriate point at which to recognize the cost of pensions was as the pensions were paid. If the employer wanted to earmark some earnings in a distinct pension reserve before employees retired, then this would be regarded as an appropriation of profit rather than as an expense. Even in structured pension schemes, the employer might include clauses denying the existence of an enforceable contract, stressing that pension benefits
我国企业养老金会计确认、计量、列报研究
were paid en tirely at the employer ' s discreti on and could be disc on ti nued at any time (St one, 1984: 24).
However, the gratuity theory rapidly came under challenge from the view that pensions
con stitute ‘ deferred pay ' , ansdnplayees in effect sacrifice curre nt in come in excha nge for the expectati on of in come in the future. On this basis, early acco unting theorists such as Henry Rand Hatfield suggested that employers should in clude in operati ng expe nses tdhe amount n ecessary provide for future pensions ' (Hatfield, 1916: 194). A nu mber of comme ntators observed that the
calculation of such an expense was potentially highly complex, but they suggested that the calculations fell within the domain of actuaries (Stone, 1984: 26).Members of the actuarial profession had already been involved in advising on appropriate contribution rates for pension
schemes involving either external or internal ‘ notional ' funding. In accounting terms, the employer would measure the annual cost of pension provision either directly in terms of amounts calculated by actuaries, if the route of internal funding was followed, or through the contributions (themselves determined by actuaries) to an external pension fund. In the case of external funding, cost would be equal to contributions due for the period, and, other than short-term accruals,pension expense would be based on cash payments (or other assets transferred) to the pension fund.
2.2. The begi nnings of acco unting regulati on
Early authoritative acco unting pronoun ceme nts en dorsed this esse ntially cash-based approach
to pension cost determi natio n. The Committee on Acco un ti ng Procedure of the America n In stitute
of Certified Public Acco un ta nts (AICPA) issued Accou nting Research Bulletin No. 47 Accou nting
for Costs of Pension Plans in 1956, and expressed the view that ‘ costs based on current and futui
services should be systematically accrued during the expected period of active service of the covered employees ' (CAP, 1956). On closer an alysissystematic accrual ' implied that employers
would use the method recommended by the actuary for funding the pension plan to determine the pension expense in respect of current service. This approach was endorsed by the Accounting
Principles Board (APB) in their Opinion No. 8 Accounting for the Cost of Pension Plans, issued in
1966. APB 8 is en tirely cost-based -there are references to -s'hleatepieesi on accruals ' and
‘ balanceheet pension prepayments or deferred charges but no explanation of these terms or how
they are to be determ in ed. Much of the Opinion addresses not the issue of determ ining
‘ no
cost ' ( ‘the annual cost assigned, under the actuarial cost method in use, to years subsequent to the inception of a pension plan or to a particular valuation date' )but rather ‘ passt ervice cost ' ( ‘ pension cost assigned under the actuarial cost method in use, to years prior to the inception of a pension plan ') and ‘ prior service cost' ( ‘ pension cost assigned, under the actuarial cost method in
use, to years prior to the date of a particular actuarial valuation 'Th)e. Opinion goes to great lengths to provide guidance on how these components of pension cost should be recognized, recommending spreading of the costs over a period up to 40 years. A number of features of the accounting treatment of pension costs need to be highlighted. First although it is not made explicit, there is an under-lying desire to arrive at a pension expense in each period that is not materially different from the employer 's contributions to the pension fund. APB 8 notes ‘the amount o pension cost determined under this Opinion may vary from the amounfunded (APB, 1966: para'.
43), but this situation is not analyzed in detail. For unfunded pension plans, costs are to be determined using an actuarial cost method. The criteria for the selection of an appropriate actuarial cost method are that the method is ‘ rational and systematic and should be consistently applied so that it results in a reasonable measure of pension cost from year to year .
'
Author: Christopher J. Napier Nationality: English Originate from: The CPA Journal
我国企业养老金会计确认、计量、列报研究
译文一
养老金会计的逻辑
2养老金费用
2.1早先的养老金会计
在19世纪后期的美国和英国，出现了私人部门雇主赞助的养老金计划，主要集中于铁路公司和保险业、银行业等大型机构(Ha nn ah, 1986: 10 - 12;
Chan dar and Mira nti,2007: 206)。这时的养老金会计往往非常简单。雇主确认
的成本实际上就是一定期间内支付的现金。很多养老金计划是都是在职工退休后进行支付，雇主并没有提供进一步的退休福利。在这种情况下，每段期间内的成
本就是该期间的现金支付。在某些计划中，雇主提供资金投资于外部的证券，用
取得的收益支付养老金，或是向内部的账户提供资金。如果基金没有被用来购买证券，成本将会是每段时间内的服务成本并计上合理的利率。然而，很多雇主为
了能让雇员退休情愿支付养老金，但是并没有提供进一步的福利。
现收现付制养老金会计是建立在“酬金理论”(McGill et al., 2004: 16)
基础上的，这个理论认为养老金是雇主对退休人员的一种奖励，“是雇主对为他
忠诚服务的退休老职工的善意施舍”(Pilch and Wood, 1979: 2)。其实支付养
老金并不是出于纯粹的善意，因为它能让雇主辞退那些工作效率不高的雇员，而不受到社会的指责。“酬金”理论暗示雇主通过辞退落后的职工而使效率得到提高，对养老金成本合适的计量就是支付的养老金金额。如果雇主希望在一个特定的养老金储备预留一些员工退休前的收入，这时他应该确认一部分利润而不是费用。即使在格式化的养老金计划中，雇主也可能会加入这样的条款，否认这是一
种强制的合同，而强调养老金福利完全是根据自己意愿老来支付，任何时候他都
可以终止这项计划(Stone, 1984: 24)。
然而另一种观点的出现马上让“小费理论”受到了挑战。这种观点认为养老金其实是递延的工资，雇员实际上是牺牲了当前的收入而换取未来的收益。在这
个基础上，He nry Rand Hatfield 等人的早些理论认为雇主必须在营业外支出中计入“未来的养老金费用”
(Hatfield, 1916: 194)。很多评论员评论说这种形
式的养老金核算将会非常复杂，他们建议由精算师来完成这些计算。一些精算专家已经在建议为养老金计划提供一种利率，无论针对内部或是外部的名义基金。
在会计处理上，雇主需要计算每年的养老金成本，如果是内部的计划，将会直接采用精算师的计算结果，如
果是外部的基金计划，将采用外部的养老保险基金的贡献（由精算师确定）。外部的基金计划，养老金成本等于某段时间的贡献，养老金费用是根据支付的现金来确定的，而不是应计负债。
2.2 会计监管的开始
早期的权威会计采纳现收现付制来确认养老金成本。AICPA 在1956 年发布会计研究公告第47 准则——有关养老金成本的确认，强调“养老金成本必须将当前和未来的服务成本系统化地分摊到每个参加养老金计划的职工的预期工作年限中去” （CAP, 1956）。进一步的分析，“系统的分摊”意味着雇主们将要采用精算师们建议的方法来确定当前雇员所提供的服务成本。APB 在1966年颁布的养老金计划成本第8号会计准则意见中也同意采取这种方法。APB 8 完全是以成本为基础的，它建议在资产负债表中设置“养老金负债” 和“预付养老金” 项目，但是他们并没有对这些项目做出解释，也没有说明这些项目是如何决定的。《意见》的大部分内容并不是说明如何确认正常成本（在使用精算成本下，每年的费用分配至养老金实施后的期间里或是到某一特定的日期），而是介绍过去成本（在使用精算成本发下，将养老金成本分配至养老金计划实施前几年），和前期服务成本（在使用精算成本下，将养老金成本分配至养老金实施后到一个特定的精算估值日期）。《意见》对于做如何确认养老金成本组成项目提供了详细的指导，建议期间应该要长达40 年以上，而且一系列的养老金会计处理方法特征需要被强调。虽然它没有言明，但是它的潜在意愿是要使确认的养老金费用不要与雇主提存的养老金数额有显著的差别。APB 8 提到根据《意见》确认的养老金成本可能会与雇主提存的养老金数额有所差别，但是并没有对这种情形做详细的分析。对于那些没有经费的养老金计划，成本是根据权责发生制来核算的。应计成本的核算方法的选择标准是能“合理、系统并得到一贯的应用，以使养老金每年都能得到合理的计量”。
作者：克里斯托弗J. 纳皮尔
国籍：英国
出处：注册会计师
原文2
New Acco un ti ng Rules for Defined Ben efit Pension Pla ns
MARCH 2008 - Issued in September 2006, Statement of Financial Accounting Standards (SFAS) 158, Employers
'Acco un ti ng for Defined Ben efit Pension and Other Postretireme nt Plans—An Amendment of FASB Statements No. 87, 88, 106, and 132(R), significantly changes the bala nce-sheet report ing for defi ned ben efit pension pla ns. Before SFAS 158, the effects of certa in even ts, such as pla n ame ndme nts or actuarial gains and losses, were gran ted delayed balance-sheet recognition. As a result, a plan ' s funded status (plan assets minus obligations) was
我国企业养老金会计确认、计量、列报研究
rarely reported on the balanee sheet. SFAS 158 r equires companies to report their plans ' funded
status as either an asset or a liability on their bala nee sheets, which will cause reported pension liabilities to rise sig ni fica ntly. Although SFAS 158 also applies to postretireme nt ben efit pla ns other tha n pensions and to no t-for-profit en tities, the focus below is on for-profit bus in esses with defi ned ben efit pension pla ns.
Balance-Sheet Reporting Under SFAS 158
Under SFAS 87, prepaid or accrued pension cost, which is the net of a firm ' s pension ass
liabilities, and unrecognized amounts, is reported on the balanee sheet. SFAS 158 arguably improves finan cial report ing by more clearly com muni cati ng the fun ded status of defi ned ben efit pension pla ns. Previously, this in formatio n was reported on ly in the detailed pension foot no tes.
Un der SFAS 158, compa nies with defi ned ben efit pension pla ns must recog nize the differe nee betwee n the pla n ' s projected ben efit obligati on and its fair value of pla n assets as either
an asset or a liability. The projected ben efit obligati on is the actuarial prese nt value of the ben efits attributed by the pension pla n ben efit formula for services already provided. As a result, the complex and conceptually unsound
“ minimum pension liability ” rules, which are used when the accumulated ben efit obligati on is less tha n the fair value of pension pla n assets, has bee n elim in ated. (The accumulated ben efit obligati on is similar to the projected ben efit obligati on but does not in clude expected future salary in creases in the calculati on of the prese nt value of actuarial ben efits.) In additi on, the un recog ni zed prior service costs and actuarial gains and losses that were previously relegated to the foot no tes are now recog ni zed on the bala nee sheet, with an offsett ing amount in accumulated other comprehe nsive in come un der shareholders ' equity.
Income Reporting Under SFAS 158
SFAS 158 does not change the computation of periodic pension cost, which remains a function of service cost, interest cost, expected return on pension plan assets, and amortization of unrecognized items. It does, however, impact the reporting of comprehensive income. Specifically, actuarial gains or losses and prior service costs that arise during the period are recognized as components of comprehensive income. In addition, the amortization of actuarial gains or losses, prior service costs, and transition amounts recognized before implementing SFAS 158 require a reclassification adjustment to comprehensive income.
Applying SFAS 158
Exhibit 1 presents pension footnote data for three companies: Lockheed Martin, Glatfelter, and AMR Corp. Lockheed
Martin represents a classic example of a scenario SFAS 158 is designed to eliminate: namely, reporting a pension asset when the pension plan is actually underfunded. Specifically, Lockheed Martin 'psension obligation ($28,421 million) exceeds its plan assets ($23,432 million), meaning the plan is underfunded by the difference, $4,989 million. Previously , Lockheed Martin 'usnrecognized net losses and unrecognized prior service costs (totali ng $7,108 millio n) en abled it to report a pen sion asset of $2,119 millio n ($7,108 -$4,989).
The data for Glatfelter and AMR in Exhibit 1 indicate other likely scenarios under SFAS 158. Glatfelter, while overfunded by $155.3 million, would reduce its reported pension asset by $90 million under SFAS 158. Although AMR currently recognizes a pension liability of $882 million, SFAS 158 would require AMR to significantly increase its reported pension liability to $3,225 million.
An Illustration of the Transition to SFAS 158
The following example uses the actual 2005 data from Exhibit 1 to illustrate how each of these companies would record the transition to the new rules. Because SFAS 158 is generally first effective for fiscal years ending after December 15, 2006, the actual numbers these companies record upon transition to SFAS 158 will differ from those in this example. For simplicity, the illustration ignores tax effects.
Exhibit 1 shows that each of the three companies reports additional minimum liabilities and related intangible assets on its balance sheet. These items are eliminated under SFAS 158. In addition, pension assets and liabilities and accumulated other comprehensive income are adjusted so that their ending balances conform to the amounts required under SFAS 158. The necessary journal entries to accomplish the transition, using 2005 data, are presented in Exhibit 2.
Exhibit 3 shows the balance-sheet reporting for each company after posting the entries in
Exhibit 2, and exposes several importa nt poin ts. First, each compa ny reports its fun ded status as either a pension asset or liability. Second, the bala nce in accumulated other comprehe nsive in come equals the amount of previously unrecognized items. In this example, and likely for many compa nies with defi ned ben efit pla ns, the amount of this con tra- shareholders ' equity will in crease under SFAS 158, even potentially generating negative shareholders equity. The transition to SFAS 158 might impose costs on leveraged firms due to the in creased likelihood of tighte ning restrictive debt cove nan ts. Fin ally, the bala nce-sheet prese ntati on, and each compa ny' fiun ded status, should be easier to un dersta nd after SFAS 158 is impleme nted.
Subsequent Application of SFAS 158
SFAS 158 does not impact the amount of periodic pension cost reported on the in come stateme nt, but it does impact the report ing of comprehe nsive in come. For example, assume that
after implementing SFAS 158 Lockheed Martin were to report the financial results in Exhibit 4.
Master's thesis, University of London Information technology and accounting management with the use is the relevant value of information analysis and use, and various factors of production based on the value creation of corporate accounting and management contributions to the study of accounting will be the main content. No use of information technology, there is any enterprise information and accounting information to promote the implementation of value chain management will lose technical support, there is no theory of innovation value chain management, accounting, and information technology development, there is no power. In this paper, the meaning of information to start, leads to the meaning of accounting information, accounting information describes the development process, the second part of the analysis of the status quo of accounting information, analysis of its use in the problems, the third part of the proposed accounting information on the implementation of the strategic analysis. Keywords: accounting, information technology strategy I. Introduction (A) Background The development of accounting information in China has gone through more than 20 years, accounting information theory and practical application of talent, the accounting information system software has gradually matured, and, and the production, supply and marketing, human resources management, cost control and other aspects of the formation of an integrated management information system software. But the company found accounting information in the status of the development of enterprises is extremely uneven, a lot of strength and standardized management of large enterprises have been using the integrated accounting information system "ERP" is the management software, and the introduction of new ideas with the value of the supply chain management chain management system, and also the majority of the total business is still in the initial stage of the use of computerized accounting, or even manually. Enterprise management is still in the coexistence of traditional and modern, our corporate accounting information so early, the senior co-existence of the phenomenon will not surprise. Accounting information must be improved to facilitate the management of change. The essence of the value chain to value chain to implement the core business processes node changes, if companies choose the value chain as the core business process change, business management will enable a major step forward, it promotes corporate accounting development of information technology. (B) Significance
会计诚信外文翻译文献 (文档含中英文对照即英文原文和中文翻译) 翻译： 摘要：会计诚信是经济社会发展的客观要求，是和谐社会建设的重要组成部分。然而，近年来发生的会计造假事件，已经严重的影响了社会经济秩序的正常于心和会计职业的信誉，使会计诚信缺失成为我国社会经济生活中的一个突出问题。诚信是会计的立身之本，本文针对会计诚信的问题，提出了会计诚信缺失的危害、原因，以及对会计诚信缺失的
解决对策进行了探讨，以维护和提高会计诚信的水平。会计诚信之本--不做假账 会计是诚信行业。会计的本质归根结底是一个字：?真?，会计的衰亡也是一个字：?假?！如果会计失之诚信，弄虚作假，欺诈舞弊，会计得以存在的基础就会随之崩塌，会计业的生命力也就随之完结。因此，?不做假账?，应成为会计诚信之本，应成为我们会计从业者的座右铭。本文就此谈点浅见 中国现代会计先父潘序伦先生指出：?立信，乃会计之本；没有信用，也就没有会计。?诚信是市场经济的基石，是会计工作的生命线，更是会计从业人员的安身之本、立业之基。不做假账，保证会计信息质量，是会计诚信之本。 朱镕基同志在世界会计师大会上曾经告诫：?所有会计审计人员必须做到‘诚信为本，操守为重，坚持准则，不做假账。’恪守独立、客观、公正原则，不屈从和迎合任何压力与不合理要求，不以职务之便谋取一已私利，不提供虚假信息。?这就要求会计人员在处理会计事务时，要客观、真实、公正地反映各项经济业务，不做假账，从源头上确保会计资料的真实性和可靠性。 一、严把原始凭证审核关，从源头上防止假账 原始凭证是经济业务发生时取得的书面证明，是证明会计事项发生的唯一合法凭证。由于在实际工作中?三无?发
企业员工福利外文翻译文献 (文档含中英文对照即英文原文和中文翻译) 译文： 西方企业员工福利满意度研究述评 摘要：近年来，西方企业管理学界越来越重视员X-福利满意度理论研究，因为员工的福利满意度会直接影响他们的工作态度、工作行为与企业经营管理工作的效果。本文概述了西方企业员工福利满意度理论研究的现状，并根据组织公平理论和双因素理论，探讨福利管理决策公平与不同类型的福利对员工满意度的影响，最后为我国企业加强福利管理工作提出了若干建议。 关键词：福利；满意度；组织公平；双因素理论 一、企业福利政策的发展趋势 福利是员工薪酬的一个重要组成部分。近年来，越来越多的企业为员工提供良好的福利待遇，以便吸引、激励并留住优秀员工。企业的福利政策出现了以下发展趋势：(1)福利在员工薪酬组合中的比重增大，企业支付的福利费用大幅增加。 (2)员工也必须承担部分福利费用。企业以往为员工免费提供所有福利。目前，许
多员工必须承担部分医疗保险、养老保险费用。(3)企业的福利制度越来越复杂，福利形式越来越多样化，管理人员需要花费更多的时间与精力来从事员工福利制度设计与管理工作。许多企业在制定与实施福利制度时较少考虑员工的反应。例如，有些企业为了降低福利费用，采用灵活的福利制度，或将部分福利管理工作外包给其他公司，而不考虑员工是否满意。许多欧美学者认为，企业管理人员在制定与实施福利制度时必须考虑员工的反应。他们的实证研究表明，员工对福利的满意度会直接影响企业福利制度的效果。 二、员工福利满意度理论研究概述 20世纪60年代以来，西方企业管理学界对员工薪酬理论进行了大量的研究。然而，企业管理学者却较少研究员工福利理论。在现有文献中，欧美学者主要从福利的激励作用、员工对福利计划的理解和偏好、福利与员工薪酬满意度的关系、员工的福利满意度等方面研究员工福利理论。美国学者威盛顿(Barton I。．Weathington)和坦切克(I。ois E．Tetrick)指出，企业管理学界在员工福利这个领域的研究成果存在以下不足：(1)许多学者实际上是研究员工的薪酬满意度或工作满意度，而不是研究员工的福利；(2)大多数学者只研究福利对员工的影响，却忽视各类福利对员工工作态度和工作行为的影响；(3)企业管理理论研究人员主要从企业的角度来研究福利制度，却很少考虑员工对福利的态度。近年来，西方企业管理学界逐渐加强了对员工福利满意度的研究。 I．员工福利满意度的计量 1985年，美国学者赫尼曼(Herbert G．Heneman)和希沃布(Donald P．Schwab)编制了一个由18个计量项目组成的“员工薪酬满意度”量表(pay satisfaction questionnaire，简称PSQ)。他们采用以下四个项目来计量员工的“福利满意度”： (1)员工对整套福利的满意度； (2)员工对企业支付的福利费用数额的满意度； (3)员工对福利价值的满意度； (4)员工对福利类别的满意度。 许多欧美企业管理学者在实证研究中把员工的福利满意度作为薪酬满意度的一个组成成分，采用PSQ量表计量员工的福利满意度。 现在，许多欧美学者对员工的福利满意度进行更深入的研究。不少学者认为员工福利满意度是一个多维概念。美国学者戴恩霍(Carol Danehower)与勒斯特(John A．I．ust)指出，员工的福利满意度应包括员工对企业支付的福利费用与企业为他们提供的整套福利的质量的满意度。他们设计了一个由11个项目组成的员工福利满意度量表(benefit satisfaction ques—tionnaire，简称BSQ)，从上述两个方面来计量员工的福利满意度。他们的一系列实证研究支持员工的福利满意度是一个二维概念的结论。然而，他们也发现BSQ量表中的某些项目不能很好地计量员工对福利质量的满意度。因此，他们对BSQ量表进行了适当的修改，又增加了两个项目，并于1995年对美国某大学的2 815位员工进行了问卷调查。他们的数据分析结果表明，新的BSQ量表中的13个项目分别属于员工对福利质量的满意度、对福利费用的满意度、对福利信息的满意度三个维度。他们根据数据分析结果，指出员工的福利满意度是一个复杂的多维概念。但是，加拿大学者特兰布雷(Michel Tremblay)等人的实证研究结果并不支持戴恩霍和勒斯特的观点。他们发现，员工的福利满意度是一个单维概念。美国学者米塞利(Marcia P．Miceli)和雷恩(Matthew C．Lane)把员工福利满意度分为两类：一类是员工对福利水平的满意度，它受员工感觉中“应该得到”与“实际得到”的福利之差的影响；另一
零售企业营销策略中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)
译文： 零售企业的营销策略 Philip Kotlor 今天的零售商为了招徕和挽留顾客，急欲寻找新的营销策略。过去，他们挽留顾客的方法是销售特别的或独特的花色品种，提供比竞争对手更多更好的服务提供商店信用卡是顾客能赊购商品。可是，现在这一切都已变得面目全非了。现在，诸如卡尔文·克连，依佐和李维等全国性品牌，不仅在大多数百货公司及其专营店可以看到，并且也可以在大型综合商场和折扣商店可以买到。全国性品牌的生产商为全力扩大销售量，它们将贴有品牌的商品到处销售。结果是零售商店的面貌越来越相似。 在服务项目上的分工差异在逐渐缩小。许多百货公司削减了服务项目，而许多折扣商店却增加了服务项目。顾客变成了精明的采购员，对价格更加敏感。他们看不出有什么道理要为相同的品牌付出更多的钱，特别是当服务的差别不大或微不足道时。由于银行信用卡越来越被所有的商家接受，他们觉得不必从每个商店赊购商品。 百货商店面对着日益增加的价格的折扣店和专业商店的竞争，准备东山再起。历史上居于市中心的许多商店在郊区购物中心开设分店，那里有宽敞的停车场，购买者来自人口增长较快并且有较高收入的地区。其他一些则对其商店形式进行改变，有些则试用邮购盒电话订货的方法。超级市场面对的是超级商店的竞争，它们开始扩大店面，经营大量的品种繁多的商品和提高设备等级，超级市场还增加了它们的促销预算，大量转向私人品牌，从而增加盈利。 现在，我们讨论零售商在目标市场、产品品种和采办、服务以及商店气氛、定价、促销和销售地点等方面的营销策略。 一、目标市场 零售商最重要的决策时确定目标市场。当确定目标市场并且勾勒出轮廓时，零售商才能对产品分配、商店装饰、广告词和广告媒体、价格水平等作出一致的决定。如沃尔玛的目标市场相当明确：
会计外文文献翻译
原文题目：《评述教育会计专业》作者：迈克尔卡夫金原文出处：School of Accounting and Finance, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia 会计教育会计教育。一般来说，从业者似乎已不愿想改变 - 要离开自己的舒适区 - 慢，并已承认在与伦理，环境恶化，全球化相关的地区更广泛的社会问题所提出的问题，增加业务的复杂性和其他一些因素我写我的一些挫折（卡夫金，1981 年）和左新西兰追求我在澳大利亚的学习和职业生涯。我后来成为澳大利亚的主要会计机构教育委员会主席。在这种角色我曾与新西兰身体的教育委员会的领导组织，并得到非常积极的态度，他们与澳大利亚的机构都对促进更“圆”大学会计教育方案（其中大部分出自从业者，学者的鼓励！）。最近在新西兰旅行，我一直很失望，观察什么似乎是一个这样做的目的完全逆转; 重点放在，由新西兰的专业团体，纯粹的技术能力，他们迫使大学遵守这一点 - 复仇的bean 柜台？什么也令人失望对我来说是由学术带头人的决心明显缺乏，使专业团体的“决定”什么通行证作为会计教育法规，如会计死记硬背。我观察到有什
么事我当作一个高级学者讨好自己的专业机构，而不是促进学科发展，将在二十一世纪更广泛的社会需要的知识要点。因此，我的评论是针对试图界定什么是专业会计师 - 毫无疑问，很多人可能不同意。我的目的是展示合作的重要性，而不是怀疑和无知的需要和应具有什么样的会计专业的各个部分努力。我并不想冒犯各位同事，而是试图提供一个什么样的我的看法是会计面临的问题和强调纪律，前进的方向，通过所有这些谁认为，在解决方案协助资讯科技合作是批判极大的社会问题。从业人员有一个会计的执业类别广泛的业余爱好，所以任何评论，我所做的非常广泛的推广。传统上，从业者已被注册会计师，会计师或公共部门私营会计师，但随着业务的日益复杂和商业机构在最近的时代，这些分类的界线变得越来越模糊。即使是会计师有与大，往往跨国公司，会计师事务所有关人士，并在小企业非常不同的具体利益与每个人 - 财务顾问，财务报表编制，税务顾问或核数师。然而，有票面21,2 172 学术的角度来看，一般来说，从业者似乎是什么学术可疑。显然不是所有从业者觉得这种方式，有的已经布满学术界
本科毕业论文（设计） 外文翻译 外文题目Earnings Management under German GAAP versus IFRS 外文出处 European Accounting Review 外文作者 Tendeloo, B.V., and Vanstraelen, A 原文： Earnings Management under German GAAP versus IFRS Abstract This paper addresses the question whether voluntary adoption of International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) is associated with lower earnings management. Ball et al. (Journal of Accounting and Economics, 36(1–3), pp. 235–270, 2003) argue that adopting high quality standards might be a necessary condition for high quality information, but not necessarily a sufficient one. In Germany, a code-law country with low investor protection rights, a relatively large number of companies have chosen to voluntarily adopt IFRS prior to 2005. We investigate whether German companies that have adopted IFRS engage significantly less in earnings management compared to German companies reporting under German generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP), while controlling for other differences in earnings management incentives. Our sample, consisting of German listed companies, contains 636 firm-year observations relating to the period 1999–2001. Our results suggest that IFRS-adopters do not present different earnings management behavior compared to companies reporting under German GAAP. These findings contribute to the current debate on whether high quality standards are sufficient and effective in countries with weak investor protection rights. They indicate that voluntary adopters of IFRS in Germany cannot be associated with lower earnings management. 1. Introduction The International Accounting Standards (IAS), now renamed as International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS), have been developed to harmonize corporate accounting practice and to answer the need for high quality standards to be adopted in
会计欺诈外文翻译文献 (文档含中英文对照即英文原文和中文翻译) 译文： 会计欺诈和机构投资者 查得·R·拉森介绍美国资本市场依赖财务报告系统来帮助有效分配资本。最近的财务报告过程中故障在许多高调公司新的人员的监管机构,会计欺诈和市场参与者的兴趣。两个重要的经验规律的文献记录极端操纵收益的决定因素和后果。首先,股票市场反应的启示会计处理显著负面。估计下降公告后的市场价值会计操作范围从20 - 40%( Palm rose、理查德森和 2003李,和马丁2007)。第二,会计操作是可预测的。文献会计操作的文档可以预测的措施准确的质量、会计性能、非金融变量声明和股市变量(如,Beneish 1999;Dechow,通用电气,拉尔森和斯隆2007)。虽然会计操作导致重大投资损失和与公司相关的特点和性能,几乎没有证据表明存在成熟的投资者是否能够避免损失与会计欺诈。 机构投资者已成为市场的重要力量在过去的几十年。上世纪八十年代初到九十年代末,机构投资者所有权翻倍,股市50%以上(龚帕斯和Metric时,2001)。机构投资者在美国市场存在的上
升有意义的促使文献调查他们是否执行是有利可图的交易。文献的结果是喜忧参半。几项研究文档积极变化之间的相互关系,这些机构投资者的资产和未来的收益和回报,这表明机构通知交易员(如，柯和2005;阿里列弗,确认我也承认泰德?克里斯坦森的指导,没有它我就不会了博士学位的挑战。最后,我感谢我的家人的支持。没有这篇论文的完成并不意味着几乎一样多。 介绍美国资本市场依赖财务报告系统来帮助有效分配资本。最近的财务报告过程中故障在许多高调公司新的人员监管机构,会计欺诈和市场参与者的兴趣。两个重要的经验规律的文献记录极端操纵收益的决定因素和后果。首先,股票市场反应的启示,会计处理显著负面。估计下降公告后的市场价值会计操作范围从20 - 40%(Palm rose、理查德森和朔尔茨2003;Karpo_,李,和马丁2007)。第二,会计操作是可预测的。文献会计操作的文档可以预测的措施,合格的质量、会计性能、非金融变量声明和股市变量(如,Beneish 1999;Dechow,通用电气,拉尔森和斯隆2007)。虽然会计操作导致重大投资损失和与公司相关的特点和性能,几乎没有证据表明存在成熟的投资者是否能够避免损失与会计欺诈。 机构投资者已成为市场的重要力量在过去的几十年。从八十年代初到九十年代末,机构投资者所有权翻倍,股市50%以上(。机构投资者在美国市场存在的上升促使文献调查他们是否执行有利可图的交易。文献的结果是喜忧参半。几项研究文档积极变化之间的相互关系,这些机构投资者的资产和未来的收益和回报,这表明机构通知交易员(如。、柯和Ramalingegowda 2005;柯和Petron 2004;阿里Dutch列弗,Trembles 2004)。另一方面,一些文献表明,知情交易可能更有限,发现性能优越的共同基金很少持续(Carat 1997;布朗一个曼1995年)和交易考虑通知可能只是动量交易的结果(Bushee和古德曼,2007)。会计欺诈和大市场的可预测性与会计欺诈相关的损失表明,它是一个理想的设定检查成熟的机构投资者。如果机构投资者拥有优越的信息和复杂的会计信息的使用者对会计欺诈,他们应该在欺诈上市公司公开披露前欺诈。我的主要研究问题是机构投资者预期会计欺诈的启示和剥离的股票欺诈公司公开披露之前骗子。作为一个次要的研究问题,我检查是否机构作为有效的公司监控预防欺诈。我使用的会计、审计和执行版本(AAER)涉及欺诈和会计操作作为一个代理第一新闻文章Factiva提及会计违规的公众披露欺诈。我检查机构交易模式在322年企业,美国证券交易委员会(SEC)中标识执行行动从1982年到2005年有操纵会计收益。我的分析是在两个阶段进行。第一阶段是本文分析聚合机构公司级和欺诈检查他们的交易行为。第二阶段是一个阶段分析,利用机构投资者之间的异构性,欺诈行为检查他们的交易行为。公司的分析,我遵循Bushee(2001)组织机构分为三类根据自己的投资风格:瞬态和专用。多元化的投资组合和较低的投资组合营业额机构的特点。多样化的投资组合,投资组合交易描述瞬态高机构,和高度集中的投资组合和较低的投资组合营业额专门机构的特点。符合文学之前,我希望发现瞬态机构最有可能发起有利交易欺诈启示的预期和机构不大可能发起有利益可得交易欺诈的预期启示我没有强烈的专门机构研究预测通常找到贸易基于即将到来的未来事件。然而,欺诈是一个独特的设置可能导致专门机构剥离他们的位置。如果专门机构投资公司基于他们的信心的和意愿完整性管理、检测欺诈行为会引起专门机构剥离他们的股份。此外,由于专门机构的特点是高度的投资组合,他们可能会有更大比例的投资组合风险欺诈是否
文献信息 文献标题：Active Ageing, Pensions and Retirement in the UK（英国的积极老龄化、养老金和退休） 文献作者：Liam Foster 文献出处：《Journal of Population Ageing》,2018,11(2):117-132 字数统计：英文3829单词，20396字符；中文6752汉字 外文文献 Active Ageing, Pensions and Retirement in the UK Abstract The ageing population has led to increasing concerns about pensions and their future sustainability. Much of the dominant policy discourse around ageing and pension provision over the last decade has focussed on postponing retirement and prolonging employment. These measures are central to productive notions of ‘active ageing’. Initially the paper briefly sets out the pension developments in the UK. Then it introduces active ageing and active ageing policy, exploring its implications for UK pension provision. It demonstrates that a more comprehensive active ageing framework, which incorporates a life-course perspective, has the potential to assist the UK to respond to the challenges of an ageing population. In doing so it needs to highlight older people as an economic and social resource, and reduce barriers to older people’s participation in society. Keywords: Active ageing, Extending working lives, UK, Longevity, Pensions Introduction The world’s population is ageing. The number of people aged 65 or older worldwide is projected to grow from 524 million in 2010 to nearly 1.5 billion in 2050 (World Health Organisation 2012). The age-based dependency ratio is also changing: in Europe there are four people of working age for every person over 65 and by 2060 there will be only two (European Commission 2010). In the UK it is estimated that the
顾客满意策略与顾客满意营销 原文来源：《Marketing Customer Satisfaction 》自20世纪八十年代末以来, 顾客满意战略已日益成为各国企业占有更多的顾客份额, 获得竞争优势的整体经营手段。 一、顾客满意策略是现代企业获得顾客“货币选票”的法宝随着时代的变迁, 社会物质财富的极大充裕, 顾客中的主体———消费者的需求也先后跨越了物质缺乏的时代、追求数量的时代、追求品质的时代, 到了20世纪八十年代末进入了情感消费时代。在我国, 随着经济的高速发展,我们也已迅速跨越了物质缺乏时代、追求数量的时代乃至追求品质的时代, 到今天也逐步迈进情感消费时代。在情感消费时代, 各企业的同类产品早已达到同时、同质、同能、同价, 消费者追求的已不再是质量、功能和价格, 而是舒适、便利、安全、安心、速度、跃动、环保、清洁、愉快、有趣等,消费者日益关注的是产品能否为自己的生活带来活力、充实、舒适、美感和精神文化品位, 以及超越消费者期望值的售前、售中、售后服务和咨询。也就是说, 今天人们所追求的是具有“心的满足感和充实感”的商品, 是高附加值的商品和服务,追求价值观和意识多元化、个性化和无形的满足感的时代已经来临。 与消费者价值追求变化相适应的企业间的竞争, 也由产品竞争、价格竞争、技术竞争、广告竞争、品牌竞争发展到现今的形象竞争、信誉竞争、文化竞争和服务竞争, 即顾客满意竞争。这种竞争是企业在广角度、宽领域的时空范围内展开的高层次、体现综合实力的竞争。它包括组织创新力、技术创新力、管理创新力、产业预见力、产品研发力、员工向心力、服务顾客力、顾客亲和力、同行认同力、社会贡献力、公关传播沟通力、企业文化推动力、环境适应力等等。这些综合形象力和如何合成综合持久的竞争力, 这就是CSft略所要解决的问题。CS寸代,企业不再以“自己为中心”,而是以“顾客为中心”；“顾客为尊”、“顾客满意”不再是流于形式的口号, 而是以实实在在的行动为基础的企业经营的一门新哲学。企业不再以质量达标, 自己满意为经营理念, 而是以顾客满意, 赢得顾客高忠诚度为经营理念。企业经营策略的焦点不再以争取或保持市场占有率为主, 而是以争取顾客满意为经营理念。因此, 营销策略的重心不再放在竞争对手身上而是放在顾客身上, 放在顾客现实的、潜在的需求上。当企业提供的产品和服务达到了顾客事先的期望值, 顾客就基本满意；如果远远超越顾客的期望值, 且远远高于其他同行, 顾客才真正满意；如果企业能不断地或长久地令顾客满意, 顾客就会忠诚。忠诚的顾客不仅会经常性地重复购买, 还会购买企业其它相关的产品或服务；忠诚的顾客不仅会积极向别人推荐他所买的产品, 而且对企业竞争者的促销活动具有免疫能力一个不满意的顾客会将不满意告诉16-20个人, 而每一个被告知者会再传播给12-15个人。这样, 一个不满意者会影响到二、三百人。在互联网普及的今天, 其影响则更大。据美国汽车业的调查, 一个满意者会引发8笔潜在的生意, 其中至少有一笔会成交。而另一项调查表明, 企业每增加5%的忠诚顾客, 利润就会增长25%-95%。一个企业的80%的利润来自20%的忠诚顾客；而获取一个新顾客的成本是维持一个老顾客成本的6倍。所以,美国著名学者唐?佩 珀斯指出: 决定一个企业成功与否的关键不是市场份额, 而是在于顾客份额。 于是, 企业纷纷通过广泛细致的市场调研、与消费者直接接触、顾客信息反馈等方式来了解顾客在各方面的现实需求和潜在需求。依靠对企业满意忠诚的销售、服务人员, 定期、定量地对顾客满意度进行综合测定, 以便准确地把握企业经营中与“顾客满意” 目标的差距及其重点领域, 从而进一步改善企业的经营活动。依靠高亲和力的企业文化、高效率的人文管理和全员共同努力, 不断地向顾客提供高附加值的产品, 高水准的亲情般的服
成本核算过程中的问题及策略 1.成本核算过程中存在的问题 1.1成本核算不精确 成本核算就是把产品的成本数据提供给企业的决策层，让决策层根据现实的真实情况进行分析定位，假设成本核算出现了较严重的错误，可想而知，将对企业未来的收益会产生致命的打击。但是，现实情况是，一些企业在进行成本核算很模糊，在没有保证企业的预期收益时就对产品进行了不合理的市场定价。 2.企业对成本核算没有足够的重视 成本核算对企业经营利润有着重要影响。在企业的正常经营情况下，企业的财务对成本核算出现错误的概率越小，对企业利润核算越精确。但是，企业要进行成本核算的工作量大、流程复杂；技术性较强，要求也比较苛刻；所以，企业财务人员在进行成本核算的过程中，牵涉的人比较多，这些诸多因素都使成本核算成为一项不太简单的实践操作工作。在企业的成本核算中，很多企业的财务人员对企业的成本核算不太重视，在核算过程中，出现了微小的误差，觉得没有太大的关系，造成企业利润核算的不正确。 1.3没有采用适合企业自身发展的成本核算方法 在市场经济条件下，每个企业都有每个企业独特的特点，应该针对各个企业的生产经营特点，选择合适的成本核算方法。但是，现阶段，一部分企业在明确成本核算对象之后没有选择一个科学的、切合企业实际的成本核算方法对企业成本进行科学核算。这种现象在中小型企业尤其普遍。 2.加强企业成本核算管理途径 2.1提高企业管理者的成本管理意识 在现代的经济形势下，只有企业的领导者和全体员工对成本控制有了足够的重视，才可以使成本核算的工作在企业顺利全面展开。但是在当今知识经济时代，企业财务管理者没有意识到成本核算和控制在企业经济管理中的重要性，只进行简单的算账、报账，对支出的成本详细计算，对自身成本不进行认真核算；只重视产品售后的核算，不重视产品售出和售出中的控制；只依靠会计人员的数据报表，不关注市场的发展动态；那么只会导致他们对成本核算方法改进的忽视，让企业的成本核算管理工作越来越差。因此，要提高企业全体人员的成本意识，改
企业会计准则外文翻译文献 (文档含英文原文和中文翻译) 外文： On February 15, 2006, the Ministry of Finance issued 1 item of basic accounting standards and 38 specific guidelines, the new set of accounting standards system. Standards issued, the community gave wide attention, the securities industry, business circles, academic circles gave height the opinion, think this is the second in 1993 accounting reform after another is of great significance to the accounting reform, marking China's convergence with international financial reporting standards of enterprise accounting standards system formally established, to improve the China's socialist market economic system, improve the level of opening up and accelerate China's integration into the global economy has important significance. Also expressed their concerns and worries, mainly reflected in the following aspects: a fair value is difficult to "fair", and is very likely to become the profit manipulation tools; two is the enterprise may to adjust earnings manipulation debt restructuring, debt restructuring will once again become the darling of the securities market; three is the new standard published may induce "fair" phenomenon, which
2012届本科毕业设计（论文） 开题报告 题目企业会计诚信问题的思考 学院商学院 专业会计 班级10行管专升本 学号103010098 姓名华牡娟 指导教师宋夏云 开题日期2011年11月5日
企业会计诚信问题的思考 一、选题的背景与意义 “会计”一词，远在大约公元前1100 年到公元前770 年之间的西周时代就已经出现了。据史书记载，我国古代有为王朝服务的会计，有专职官吏专司其事。春秋时代的孔子就曾经当过管会计的委吏。据考证，会计在当时的基本涵义是：既有日常的零星核算，又有年终伊总核算，月计岁会。后来有人总结为“零星算之为计，总合算之为会”。把“会”与“计”两个字联起来，就成为总核算与零星核算的一个综合体了。 现代会计是商品经济的产物。14、15世纪，由于欧洲资本主义商品货币经济的迅速发展，促进了会计的发展。其主要标志：一是利用货币计量进行价值核算；二是广泛采用复式记帐法，从而形成现代会计的基本特征和发展基石。 20世纪以来，特别是第二次世界大战结束后，资本主义的生产社会化程度得到了空前的发展，现代科学技术与经济管理科学的发展突飞猛进。受社会政治、经济和技术环境的影响，使传统的财务会计不断充实和完善，使财务会计核算工作更加标准化、通用化和规范化。与此同时，会计学科在20世纪30年代成本会计的基础上，紧密配合现代管理理论和实践的需要，逐步形成了为企业内部经营管理提供信息的管理会计体系，从而使会计工作从传统的事后记账、算账、报账，转为事前的预测与决策、事中的监督与控制、事后的核算与分析。管理会计的产生与发展，是会计发展史上的一次伟大变革，从此，现代会计形成了财务会计和管理会计两大分支。 随着现代化生产的迅速发展，经济管理水平的提高，电子计算机技术广泛应用于会计核算，使会计信息的搜集、分类、处理、反馈等操作程序摆脱了传统的手工操作，大大地提高了工作效率，实现了会计科学的根本变革。 现在在市场经济条件下，要求市场交易双方必须遵守诚实信用原则，使竞争作用正常发挥，维持一切公平交易的秩序，使市场行为字平等的基础上进行。由于会计工作是向国家、社会和企业的各个方面提供信息的工作，因此其“诚信”水平显得尤为重要。所谓会计诚信，包含两个方面的含义，一是行为人在进行会计处理时的态度诚实，二是行为人在提供会计信息时的信守承诺，遵守会计法，会计准则和制度。会计诚信是企业法人、会计师事物所、中介机构、证券分析师和会计人员等的行为准则之一，如同社会个人的道德规范，它的作用不
养老保险外文翻译文献 (文档含中英文对照即英文原文和中文翻译) 原文： Reintroducing Intergenerational Equilibrium: Key Concepts behind the New Polish Pension System Abstract Poland adopted a new pension system in 1999. This new pension system allows Poland to reduce pension expenditure (as a percent of GDP), instead of increasing it as is projected for the majority of other OECD countries. This paper presents the conceptual background of the new system design. The new system’s long-term bjective is to ensure intergenerational equilibrium irrespective of the demographic situation. This requires stabilisation of the share of GDP allocated to the entire retired
generation. Traditional pension systems aim, instead, at stabilisation of the share of GDP per retiree. The change in demographic structure observed over the past for a couple of decades and this historic attempt to stabilise the share of GDP per retiree led to severe fiscal problems and negative externalities for growth, as observed in numerous countries. Many countries have tried to reform their pension systems in different ways to try to resolve the issue of these ever-increasing costs. Although the Polish reform uses a number of techniques applied elsewhere, its design differs from the typical approaches –and the lessons and results are promising for all OECD countries. This paper presents the theoretical and practical application of this alternative approach and as such, the key features of the new Polish pension system design. Introduction Demographic transition together with myopic policies has caused severe problems in the area of pensions in many countries around the world. Elements of traditional pension systems’ design include a weak link of benefits to contributions and the lack of control over costs of the system. Inclusion of these elements in the pension system design led to the explosion of costs, caused negative externalities for growth and contributed to persistently high unemployment. As such, the quest for pension reform is now on the top of policy agendas around the world, and especially in Europe. However, very few countries have been able to introduce fundamental reforms in the area of pensions to this time. In this case, the definition of reform is crucial. For the purposes of this paper, “reform” means changing t he system in order to remove tructural inefficiencies – and not just playing at the margins with contribution rates a nd retirement ages to adjust the system’s parameters for short-term fiscal and political reasons.Traditional pension systems have proven to be inefficient in providing societies with social security. At