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章节的介绍英文作文英文：Chapter introduction is an important part of any book or academic text. It provides readers with a brief overview of what they can expect to find in the chapter and helps them decide whether or not to continue reading. In this essay, I will discuss the importance of chapter introductions and provide some examples of effective ones.Firstly, chapter introductions serve as a roadmap for readers. They provide a clear outline of what will be covered in the chapter, which helps readers to understand the structure of the text and how the different sections relate to each other. This is especially important in academic texts, where readers need to be able to navigate complex arguments and ideas.Secondly, chapter introductions can be used to hook readers and make them interested in reading further. A goodintroduction should grab the reader's attention and make them curious about what comes next. This can be achieved through the use of anecdotes, quotes, or provocative statements.Finally, chapter introductions can be used to set the tone for the chapter. Depending on the subject matter, the tone of the introduction can be serious, humorous, or somewhere in between. This helps to create a sense of continuity throughout the text and makes it more engaging for readers.In conclusion, chapter introductions are an important part of any book or academic text. They provide readers with a roadmap, hook them in, and set the tone for the chapter. Good introductions can make the difference between a reader continuing to read or putting the book down.中文：章节介绍是任何书籍或学术文本的重要部分。

研究数据、分析、结论、观点和本文的其他内容仅仅是作者的产品。

无论是汽车工程师协会(SAE)还是美国汽车研究委员会(USCAR)都不会出具任何证明某些产品符合基本要求的证书，也不会对本文内容的准确性和适用性作任何介绍.确定本文内容是否适用于自己的目的，完全是本文用户责任。

版权 2004, USCAR 美国印刷版权所有有关本文件的问题：（724） 772—8545 传真 (724)776—0243要订购文件: （724） 776—4970 传真（724） 776—0790图5.1。

5:A－方法1 毫伏导线附件也许可能发生这样的情况：被连接的电气部件或设备本身不能承受与它们所连接的连接器能够承受的试验。

在这种情况下，必须获取设备的连接器插座（容器）部分的样品。

然后执行试验需要的连接并进行密封。

为了测试对插端的完整性，设备中的漏洞需要密封。

这样的对设备的修改是适当的，但必须形成文件体现在测试报告中。

在任何情况下如果发生偏离正常试验性能规格的情况，应当向授权人咨询并且必须得到他的认可。

5。

1.6 端子样品准备用来试验的端子是指用推荐的制造工具机械压接好导线的端子。

根据各自的端子类型和线径规格，压接尺寸物理特性和机械拉脱力必须在规定的容许公差范围内。

在单独的试验程序中，如果没有其他特殊说明，导线的导体部分和绝缘体部分都要压接。

如果适用，使用适当的电线密封件。

按照制造商推荐的装配标准装配绝缘替代类型的端子.当试验具有对插端的端板类型的连接器时，只需准备插座连接器样品（参考5。

1.5部分）。

记录具有代表性的每一批端子样品的压接高度和压接宽度（不包括绝缘替代类型的端子),并且为了跟踪和后期验证的需要对样品进行编号.根据SAE/USCAR-21：电线到端子的电气压接性能标准，端子的压接状况应该被试验和验证。

表5.1.9。

3 电路监控的通用方式说明：如果有实际经验，建议用“X"方式（所示孔位）图表5。

1.9。

UNIT 9 Section OnePart 1 Spot DictationCelebrations in Australia, Asia Ring in 2010One of the first major cities to celebrate the beginning of 2010 was Sydney, Australia. More than a million people gathered along the Sydney harbor to watch the city's annual fireworks show, set to booming rock music.Hours before midnight people arrived at Harbor Bridge to stake out good seats for the 12-minute display. This year's show involved more than 5,000 kilograms of explosive devices.Other cities around Asia and the Pacific region celebrated with fireworks, such as Kuala Lumpur and Hong Kong.In other places people marked the New Year without fireworks. Millions in Japan prayed at shrines for good fortune in 2010. In Seoul, South Korea, a giant bell was rung.In China's capital, signs around Beijing cautioned not to light fireworks within the heart of the city on New Year's Eve.This did not seem to bother Beijing residents, who say the Lunar New Year is their traditional time to celebrate with fireworks. This year that holiday is in mid-February.Many young people were at bars and clubs in Beijing until the early hours of the morning. Still others had to work on New Year's Eve. As late-nightrevelers waited in the cold for a scarce cab, two men unloaded a truck at a bakery on Worker's Stadium Road. One of them said he hoped for good health for his parents in the New Year. His coworker said he hoped to spend the Lunar New Year with family at his home in nearby Shandong province.Part 2 Listening for GistUnlike air travel, which is regulated internationally, rail travel is in many cases controlled nationally. The degree of safety of rail travel is therefore highly variable from country to country, depending on the degree of regulation and the quality of regulation in the country concerned. In Britain and the United States rail passenger deaths work out at an average of less than 10 rail passenger deaths per year. Unfortunately, the rail passenger deaths per year statistics in the less developed parts of the world are considerably higher than the rail passenger deaths per year statistics are in the western world. In the UK over the last 25 years, there has been an average of one train accident for every million miles run. Because individual trains carry such a large number of passengers compared with the number of passengers carried in cars, buses and planes, this actually means that the degree of risk is, comparatively, one which is almost non-existent. By far the greatest cause of railway accidents is human error, either in controlling or responding to signals. Recentimprovements in the numbers of accidents are in large measure due to the introduction of automatic and computerized signaling equipment. Radio communication systems between drivers and control centers have also proved influential in reducing accidents. With the continuing development of radio communication systems and automatic signaling systems we can look forward to further reductions in what are already impressively low accident rates.Directions: Listen to the passage and write down the gist and the key words that help you decide.1. This passage is aboutrail travel safety.2. The key words are highly variable. degree and quality of regulation: Britain and the United States. Less than 10 rail passenger deaths per year: less developed parts. Higher: UK. Last 25 years. One train accident for every million miles run: cause. Human error: automatic. Computerized signaling. Radio communication systems. Reduce accidents.Section Two Listening Comprehension Part 1 DialogueAdolescenceInterviewer: So, you say Eric's what you'd consider pretty strict but pretty fair? So, for example, when he tells you to do something.Jora: Well, he's strict and I get angry when he doesn't want me to do stuff.But afterwards I can almost always see why he said it, y'know? Interviewer: Yeah.Jora: And there's only a couple of incidents where, well, that were totally, y'know, that I didn't understand at all.Interviewer: Hmm. Not a bad record.Eric: No. Vh, 'cos I'm sure I've made some mistakes.Interviewer: Is ... how would you compare your mom? Is she less strict than your dad?Jora: Mm-hmm. Well, she's less strict, but it's, it's like I can't win, y'know? The stuff that my dad's not strict about, my mom's strict about, and· the stuff that my mom's not strict about, my dad is. And, well, like my dad doesn't let me see PG-13* or R movies, but my mom does. She, well, she rents R-rated* movies, and lets me watch them and all, but my dad won't even let me see PG-13.Eric: Well, uh, that's not really true. It depends on what it is. My rule with PG-13 is either I've had to have seen it first or, you know, talked to someone who I trust ... who's seen it.Interviewer: So, your mom's looser about movies. Uh, what's she stricter about?Jora: Chores, junk food, buying me specific things -Interviewer: When you say buying you things, do you mean-Jora: Like when we go to the store.Interviewer: She doesn't want to pay for them?Jora: She doesn't want to pay for things. She wants me to buy my own friends' presents, you know, stuff like thatInterviewer: So, do you get an allowance?Jora: Yeah, I do.Interviewer: So, Jora, what do you think about your dad? Do you think he's a pretty good dad? I mean, how does he compare with your friends' fathers?Jora: Urn, my dad is very strict, but he's ... he's .. , he's pretty good. He ... he's very nice and he lets me do just enough so I don't get too angry.Directions: Listen to the dialogue and decide whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F).l.T 2. T 3. F 4. T 5. T 6.F 7. T 8. TPart 2 PassageA Brief History of BankingWhen did the first banks appear? The first bankers lived more than 2,000 years ago. They were money changers, situated usually at a table or in a small shop in the commercial district, aiding travelers who came to the town by exchanging foreign coins for local money or discounting commercial notes for a fee in order to supply merchants with workingcapital. The first bankers probably used their own capital to fund their activities, but it wasn't long before the idea of attracting deposits and securing temporary loans from wealthy customers became an important source of bank funding. Loans were then made to merchants, shippers, and landowners, at rates of interest as low as 6 percent per annum to as high as 48 percent a month for the riskiest ventures! Most of the early banks of any size were Greek in origin. The banking industry gradually spread outward from the classical civilizations of Greece and Rome into northern and western Europe. Banking encountered religious opposition during the Middle Ages, primarily because loans made to the poor often carried high interest rates. However, as the Renaissance began in Europe, the bulk of bank loans and deposits involved relatively wealthy customers, which helped to reduce religious opposition to banking practices. The development of new overland trade routes and improvements in navigation in the 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries gradually shifted the center of world commerce from the Mediterranean region toward Europe and the British Isles, where bankingbecame a leading industry. The Industrial Revolution demanded a well-developed financial system. In particular, the adoption of mass production methods required a corresponding expansion in global trade to absorb industrial output, requiring new methods for making payments and credit available. Banks that could deliver on these needs grew rapidly.The early banks in Europe were places for safekeeping of valuable items (such as gold and silver bullion) as people came to fear loss of their assets due to war, theft, or expropriation by government. In England during the reigns of Henry VIII and Charles I, government efforts to seize private holdings of gold and silver resulted in people depositing their valuables in goldsmiths' shops, who, in turn, would issue tokens* or certificates, indicating that the customer had made a deposit at these businesses. Soon, goldsmith tokens or certificates began to circulate as money because they were more convenient and less risky to carry around. The goldsmiths also offered certification of value services - what we today might call property appraisals*. Customers would bring in valuables to have an expert certify that these items were indeed real and not fakes - a service many banks still provide their customers. When colonies were established in North and South America, Old World banking practices were transferred to the New World. As the 19th century began, state governments in the United States began chartering* banking companies. The development of large, professionally managed banking firms was centered in a few leading commercial centers, especially New York. The federal government became a major force in US banking during Civil War.A: Pre-listening Question A bank is, actually, a business organization, usually a limited company, which trades mainly in money, receiving and holding deposits and paying sums out of them by order of the customer,lending money at interest, discounting bills of exchange, moving from one place to another, acting as customer's agent in buying and selling securities, serving as trustee or executor, and performing various extra services for customers, e.g. arranging travel and insurance and advising on tax and investment.B: Sentence Dictation Direction: Listen to some sentences and write them down. You will hear each sentence three times.1. Situated usually at a table or in a small shop in the commercial district, the bankers aided travelers who came to the town by exchanging foreign coins for local money.2. It wasn't long before the idea of attracting deposits and securing temporary loans from wealthy customers became an important source of bank funding.3. The banking industry gradually spread outward from the classical civilizations of Greece and Rome into northern and western Europe.4. The early banks in Europe were places for safekeeping of valuable items as people came to fear loss of their assets due to war, theft, or expropriation by government.5. As the 19th century began, the development of large, professionally managed banking firms was centered in a few leading commercial centers, especially New York.C: Detailed Listening Directions: Listen to the passage and choose thebest answer to each of the following questions. l. B 2. A 3. C 4. D 5. D 6. A 7. C 8. BD: After-listening Discussion Directions: Listen to the passage again and discuss the following questions. The early banks in Europe were places for safekeeping of valuable items (such as gold and silver bullion) as people came to fear loss of their assets due to war, theft, or expropriation by government. In England during the reigns of Henry VIII and Charles I, government efforts to seize private holdings of gold and silver resulted in people depositing their valuables in goldsmiths' shops, who, in turn, would issue tokens or certificates, indicating that the customer had made a deposit at these businesses. Soon, goldsmith tokens or certificates began to circulate as money because they were more convenient and less risky to carry around. The goldsmiths also offered certification of value services - what we today might call property appraisals. Customers would bring in valuables to have an expert certify that these items were indeed real and not fakes - a service many banks still provide their customers.News Item 1Greenland Ice Sheet冰盖，冰原A US Space Agency study finds that Greenland is melting around the edg es. The loss to the world's second largest ice sheet - more than 50 cubic kilometers per year - is enough to raise global sea level by 0.13 millimeters. NASA scientist Bill Krabill says the data indicates a process of change th at does not immediately threaten coastal regions."The more important thing is to consider it as a signal of global climate c hange and to monitor it in case it starts to accelerate."Eighty-five percent of Greenland is covered by ice and is more accessible for scientific study than Antarctica, which is under the world's largest ice sheet."Greenland, the way it's positioned - much more north south, and the sout hern tip of Greenland protrudes into the more temperate* latitudes* - it m ay react much quicker to global climate change than Antarctica does." A: Directions: Listen to the news item and complete the summary.This news item is about the rapid thinning of the ice sheet on Greenland. B: Directions: Listen to the news again and decide whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F).1.F2.F3.T4.T5.TNews Item 2 Cooling AntarcticaA new study says Antarctica, the southernmost continent, has cooled mea surably in recent years. The findings are a departure from global trends th at show significant warming during the last century.University of Chicago Professor Pete~ Doran monitors the pulse* of Antarctica. He and other researchers have plotted* climate trends in the region . They are working with data from weather stations in Antarctica's Dry Va lleys, a perpetually snow-free, mountainous zone, and from stations acros s the continent.Their records show a decrease by 0.7 degrees Celsius per decade in the Dry Valleys since 1986 and a similar cooling trend across the continent si nce 1978.Doran said, "Antarctica is somewhat isolated climatologicallybecause there is a big ocean current* that constantly circles around the co ntinent and actually sort of isolates it, and that's what makes it cold. And, that may be a factor in why we are seeing Antarctica cooling is that slight disconnect from the rest of the globe, and it's not behaving in the same wa y."A: Directions: Listen to the news item and complete the summary.This news item is about the result of a new study that suggests Antarctic c ooling.B: Directions: Listen to the news again and answer the following question s.1. A new study says Antarctica, the southernmost continent, has cooled m easurably in recent years.2. Professor Peter Doran and other researchers have plotted climate trends in the region.3. Antarctica's Dry Valleys is a perpetually snow-free, mountainous zone.4. The records show a decrease by 0.7 degrees Celsius per decade in the Dry Valleys since 1986 and a similar cooling trend across the continent si nce 1978.5. There is a big ocean current that constantly circles around the continent , so Antarctica is somewhat isolated from the rest of the globe, and does n ot behave in the same way.News Item 3 Climate ChangeThe UN study predicts global temperatures will increase by nearly six degrees Celsius during this century. It says this will lead to increased flooding, drought, a rise in sea levels, and other climatic effects. What’s more, it says all regions of the world will suffer adverse effects of climate change. The panel's co-chairman, James McCarthy, says some plant and mammals will be irreversibly damaged; others will become extinct.Mr. McCarthy says millions of people will be made homeless in low-lying countries such as Bangladesh because of sea level rise. Some islands will disappear completely. Economic losses will be incalculable In addition, the report says crop and water loss will lead to more famine in dry areas of the world, such as Africa.A: Directions: Listen to the news item and complete the summary Thisnews item is about a study report on the dangers of global warming.B: Directions: Listen to the news again and complete the following outline. Global Warming Global temperatures increaseA. Global temperatures will increase by nearly six degrees Celsius/6°C. II. Unfavorable effectsA. Increased flooding, drought with crop and water lossa. Some plants and mammals will be irreversibly damaged or become extinct.b. More famine in dry areas of the world, such as Africa.B. A rise in sea levels, and other climatic effectsa)Millions of people will become homeless in low-lying countries such as Bangladesh.b)Some islands will disappear completely.c)Economic losses will be incalculable.Section Four Supplementary ExercisesSection Four Part 1 Feature ReportNew Data Show Ice Loss in Greenland Accelerating Without an agreement that reduces climate changing emissions, coastal communities around the world are at risk of rising sea levels. New data confirm the Greenland ice sheet is losing mass at an accelerating rate. The calculations, based on state-of-the-art satellite observations combinedwith computer models of Greenland's changing icescape, are further evidence, scientists say, of the impact of global warming. The calculations are considered the most reliable to date because they combine data from the twin Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment satellites, known as GRACE, with computer models of Greenland's changing icescape. GRACE detects alterations in gravity caused by reductions in the ice sheet. But the calculations do not tell scientists what is causing the ice cap to shrink, says Michiel van den Broeke, a professor of polar meteorology at Utrecht University in the Netherlands. Van den Broeke and colleagues created a model he says indicates the formation of icebergs and melting ice play equal roles in reducing the size of the Greenland Ice Sheet.The study by van den Broeke and colleagues traces the beginning of Greenland's ice loss to 1996. Some experts believe if current trends continue, global sea levels will rise by a meter or more by the end of the century. Steve Nerem, a professor of aerospace engineering sciences at the University of Colorado in Boulder says that is why it is important to refine predictions of what the Greenland Ice Sheet is going todo.If the entire Greenland ice sheet were to melt, Nerem says it contains enough water to cause a global sea-level rise of seven meters. For low-lying countries to prepare, Nerem says, scientists need to know howquickly the Greenland ice mass is melting."If the meter in sea level rise were to happen very rapidly, say in 50 years, it will be very hard to build the infrastructure, you know the dykes – and the other things to hold back the water – quickly enough to prevent the inundation that would occur with a meter of sea-level rise. If it were to take hundreds of years, then that would probably be enough time for populated areas to build the protections that they need to combat this."A: Directions: listen to the news report and complete the summary. This news report is about the Greenland ice sheet losing mass at an accelerating rate.B: Directions: listen to the news report again and answer the following questions.1. Coastal communities around the world are at risk of rising sea levels.2. GRACE stands for Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment.3. Because they combine data from the twin Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment satellites, known as GRACE, with computer models of Greenland's changing icescape.4. The formation of icebergs and melting ice play equal roles in reducing the size of the Greenland Ice Sheet.5. Nerem says it contains enough water to cause a global sea-level rise of seven meters.Part 2 passagePandasThe giant pandas' prospects are better now than in the recent past. New insights into behavior, diet and physiology offer hope that we may be able to protect and breed these animals more effectively.Pandas are exceedingly elusive. Pandas are natural vagrants, unsociable and eccentric. There has been considerable debate over the evolution of pandas. Some experts have thought that they descended from raccoons*. Others believe they share a common ancestor with the bear, but evolved independently.The animals could once be found in much of southern and eastern China, as well as parts of Southeast Asia. And though the panda's range has steadily shrunk, its habits are unaltered. The panda's routine is indeed a bum's life, spent wandering from one bad meal to another and bedding down in the nearest dark corner. Although pandas can swim and climb trees, they spend most of their time seeking out and chewing bamboo. Pandas have been known to eat chicken and honey when bamboo is in short supply. But in the wild, bamboo is their primary fare. And because it is such a poor source of nutrition and hard for them to digest, pandas must eat prodigious amounts. Pandas consume about 30 pounds of bamboo a day. On this monotonous diet, they attain weights of up to 250pounds.They make a variety of sounds: bleating, chirping, huffing, snorting and even barking like a dog if startled. At about age five, the female, smaller than the male, will moan, signaling she is receptive. Her call is often answered by as many as three or four males.In late August or September, after a gestation period estimated at 90 to 160 days, the female gives birth. Her litter often consists of two mouse-size newborns covered in sparse white hair, through which their pink skin shows. But she is likely to focus on a single cub - not necessarily the healthier - and let the other die. The baby is cared for in a cave or hollow tree that the female has lined with bamboo twigs. The mother assumes sole responsibility for the cub, nursing it often during the first six months. She guards her infant closely, carrying it in her paw or teeth. Not until it is 18 months old is her offspring*, by then almost 100 pounds heavier, ready to live on its own.A female can conceive only two or three days a year. Because she takes18 months to rear her offspring, she will reproduce only once every two years.The most promising hope for the panda's future seems to be the increased efforts by the Chinese government. Public concern for the welfare of pandas has been heightened by stiff penalties for poaching.So we can, perhaps, begin to dream again of a future with the pandas,born in the wild or returned there after birth, full-furred giants wandering and occasionally meeting deep in the verdant tangles of bamboo. We may never see them, but it is rewarding to think the pandas will be there, for these captivating creatures clearlyhold a special place in our hearts.A: Pre-listening Question Do you know how long the panda will live in the wild or in the zoo?It is said that a panda in the wild will live around 25 while in the zoo it might live much longer. It is reported that the panda, Mei-mei, in Guilin Zoo died nearly at the age of 37, the longest life of the panda that has ever been recorded.B: Sentence Dictation Directions: Listen to some sentences and write them down. You will hear each sentence three times.New insights into behavior, diet and physiology offer hope that we may be able to protect and breed these animals more effectively. Although pandas can swim and climb trees, they spend most of their time seeking out and chewing bamboo. They make a variety of sounds: bleating, chirping, huffing, snorting and even barking like a dog if startled. The mother assumes sole responsibility for the cub, nursing it often during the first six months, and guarding her infant closely. We may never see them, but it is rewarding to think the pandas will be there, for these captivating creatures clearly hold a special place in our hearts.C: Detailed ListeningDirections: Listen to the passage and choose the best answer to complete each of the following sentences.1.C2.A3.D4.A5.B6.D7.A8.BD: After-listening Discussion Directions: Listen to the passage again and discuss the following questions.1.Pandas are natural vagrants, unsociable and eccentric. Some expertshave thought that they descended from raccoons. Others believe they share a common ancestor with the bear. The animals could once be found in much of southern and eastern China, as well as parts of Southeast Asia. The panda's routine is indeed a bum's life, spent wandering from one bad meal to another and bedding down in the nearest dark corner. Although pandas can swim and climb trees, they spend most of their time seeking out and chewing bamboo. Pandas have been known to eat chicken and honey when bamboo is in short supply. They make a variety of sounds: bleating, chirping, huffing, snorting and even barking like a dog if startled.2.open。

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c u l a r l a n g u a g e r e g i s t e r s,e t c.⏹M a n y l i n g u i s t s d o n o t l i k e t h e t e r m‗s t y l i s t i c s‘.T h e w o r d‗s t y l e‘,i t s e l f,h a s s e v e r a l c o n n o t a t i o n s t h a t m a k e i t d i f f i c u l tf o r t h e t e r m t o b e d e f i n e d a c c u r a t e l y.⏹I n a d d i t i o n,s t y l i s t i c s i s a d i s t i n c t i v e t e r m t h a t m a y b e u s e d t od e t e r m i n e t h e c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e f o r m a n d e f f e c t sw i t h i n a p a r t i c u l a r v a r i e t y o f l a n g u a g e.⏹T h e s c o p e i s s o m e t i m e s n a r r o w e d t o c o n c e n t r a t e o n t h e m o r e s t r i k i n gf e a t u r e s o f l i t e r a r y l a ng u a g e,f o r i n s t a n c e,i t s‗d e v i a n t‘a n d a b n o r m a lf e a t u r e s,r a t h e r t h a n t h e b r o a d e r s t r u c t u r e s t h a t a r e f o u n d i n w h o l e t e x t so r d i s c o u r s e s.⏹F o r e x a m p l e,t h e c o m p a c t l a n g u a g e o f p o e t r y i s m o r e l i k e l y t o r e v e a l t h es e c r e t s o f i t s c o n s t r u c t i o n t o t h e s t y l i s t i c i a n t h a n i s t h e l a n g u a g e o f p l a y sa n d n o v e l s.L e v e l s o f a n a l y s i s⏹S o u n d e f f e c t s⏹V o c a b u l a r y⏹P h r a s e o l o g y⏹G r a m m a r⏹I m p l i c a t u r e2.F o r e g r o u n d i n g⏹T h e1960d r e a m o f h i g h r i s e l i v i n g s o o n t u r n e d i n t o an i g h t m a r e.⏹F o u r s t o r e y s h a v e n o w i n d o w s l e f t t o s m a s hB u t i n t h e f i f t h a c h i p p e d s i l l b u t t r e s s e sM o t h e r a n d d a u g h t e r t h e l a s t m i s t r e s s e sO f t h a t b l a c k b l o c k c o n d e m n e d t o s t a n d,n o t c r a s h.T h e r e d-h a i r e d w o m a n,s m i l i n g,w a v i n g t o t h e d i s a p p e a r i n gs h o r e.S h e l e f t t h e m a h a r a j a h;s h e l e f t i n n u m e r a b l e o t h e r l i g h t s o‘p a s s i n g l o v e i n t o w n s a n d c i t i e s a n d t h e a t r e s a n d r a i l w a ys t a t i o n s a l l o v e r t h e w o r l d.B u t M e l c h i o r s h e d i d n o t l e a v e.2.1W h a t i s‗f o r e g r o u n d i n g‘?⏹I n a p u r e l y l i n g u i s t i c s e n s e,t h e t e r m‗f o r e g r o u n d i n g‘i s u s e d t o r e f e r t o n e w i n f o r m a t i o n,i n c o n t r a s t t o e l e m e n t s i n t h es e n t e n c e w h i c h f o r m t h e b a c k g r o u n d a g a i n s t w h i c h t h e n e w e l e m e n t s a r e t o b e u n d e r s t o o d b y t h e l i s t e n e r/r e a d e r.⏹I n t h e w i d e r s e n s e o f s t y l i s t i c s,t e x t l i n g u i s t i c s,a n d l i t e r a r ys t u d i e s,i t i s a t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e C z e c h a k t u a l i s a c e(a c t u a l i z a t i o n),a t e r m c o m m o n w i t h t h e P r a g u eS t r u c t u r a l i s t s.⏹I n t h i s s e n s e i t h a s b e c o m e a s p a t i a l m e t a p h o r:t h a t o f a f o r e g r o u n da n d ab ac k g r o u n d,w h i c h a l l o w s t h e t e r m t o b e r e l a t ed t o i s s ue s i np e r c e p t i o n p s y c h o l o g y,s u c h a s f i g u r e/g r o u n d c o n s t e l l a t i o n s.⏹T h e E n g l i s h t e r m‗f o r e g r o u n d i n g‘h a s c o m e t o m e a n s e v e r a l t h i n g s a t o n c e:⏹t h e(p s y c h o l i n g u i s t i c)p r o c e s s e s b y w h i c h-d u r i n g t h e r e a d i n g a c t-s o m e t h i n g m a y b e g i v e n s p e c i a l p r o m i n e n c e;⏹s p e c i f i c d e v i c e s(a s p r o d u c e d b y t h e a u t h o r)l o c a t e d i n t h e t e x t i t s e l f.I t i s a l s o e m p l o y e d t o i n d i c a t e t h e s p e c i f i c p o e t i c e f f e c t o n t h er e a d e r;⏹a n a n a l y t i c c a t e g o r y i n o r d e r t o e v a l u a t e l i t e r a r y t e x t s,o r t o s i t u a t et h e m h i s t o r i c a l l y,o r t o e x p l a i n t h e i r i m p o r t a n c e a n d c u l t u r a ls i g n i f i c a n c e,o r t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e l i t e r a t u r e f r o m o t h e r v a r i e t i e s o fl a n g u a g e u s e,s u c h a s e v e r y d a y c o n v e r s a t i o n s o r s c i e n t i f i c r e p o r t s.⏹T h u s t h e t e r m c o v e r s a w i d e a r e a o f m e a n i n g.⏹T h i s m a y h a v e i t s a d v a n t a g e s,b u t m a y a l s o b e p r o b l e m a t i c:w h i c h o f t h e a b o v e m e a n i n g s i s i n t e n d e d m u s t o f t e n b ed e d u c e d f r o m t h e c o n t e x t i n w h i c h t h e t e r m i s u s e d.2.2D e v i c e s o f F o r e g r o u n d i n g⏹O u t s i d e l i t e r a t u r e,l a n g u a g e t e n d s t o b e a u t o m a t i z e d;i t ss t r u c t u r e s a n d m e a n i n g s a r e u s e d r o u t i n e l y.⏹W i t h i n l i t e r a t u r e,h o w e v e r,t h i s i s o p p o s e d b y d e v i c e s w h i c ht h w a r t t h e a u t o m a t i s m w i t h w h i c h l a n g u a g e i s r e a d,p r o c e s s e d,o r u n d e r s t o o d.⏹G e n e r a l l y,t w o s u c h d e v i c e s m a y b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d,d e v i a t i o na n d p a r a l l e l i s m.⏹D e v i a t i o n c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e t r a d i t i o n a l i d e a o f p o e t i c l i c e n s e: t h e w r i t e r o f l i t e r a t u r e i s a l l o w e d-i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e e v e r y d a y s p e a k e r-t o d e v i a t e f r o m r u l e s,m a x i m s,o r c o n v e n t i o n s.⏹T h e s e m a y i n v o l v e t h e l a n g u a g e,a s w e l l a s l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n s o re x p e c t a t i o n s s e t u p b y t h e t e x t i t s e l f.⏹T h e r e s u l t i s s o m e d e g r e e o f s u r p r i s e i n t h e r e a d e r,a n d h i s/h e ra t t e n t i o n i s t h e r eb y d r a w n t o t h e f o r m o f t h e t e x t i t s e l f(r a t h e r t h a nt o i t s c o n t e n t).⏹C a s e s o f n e o l o g i s m,l i v e m e t a p h o r,o r u n g r a m m a t i c a l s e n t e n c e s,a sw e l l a s a r c h a i s m s,p a r a d o x,a n d o x y m o r o n(t h e t r a d i t i o n a l t r o p e s)a r e c l e a r e x a m p l e s o f d e v i a t i o n.⏹D e v i c e s o f p a r a l l e l i s m a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y r e p e t i t i v es t r u c t u r e s:(p a r t o f)a v e r b a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n i s r e p e a t e d(o rc o n t r a s t e d),t h e r e b y b e i n g p r o m o t ed i n t o t hef o r eg r o u n d o ft h e r e a d e r's p e r c e p t i o n.⏹T r a d i t i o n a l h a n d b o o k s o f p o e t i c s a n d r h e t o r i c h a v e s u r v e y e d a n dd e s c r i b e d(u n d e r t h e c a t e g o r y o f f i g u r e s o f s p e e c h)a w i d e v a r i e t y o fs u c h f o r m s o f p a r a l l e l i s m,e.g.,r h y m e,a s s o n a n c e,a l l i t e r a t i o n,m e t e r, s e m a n t i c s y m m e t r y,o r a n t i s t r o p h e.3.L i t e r a l l a n g u a g e a n d f i g u r a t i v e l a n g u a g e⏹F r i e n d s,R o m a n s a n d C o u n t r y m e n,l e n d m e y o u r e a r s…A n t h o n y i n S h a k e s p e a r e‘sJ u l i u s C a e s a r 3.1S i m i l eO,m y l u v e i s l i k e a r e d,r e d r o s e,T h a t‘s n e w l y s p r u n g i n J u n e;O,m y l u v e i s l i k e t h e m e l o d i eT h a t‘s s w e e t l y p l a y‘d i n t u n e.R o b e r t B u r n s(1759-96)3.2M e t a p h o rA l l t h e w o r l d‘s a s t a g e,A n d a l l t h e m e n a n d w o m e n m e r e l y p l a y e r s;T h e y h a v e t h e i r e x i t s a n d t h e i r e n t r a n c e s.A n d o n e m a n i n h i s t i m e p l a y s m a n y p a r t s,H i s a c t s b e i n g s e v e n a g e s…W i l l i a m S h a k e s p e a r e(1564-1616)3.3M e t o n y m yT h e r e i s n o a r m o u r a g a i n s t f a t e;D e a t h l a y s h i s i c y h a n d o n k i n g s;S c e p t r e a n d C r o w nM u s t t u m b l e d o w nA n d i n t h e d u s t b e e q u a l m a d eW i t h t h e p o o r c r o o k e d S c y t h e a n d S p a d e.J a m e s S h i r l e y(1596-1666)3.4S y n e c d o c h e⏹T h e y w e r e s h o r t o f h a n d s a t h a r v e s t t i m e.(p a r t f o r w h o l e)⏹H a v e y o u a n y c o p p e r s?(m a t e r i a l f o r t h i n g m a d e)⏹H e i s a p o o r c r e a t u r e.(g e n u s f o r s p e c i e s)⏹H e i s t h e N e w t o n o f t h i s c e n t u r y.(i n d i v i d u a l f o r c l a s s)⏹N a m e t h e k i n d o f t r o p e:⏹T h e b o y w a s a s c u n n i n g a s a f o x.⏹...t h e i n n o c e n t s l e e p,...t h e d e a t h o f e a c h d a y's l i f e,...(S h a k e s p e a r e)⏹B u c k i n g h a m P a l a c e h a s a l r e a d y b e e n t o l d t h e t r a i n m a y b e a x e dw h e n t h e r a i l n e t w o r k h a s b e e n p r i v a t i s e d.(D a i l y M i r r o r,2F e b r u a r y 1993)⏹T e d D e x t e r c o n f e s s e d l a s t n i g h t t h a t E n g l a n d a r e i n a r i g h t o l d s p i na s t o h o w t h e y c a nb e a t I n d i a t h i s w i n t e r.(D a i l y M i r r o r,2F e b r u a r y1993)4.A n a l y s i s o f l i t e r a r y l a n g u a g e⏹F o r e g r o u n d i n g o n t h e l e v e l o f l e x i s⏹F o r e g r o u n d i n g o n t h e l e v e l o f s y n t a x:w o r d o r d e r,w o r dg r o u p s,d e v i a n t o r m a r k e d s t r u c t u r e s⏹R e w r i t i n g f o r c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d i e s⏹M e a n i n g⏹C o n t e x t⏹F i g u r a t i v e l a n g u a g e5.T h e l a n g u a g e o f p o e t r yL i t t l e B o-p e e pH a s l o s t h e r s h e e pA n d d o e s n‘t k n o w w h e r e t o f i n d t h e mL e a v e t h e m a l o n eA n d t h e y w i l l c o m e h o m eW a g g l i n g t h e i r t a i l s b e h i n d t h e mF a i r i s f o u l a n d f o u l i s f a i rH o v e r t h r o u g h w i n d a n d m u r k y a i rH a r k!T h e h e r a l d a n g e l s s i n gG l o r y t o t h e n e w b o r n K i n g!5.1F o r m s o f s o u n d p a t t e r n i n g⏹R h y m e⏹A l l i t e r a t i o n⏹A s s o n a n c e⏹C o n s o n a n c e⏹R e v e r s e r h y m e⏹P a r a r h y m e⏹R e p e t i t i o n⏹R h y m e:⏹t w o w o r d s r h y m e i f t h e i r f i n a l s t r e s s e d v o w e l a n d a l l f o l l o w i n gs o u n d s a r e i d e n t i c a l;⏹t w o l i n e s o f p o e t r y r h y m e i f t h e i r f i n a l s t r o n g p o s i t i o n s a r e f i l l e dw i t h r h y m i n g w o r d s.|Humpty |Dumpty |sat on a |wall|Humpty |Dumpty |had a great |fall|All the king‘s |horses and |all the king‘s |men|Couldn‘t put |Humpty to|gether a|gain⏹A l l i t e r a t i o n:r e p e t i t i o n o f t h e i n i t i a l c o n s o n a n t o f a w o r d⏹M a g a z i n e a r t i c l e s:―S c i e n c e h a s S p o i l e d m y S u p p e r‖a n d―T o oM u c h T a l e n t i n T e n n e s s e e?‖⏹C o m i c/c a r t o o n c h a r a c t e r s:B e e t l e B a i l e y,D o n a l d D u c k⏹R e s t a u r a n t s:C o f f e e C o r n e r,S u s h i S t a t i o n⏹E x p r e s s i o n s:b u s y a s a b e e,d e a d a s a d o o r n a i l,g o o d a s g o l d,r i g h ta s r a i n,e t c...⏹M u s i c:B l a c k a l i c i o u s'―A l p h a b e t A e r o b i c s‖⏹A s s o n a n c e:R e p e t i t i o n o f v o w e l s o u n d s t o c r e a t e i n t e r n a lr h y m i n g w i t h i n p h r a s e s o r s e n t e n c e s⏹T h e s o u n d o f t h e g r o u n d i s a n o u n.⏹H e a r t h e m e l l o w w e d d i n g b e l l s.(P o e)⏹A n d m u r m u r i n g o f i n n u m e r a b l e b e e s(T e n n y s o n)⏹T h e c r u m b l i n g t h u n d e r o f s e a s(S t e v e n s o n)⏹T h a t s o l i t u d e w h i c h s u i t s a b s t r u s e r m u s i n g s(C o l e r i d g e)⏹D e a d i n d a m i d d l e o f l i t t l e I t a l y,l i t t l e d i dw e k n o w t h a t w e r i d d l e d s o m e m i d d l e m e nw h o d i d n't d o d i d d i l y.(B i g P u n)⏹C o n s o n a n c e:T h e r e p e t i t i o n o f t w o o r m o r e c o n s o n a n t s u s i n gd i f fe r e n t v o w e l s w i t h i n w o r d s.⏹A l l m a m m a l s n a m e d S a m a r e c l a m m y⏹A n d t h e s i l k e n s a d u n c e r t a i n r u s t l i n g o f e a c h p u r p l e c u r t a i n(P o e)⏹p j e c t s m y p e d e c k,e j e c t s o j e c t i l e/W h e t h e r j e w o r g e n t i l eI n k o p r c e n t i l e.(H i p-h o p m u s i c)⏹R e v e r s e r h y m e:C V C⏹C o c a-C o l a;⏹S u c h s t o r m s c a n b r i n g y o u t o t h e b r i n k o f a l l y o u f e a rR e s t o r e w h a t f a i t h y o u c a n i n f a d e d h o p e s a n d f e e l⏹P a r a r h y m e(F r a m e r h y m e):C V⏹E a c h s t u r d y e d-l i k e s o l d i n t h e f i eW i t h f e a r m e f a c e s e l d o m s e e n d e f i⏹R i c h R h y m e:C V C⏹W h a t d o e s i t a v a i l y o u t o p r e v a i l i n e v e r y a f f a i rW h e n n o t h i n g y o u‘v e c a n b e r e a s s p i r i t u a l⏹R e p e t i t i o n:⏹―W o r d s,w o r d s,w o r d s.‖(H a m l e t)⏹―T h i s,i t s e e m e d t o h i m,w a s t h e e n d,t h e e n d o f a w o r l d a s h e h a dk n o w n i t...‖(J a m e s O l i v e r C u r w o o d)⏹―W e s h a l l f i g h t o n t h e b e a c h e s,w e s h a l l f i g h t o n t h e l a n d i n gg r o u n d s,w e s h a l l f i g h t i n t h e f i e l d s a n d i n t h e s t r e e t s,w e s h a l l f i g h ti n t h e h i l l s…w e s h a l l n e v e r s u r r e n d e r.‖(W i n s t o n C h u r c h i l l)⏹―W h a t l i e s b e h i n d u s a n d w h a t l i e s b e f o r e u s a r e t i n y c o m p a r e dt o w h a t l i e s w i t h i n u s.‖(R a l p h W a l d o E m e r s o n)5.2S t r e s s p a t t e r n i n g⏹I a m b:2s y l l a b l e s,u n s t r e s s e d+s t r e s s e d⏹T r o c h e e:2s y l l a b l e s,s t r e s s e d+u n s t r e s s e d⏹A n a p e s t:3s y l l a b l e s,2u n s t r e s s e d+s t r e s s e d⏹D a c t y l:3s y l l a b l e s,s t r e s s e d+2u n s t r e s s e d⏹S p o n d e e:2s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s⏹P y r r h i c:2u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s5.3M e t r i c a l p a t t e r n i n g⏹D i m e t r e:2f e e t⏹T r i m e t r e:3f e e t⏹T e t r a m e t r e:4f e e t⏹P e n t a m e t r e:5f e e t⏹H e x a m e t r e:6f e e t⏹H e p t a m e t r e:7f e e t⏹O c t a m e t r e:8f e e t5.4C o n v e n t i o n a l f o r m s o f m e t r e a n d s o u n d⏹C o u p l e t s:a p a i r o f l i n e s o f v e r s e,u s u a l l y c o n n e c t e d b y ar h y m e.I t c o n s i s t s o f t w o l i n e s t h a t u s u a l l y r h y m e a n d h a v et h e s a m e m e t e r.⏹W h a n t h a t A p r i l l e,w i t h h i s e s h o u r e s s o o t e,T h e d r o g h t e o f M a r c h h a t h p e r c e d t o t h e r o o t eA n d b a t h e d e v e r y v e y n e i n s w i c h l i c o u r,O f w h i c h v e r t u e n g e n d r e d i s t h e f l o u r;(f r o m G e o f f r e y C h a u c e r:C a n t e r b u r y T a l e s–G e n e r a l P r o l o g u e)⏹Q u a t r a i n s:S t a n z a s o f f o u r l i n e s⏹T y g e r!T y g e r!b u r n i n g b r i g h tI n t h e f o r e s t s o f t h e n i g h t,W h a t i m m o r t a l h a n d o r e y eC o u l d f r a m e t h y f e a r f u l s y m m e t r y?(f r o m W i l l i a m B l a k e,―T h e T y g e r‖)⏹B l a n k v e r s e:l i n e s i n i a m b i c p e n t a m e t r e w h i c h d o n o t r h y m eY e e l v e s o f h i l l s,b r o o k s,s t a n d i n g l a k e s a n d g r o v e s,A n d y e t h a t o n t h e s a n d s w i t h p r i n t l e s s f o o tD o c h a s e t h e e b b i n g N e p t u n e,a n d d o f l y h i mW h e n h e c o m e s b a c k;y o u d e m i-p u p p e t s t h a tB y m o o n s h i n e d o t h e g r e e n s o u r r i n g l e t s m a k eW h e r e o f t h e e w e n o t b i t e s;a n d y o u w h o s e p a s t i m eI s t o m a k e m i d n i g h t m u s h r o o m s,t h a t r e j o i c eT o h e a r t h e s o l e m n c u r f e w;b y w h o s e a i d,W e a k m a s t e r s t h o u g h y e b e,I h a v e b e d i m m e dT h e n o o n t i d e s u n,c a l l e d f o r t h t h e m u t i n o u s w i n d s,A n d't w i x t t h e g r e e n s e a a n d t h e a z u r e d v a u l tS e t r o a r i n g w a r-t o t h e d r e a d r a t t l i n g t h u n d e rH a v e I g i v e n f i r e,a n d r i f t e d J o v e's s t o u t o a kW i t h h i s o w n b o l t;...(f r o m S h a k e s p e a r e:T h e T e m p e s t,5.1)⏹S o n n e t:T h e t e r m―s o n n e t‖d e r i v e s f r o m t h e P r o v e nça l w o r d s o n e t a n d t h e I t a l i a n w o r d―s o n e t t o,‖b o t h m e a n i n g―l i t t l es o n g.‖B y t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y,i t h a d c o m e t o s i g n i f y ap o e m o f f o u r t e e n l i n e s t h a t f o l l o w s a s t r i c t r h y m e s c h e m e a n d s p e c i f i c s t r u c t u r e.⏹O n e o f t h e m o s t w e l l k n o w n s o n n e t w r i t e r s i s S h a k e s p e a r e,w h ow r o t e154s o n n e t s.⏹T h e p r o p e r r h y m e s c h e m e f o r a n E n g l i s h S o n n e t i s:a-b-a-b/c-d-c-d/e-f-e-f/g-gL e t m e n o t t o t h e m a r r i a g e o f t r u e m i n d s(a)A d m i t i m p e d i m e n t s,l o v e i s n o t l o v e(b)W h i c h a l t e r s w h e n i t a l t e r a t i o n f i n d s,(a)O r b e n d s w i t h t h e r e m o v e r t o r e m o v e.(b)O n o,i t i s a n e v e r f i x e d m a r k(c)T h a t l o o k s o n t e m p e s t s a n d i s n e v e r s h a k e n;(d)I t i s t h e s t a r t o e v e r y w a n d'r i n g b a r k,(c)W h o s e w o r t h's u n k n o w n a l t h o u g h h i s h e i g h t b e t a k e n.(d)L o v e's n o t t i m e's f o o l,t h o u g h r o s y l i p s a n d c h e e k s(e)W i t h i n h i s b e n d i n g s i c k l e's c o m p a s s c o m e,(f)L o v e a l t e r s n o t w i t h h i s b r i e f h o u r s a n d w e e k s,(e)B u t b e a r s i t o u t e v e n t o t h e e d g e o f d o o m:(f)I f t h i s b e e r r o r a n d u p o n m e p r o v e d,(g)I n e v e r w r i t,n o r n o m a n e v e r l o v e d.(g)(S h a k e s p e a r e's S o n n e t116)R O M E O:I f I p r o f a n e w i t h m y u n w o r t h i e s t h a n dT h i s h o l y s h r i n e,t h e g e n t l e f i n e i s t h i s:M y l i p s,t w o b l u s h i n g p i l g r i m s,r e a d y s t a n dT o s m o o t h t h a t r o u g h t o u c h w i t h a t e n d e r k i s s.J U L I E T:G o o d p i l g r i m,y o u d o w r o n g y o u r h a n d t o o m u c h,W h i c h m a n n e r l y d e v o t i o n s h o w s i n t h i s;F o r s a i n t s h a v e h a n d s t h a t p i l g r i m‘s h a n d s d o t o u c h,A n d p a l m t o p a l m i s h o l y p a l m e r‘s k i s s.R O M E O:H a v e n o t s a i n t s l i p s,a n d h o l y p a l m e r s t o o?J U L I E T:A y,p i l g r i m,l i p s t h a t t h e y m u s t u s e i n p r a y e r.R O M E O:O,t h e n,d e a r s a i n t,l e t l i p s d o w h a t h a n d s d o;T h e y p r a y,g r a n t t h o u,l e s t f a i t h t u r n t o d e s p a i r.J U L I E T:S a i n t s d o n o t m o v e,t h o u g h g r a n t f o r p r a y e r‘s s a k e.R O M E O:T h e n m o v e n o t,w h i l e m y p r a y e r‘s e f f e c t I t a k e.(f r o m S h a k e s p e a r e:R o m e o a n d J u l i e t)⏹F r e e v e r s e:s t y l e s o f p o e t r y t h a t a r e n o t w r i t t e n u s i n g s t r i c t m e t e r o rr h y m e,b u t t h a t s t i l l a r e r e c o g n i z a b l e a s p o e t r y b y v i r t u e o f c o m p l e xp a t t e r n s o f o n e s o r t o r a n o t h e r t h a t r e a d e r s w i l l p e r c e i v e t o b e p a r t o f ac o h e r e n t w h o l e.⏹T h e y e l l o w f o g t h a t r u b s i t s b a c k u p o n t h e w i n d o w-p a n e s,T h e y e l l o w s m o k e t h a t r u b s i t s m u z z l e o n t h e w i n d o w-p a n e sL i c k e d i t s t o n g u e i n t o t h e c o r n e r s o f t h e e v e n i n g,L i n g e r e d u p o n t h e p o o l s t h a t s t a n d i n d r a i n s,L e t f a l l u p o n i t s b a c k t h e s o o t t h a t f a l l s f r o m c h i m n e y s,S l i p p e d b y t h e t e r r a c e,m a d e a s u d d e n l e a p,A n d s e e i n g t h a t i t w a s a s o f t O c t o b e r n i g h t,C u r l e d o n c e a b o u t t h e h o u s e,a n d f e l l a s l e e p.(f r o m T.S.E l i o t:T h e L o v e S o n g o f J.A l f r e d P r u f r o c k)⏹L i m e r i c k s⏹T h e w o r d d e r i v e s f r o m t h e I r i s h t o w n o f L i m e r i c k.A p p a r e n t l ya p ub s o n g o r t a v e r nc h o r u s b a s ed o n t he r ef r a i n―W i l l y o uc o m e u p t o L i m e r i c k?‖w h e r e,o f c o u r s e,s u c h b a wd y s o n g s o r‗L i me r i c k s‘w e r e s u n g.⏹L i m e r i c k s c o n s i s t o f f i v e a n a p a e s t i c l i n e s.⏹L i n e s1,2,a n d5o f L i m e r i c k s h a v e s e v e n t o t e n s y l l a b l e s a n d r h y m ew i t h o n e a n o t h e r.⏹L i n e s3a n d4o f L i m e r i c k s h a v e f i v e t o s e v e n s y l l a b l e s a n d a l s or h y m e w i t h e a c h o t h e r.⏹V a r i a n t s o f t h e f o r m o f p o e t r y r e f e r r e d t o a s L i m e r i c k p o e m sc a n b e t r a c ed b a c k t o t hef o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y E ng l i sh hi s t o r y.⏹L i m e r i c k s w e r e u s e d i n N u r s e r y R h y m e s a n d o t h e r p o e m s f o rc h i ld re n.⏹B u t a s l i m e r i c k s w e r e s h o r t,r e l a t i v e l y e a s y t o c o m p o s e a n d b a w d yo r s e x u a l i n n a t u r e t h e y w e r e o f t e n r e p e a t e d b y b e g g a r s o r t h ew o r k i n g c l a s s e s i n t h e B r i t i s h p u b s a n d t a v e r n s o f t h e f i f t e e n t h,s i x t e e n t h a n d s e v e n t h c e n t u r i e s.⏹T h e p o e t s w h o c r e a t e d t h e s e l i m e r i c k s w e r e t h e r e f o r e o f t e nd r u n k a r d s!L i me r i c k s w e r e a l s o r ef e r r e d t o a s d i r t y.⏹L i m e r i c k p o e m s h a v e r e c e i v e d i n c r e d i b l y b a d p r e s s a n dd i s m i s se d a s n o t h a v i n g a r i g h tf u l p l a c e a m o ng s t wh a ti s s e e na s‗c u l t i v a t e d p o e t r y‘.T h e r e a s o n f o r t h i s i s t h r e e-f o l d:⏹T h e c o n t e n t o f m a n y l i m e r i c k s i s o f t e n o f a b a w d y a n d h u m o r o u sn a t u r e.⏹A L i m e r i c k a s a p o e t r y f o r m i s b y n a t u r e s i m p l e a n d s h o r t–l i m e r i c k s o n l y h a v e f i v e l i n e s.⏹A n d f i n a l l y t h e s o m e w h a t d u b i o u s h i s t o r y o f l i m e r i c k s h a v ec o n t r i b u t ed t o t he c r i t i c s a t t i t u d e s.L i m e r i c k s b y E d w a r d L e a r⏹T h e r e w a s a n O l d M a n w i t h a b e a r d,W h o s a i d,‗I t i s j u s t a s I f e a r e d!T w o O w l s a n d a H e n,F o u r L a r k s a n d a W r e n,H a v e a l l b u i l t t h e i r n e s t s i n m y b e a r d!‘⏹T h e r e w a s a Y o u n g L a d y w h o s e c h i n,R e s e m b l e d t h e p o i n t o f a p i n;S o s h e h a d i t m a d e s h a r p,A n d p u r c h a s e d a h a r p,A n d p l a y e d s e v e r a l t u n e s w i t h h e r c h i n.5.5T h e p o e t i c f u n c t i o n s o f s o u n d a n d m e t r e⏹A e s t h e t i c p l e a s u r e⏹C o n f o r m i n g t o a f o r m⏹E x p r e s s i n g/i n n o v a t i n g w i t h a f o r m⏹D e m o n s t r a t i n g s k i l l,i n t e l l e c t u a l p l e a s u r e⏹F o r e m p h a s i s o r c o n t r a s t⏹O n o m a t o p o e i a5.6T h e a n a l y s i s o f p o e t r y⏹I n f o a b o u t t h e p o e m:p o e t,p e r i o d,g e n r e,t o p i c,e t c.⏹S t r u c t u r e:l a y o u t,n u m b e r o f l i n e s,l e n g t h o f l i n e s,m e t r e, r h y m e s,s o u n d e f f e c t s,e t c.p l u s⏹g e n e r a l c o m m e n t o n t h e p o e m―E a s t e r W i n g s‖,b y G e o r g e H e r b e r t(1593—1663) L o r d,w h o c r e a t e d s t m a n i n w e a l t h a n d s t o r e,T h o u g h f o o l i s h l y h e l o s t t h e s a m e,D e c a y i n g m o r e a n d m o r e,T i l l h e b e c a m e M o s t p o o r e:W i t h t h e eO l e t m e r i s eA s l a r k s,h a r m o n i o u s l y,A n d s i n g t h i s d a y t h y v i c t o r i e s:T h e n s h a l l t h e f a l l f u r t h e r t h e f l i g h t i n m e.E.E.C u m m i n g s(1894-1962)l(al ea ff al ls)o n eli n e s sr-p-o-p-h-e-s-s-a-g-rw h oa)s w(e l o o)ku p n o w g a t hP P E G O R H R A S Se r i n g i n t(o-a T h e):le A!p:S a(rr I v I n G.g R r E a P s P h O s)t or e a(b e)r r a n(c o m)g i(e)n g l y,g r a s s h o p p e r;6.T h e l a n g u a g e o f f i c t i o n⏹F r o m r e a l i s m t o m o d e r n i s m6.1M o d e r n i s t l i t e r a t u r e⏹M o d e r n i s t l i t e r a t u r e i s d e f i n e d b y i t s m o v e a w a y f r o mR o m a n t i c i s m,v e n t u r i n g i n t o s u b j e c t m a t t e r t h a t i st r a d i t i o n a l l y m u n d a n e--a p r i m e e x a m p l e b e i n g T h e L o v eS o n g o f J.A l f r e d P r u f r o c k b y T.S.E l i o t.⏹M o d e r n i s t l i t e r a t u r e o f t e n f e a t u r e s a m a r k e d p e s s i m i s m,a c l e a rr e j e c t i o n o f t h e o p t i m i s m a p p a r e n t i n V i c t o r i a n l i t e r a t u r e.⏹A c o m m o n m o t i f i n M o d e r n i s t f i c t i o n i s t h a t o f a n a l i e n a t e di n d i v i d u a l--a d y s f u n c t i o n a l i n d i v i d u a l t r y i n g i n v a i n t o m a k e s e n s e o f a p r e d o m i n a n t l y u r b a n a n d f r a g m e n t e d s o c i e t y.⏹H o w e v e r,m a n y M o d e r n i s t w o r k s l i k e T.S.E l i o t's T h e W a s t e L a n da r e m a r k e db y t h e a b s e nc e o f a c e n t r a l,h e r o i c f i g u r e.。

UNIT 3CELEBRATIONS Lesson 3单词，课文预习一．词汇预先知一、单词——记其形1.somehow adv.不知怎的；不知为什么2.envelope n. 信封3.branch n. 树枝4.plate n. 盘；碟5.whisper vi.&vt. 低声说，低语6.roll vt. 使成筒形(球形)n. 一卷；面包卷7.wave vi.&vt. 挥手；招手8.affair n. 事件二、单词——知其意1.pole n. 地极，北/南极2.stuff vt. 给……填馅；填，塞p n. 大腿部4.frosty adj. 严寒的5.eve n. 前夕；前一天6.merry adj. 快乐的三、单词——通其变1.memory n.记忆，回忆→mem orise vt.记住2.slightly adv.略微，稍微→slight adj.轻微的；微小的3.patience n.耐心，耐力→patient adj.耐心的n.病人4.behaviour n.行为；举止→behave vt.& vi.举动；表现Ⅱ.核心短语1.in the middle of在……中间2.on the way 即将到来3.move in 搬来(和某人)一起居住4.make an effort to do sth 努力做某事5.over and over 再三地6.put up 搭起，建起7.fill...with... 用……填充……8.be full of 满满的……9.catch sb’s eye 遇到某人的目光，吸引某人的注意10.pass away 去世11.no longer 不再12.believe in 相信二．课文精研读I still remember the last Christmas Granny spent with us.It began in the middle of① November on a cold，windy day②.I remember the wind because Granny’s grey③ hair was a mess④ when she arrived.That was also theday Granny moved in ⑤.Somehow ⑥，at the time ，I did n’t know she was sick.Maybe I was too young ，maybe she hid it too well ，or maybe I was just too excited that Christmas was on the way ⑦.After Granny moved in ，she spent most of her time on the brown sofa by the fire.Sometimes she was quiet ，but she seemed happy.When I wrote a letter to Father Christmas ⑧ telling him about the presents I wanted ⑨，Granny made an effort to help me ⑩.Her hand was slightly shaky ⑪，but she wrote “Father Christmas ，the North Pole ”⑫ on the envelope ⑬.In December ，our excitement grew each day — lights appeared in the streets ，Christmas cards arrived ，and there was snow everywhere ⑭.Granny and I made sugar biscuits ⑮，stuffed ⑯ the turkey and then I sat on my granny’s lap ⑰ and we sang Christmas songs.My favourite song was Frosty the Snowman and I loved the bit that went “Thumpetythumpthump ，thumpetythumpthump ，look at Frosty go ！” Granny had patience ⑱ to sing it over and over again ⑲.On Christmas Eve ⑳，Grannytook a seat by the fire as we put up the Christmas tree ○21.I hung most of the decorations on the branches ○22.“That’s the most beautiful tree I’ve ever seen ，” ○23Granny said.Then she started singing ，“Oh ，Christmas tree ，oh ，Christmas tree ，you fill my heart with ○24 music...”Before bed ，Granny and I left a plate of ○25 sugar biscuits out for Father Christmas, and put a stocking ○26 at the end of ○27 my bed.I remember Granny sitting on my bed and singing softly ○28 until I fell asleep.My stocking was full of ○29 small toys and sweets on Christmas morning ，and there were presents under the tree.I was on my best behaviour ○30 as we opened the presents ○ter ，Granny called me over ○32.“I have something special ○33 for you ，” Granny whispered ○34.“It’s for all your treasures ○35.Merry Christmas.” It was a music box with a ballet dancer ○36 inside.After breakfast ，Auntie Kath and my cousin David arrived.While Mum ，Dad and Auntie Kath got lunch ready ，David and I played outside ，We raced around ○36 the garden and rolled ○38 a big snowball ○39 to make a lovely snowman.Granny stayed inside by the fire.I remember catching her eye ○40 through the window.“e outside ，Granny ，” I called ，but she just waved ○41.Lunch was late ，but it was a loud and exciting affair ○42.We put on silly paper hats and had a big turkey with potatoes ，followed by Christmas pudding ○43.David put so much pudding in his mouth that he couldn’t swallow . ○44“How’s the pudding ？” Granny asked.“Mmmph ，mmmph ，mmmph ，”said David.Auntie Kath didn’t think it was funny ，but the rest of us did.Granny laughed so much that her paper hat fell off ○45.A few weeks after that Christmas ，Granny passed away ○46.I think of her often though ，especially at Christmas.Each year ，I take out the music box she gave me ○47.Inside I keep Granny’s paper hat and the letter she helped me write that Christmas.Mum gave the letter back to me some years ago when I no longer ○48 believed in ○49 Father Christmas.When I think about what makes Christmas so magical ○50，it’s not just gifts and Father Christmas that e to mind ○51.It’s also my memory of Granny.Now I’m the one who makes sugar biscuits each year ，and I always make one ○52 in a Gshape —G for Granny.Step 4 Postreading —Please fill in the following blanks after reading the passage.I still remember the last Christmas Granny spent with us.After she moved in ，she 1.spent(spend) most of her time on the brown sofa 2.by the fire.When I wrote a letter to Father Christmas 3.telling (tell)him the presents I wanted ，Granny made 4.an effort to help me and her hand was slightly shaky while wr iting “Father Christmas ，the North Pole” on the envelope.In December ，with lights appearing in the streets and Christmas cards arriving ，our5.excitement (excite) grew each day.On Christmas Eve ，Granny took a seat by the fire as we put up the Christmas tree and hung the decorations.Seeing the beautiful tree ，Granny couldn’t help6.singing (sing) a song about Christmas tree.Before bed Granny sat on my bed and sang7.softly(soft) until I fell asleep.On Christmas Day morning ，I received many8.gifts (gift) including a music box with a ballet dancer inside from Granny.After breakfast we enjoyed a happy lunch together.However ，several weeks after that Christmas ，Granny passed9.away.I think of her often ，especially at Christmas.I think it is my memory of Granny 10.that makes Christmas magical. 三．随堂精训练一.根据英汉提示写出单词的适当形式1.As time goes by ，my memory (记忆力)seems to get worse.2.We could have pleted the task on schedule ，but somehow (不知为什么) we failed.3.Before you post the letter，you need to check the name and the address on the envelope (信封).4.He touched me with his finger，whispering (低声地说) to me in my ear，“The teacher is ing.”5.The gardener cut off many branches (树枝) from the tree.6.My mother would always wave(挥手)goodbye to me while I was leaving for school.7.Seeing his mother e into his bedroom，little Jack swallowed (吞下) the pudding quickly.8.It’s bad behaviour (behave) for a man to smoke in the public places where smoking is not allowed.9.His rudeness was beyond my patience (patient) and I wanted to leave.10.It was raining slightly(slight) when I arrived in Yangshuo just before dawn.二.单句语法填空1.The child was telling his mother something in a whisper in the corner.2.When the girl caught sight of her classmates，she stood up and waved to them excitedly.3.All night long，he lay in bed，thinking (think) of the problem.4.It was such hot weather yesterday that I didn’t feel like going shopping with my mother.5.The teacher is patient with the students who are weak in their studies.6.The head office of the bank is in Beijing，but it has branches (branch) all over the country.7.The couple gave a dinner party in memory of their silver wedding anniversary.8.Hofman’s inspiration for Floating Fish came from Chinese folk tales passed down from the generations.三.选词填空1.The people want a president they can believe in.2.Life is considered as a long journey which is full of troubles and joys.3.We can’t move in；the house is being painted at present.4.A beautiful girl passing by caught their eye when the four boys were wandering on the street.5.I could hardly fall asleep after finishing the science book.6.Tom’s being late over and over，his boss was very disappointed.7.She passed away peacefully in her sleep at the age of 96.8.Shanghai is no longer what it used to be 20 years ago.四.完成句子1.All of a sudden something red caught his eye.突然，一个红色的东西引起了他的注意。