Effects of shear band formation on texture development in
warm-rolled IF steels
Jonas, J.J.1
Source: Journal of Materials Processing Technology, v 117, n 3, p
293-299
影响温轧IF钢剪切带形的纹理发展
乔纳斯 杰杰奥
来源：材料加工技术杂志，2003年117卷，从293到299 页
1 导言
钢铁企业最近开始关心温轧（铁素体）轧制，因为它有可能扩大产品范围和降低热轧带钢成本。这些优势可能会影响各阶段的轧制过程，开始加热，其次是温轧，酸洗，冷轧。一些好处，可以实现在每一个阶段的处理列于表1 。带来的变化对产品性能的摘要列于表2 。
表1 优势能够实现通过实施温轧[ 1 ]
全尺寸表（ < 1000 ）
表2 改进产品性能归因于温轧[ 1 ]
全尺寸表（< 1000 ）
其他的好处在表1是相当明显的，硬度的影响因素，R值和老化性能概述在表2倒没有这么明显。因此，它这样做的简要单一的机制，影响了上述特性，并解释如何运作（或抑制）可能会导致改善R值和成形。
2 背景
据悉，一段时间[ 2 ]铁氧体变形略低于Ar3和Ar1温度实际上是弱于变形奥氏体以上Ar3温度。因而，变形的铁素体在温度下降到约700 °C时，在纯C钢和600 °C 时，在IF钢，并不涉及增加轧制负荷超过设计限制轧机的问题。虽然纯C和IF钢可随
时热烈推出，只有最新材料适用于现高R值，如表2所示。高R值反过来要求存在可取纹理退火组件，如（ 1 1 1 ）滚动平面纤维和（ 5 5 4 ） 2 2 5 [ 3 ] 。
最近的实验中[ 4 ， 5 ， 6和7 ] ，导致有所增加，但如何理解这些组成部分是可取的纹理形成（在IF钢）和为什么他们没有（在LC钢）。实验表明，重要的因素是存在（在LC钢）而（在IF钢）没有碳的解决方案的热轧制温度。碳在轧制的温度范围内引起动态应变时效（ DSA ），这是当时异常的高应变率敏感的特点适用于钢在温轧条件下轧制。高应变率从而抑制敏感性形成的剪切带中的铁素体。
显示的这些特点在温轧的显微冷轧IF钢已直接关系到在随后的退火中核的可取（ 1 1 1 ）纤维。相反，他们没有把温轧冷轧钢材与单一的纹理联系在一起开发[ 6 ] 。伴随着这一系列事件是一个相当复杂的过程，在这一系列的调查取得的成果，现在将总结和讨论。
2.1 实验材料
为了探讨如上所述，三种钢将会被检查，同成分显示在表3 。IF钢级别包含百万分之50 C和0.13 ％ Mn和稳定的0.084 ％钛。两种LC钢进行了研究，有百万分之140到160的C。一个典型的锰浓度的0.22 ％存在于前面的钢种，而第二种是一个非常低锰含量钢，只有0.009 ％。主要的区别是，LC等级是低锰含量铝镇静类型钢。
表3 钢成分（ wt. ％）
全尺寸表（< 1000 ）
2.2 滚动计划
最初钢热轧到厚度11毫米，然后气冷。从这些样本中，圆锥端标准应用于实验室准备的热轧。这两个LC等级加热到740摄氏度，然后冷却到轧制温度保温约7 ℃ /分钟。标准IF级加热到800 ℃之前轧制。锥形试样的使用意味着单道次轧制可以应用。这导致仿真带钢（关于急促的interpass次）说，被认为是更准确比替代扭转试验机，这是更适合于中厚板轧机模拟。进一步的细节实验轧制程序中提供参数。 [ 4 ，5和6 ] 。
2.3 金相结果
发生剪切带的液晶材料在700 °C的描绘图在图1a 表中。（在低锰变量获得类似结果。）只有少数几个带颗粒可以看出，并且联结本身是相当薄，短，这表明沿着他们的流动是迟缓的。这些“迟缓”联结是独一无二的对轧制温度超过550 °C的LC级别样
品。
完整大小的图片（15000 ）
图1 例子中剪切带材料热轧温度在700 °C到减少了65 ％的范围内[ 5 ] ：（a） LC钢; （ b ）
IF 钢。
上述特性形成强烈对比的是IF 钢的材料。这里的性质，是不受带轧制温度影响，这样700 °C带状插图例子在图b中对所有轧制温度是典型的。在这种显微图上，沿单个剪切带晶粒分界线的变位现象发生的剪切变形是明显的。分散的晶粒含有的剪切带是由点计算技术决定的[ 5 ]。由此产生的数据列于图 2 中，从中可以看出强度带，像它的性质，没有受到IF材料轧制温度的影响。在LC级别，然而，剪切带的强度是高度温度敏感的。上述性质是急剧下降的在进行400 °C以上温度轧制时。在温度超过450摄氏度，IF钢比LC等级包含更多的的剪切带，然而低于450 °C时，这种关系被颠倒过来。
图2 轧制温度对剪切带频率的影响[ 5 ]
2.4 纹理
2.4.1 轧制织构
变形纹理决定形式研究中是以上述的定向分布函数（ ODFs ）编号 [ 5 ] 来说明的。（这种类型的描述和介绍详细解释了上述参考。）所有的材质是典型的铁素体轧制，他们的特点是部分轧制方向（RD）纤维（含双向的1 1 0轴平行对于RD ），以及一个完整的正常的方向（ND）纤维（与双向有1 1 1方向对于ND）。虽然定性滚动纹理相似，LC钢铁在700摄氏度纹理明显具有较高的强度（或极大值）是意义重大的，这些将在以后的第三部分讨论。相比之下，IF钢整个轧制的温度范围内最大强度类似。
2.4.2 .退火纹理
一些例子显示的有规则的纹理在700 ° C退火后在图 3 中。很明显，轧制温度影
响在这里比直接轧后更大[ 6 ] 。这一点特别注意，IF钢在热暖和冷轧后ND纤维（ 1 1 1ND）是占主导地位的，而在LC级别，情况更为复杂。经过冷轧，再结晶织构组成ND 纤维和戈斯（（ 0 1 1 ） 1 0 0 ）的组成部分。相比之下，经过热轧，整个纹理变化对部分RD纤维从（ 0 0 1 ） 1 1 0至（ 1 1 2 ） 1 1 0 ，只有微不足道的戈斯和ND纤维强度。纹理转变远离ND纤维在最新情况下具有特别重要的意义，并会在下面有更详细考虑。
图3 φ2 = 45 ° ODF截面的纹理的LC和IF钢轧在70和700 ° C和退火700 ℃（强度级别2 ，3 ，
4 ，
5 ，等等）[
6 ]
3 讨论
很显然，上述结果显示两个LC和LC材料变形状态温度依赖性是非常不同的。特别是，轧制温度影响远远大于LC等级。可能的原因是将会在下面根据剪切带的性质和密度，纹理的特点来解释，和上述参数对r av影响，因此影响成型性能。
3.1 性质和密度剪切带
显然，从图 2，在温度低于400 ℃ ，LC钢带的弯曲程度远远（约50 ％，而不是25 ％）大于LF材料。至于更详细地讨论在以下，这可被视为产生的DSA特征前的材料，通过影响工作硬度和敏感性这种现象。相比之下，在热轧范围内，例如在500°C 以上，两个LC钢材弯曲程度下降到几乎为零，而颗粒的比例仍然含有带几乎不变的在IF样本中。这是有益的带的性质不同在两个类型的钢中。那些在冷轧LC钢中是相对强烈的，显然是因为强烈的流动趋势定位在这些溶质材料。在LF级，另一方面，带不仅不太常见，而且也更不激烈。
3.2 纹理特征
3.2.1 变形织构
这里的结果概括主要特点是显着清晰的热轧（ 700 ℃）纹理在LC钢中。这显示在参数[ 5 ]是由于相对缺乏剪切带这些样本。没有剪切带反过来有两个实际后果。其中之一是，有少颗粒分裂，第二个问题是，有更多的基质颗粒流转没有带，因为带的发生转让流（因此轮换）远离基质。相反，存在的带降低“终止纹理” （即ND纤维）的范围在基质中是发达的，因此降低了整体强度纹理[ 5 ] 。
清晰轧制织构对退火中产生的新颗粒的核有重要影响，特别是对的定位形成的颗
粒。通过这种方式，它有一个重大的影响对退火纹理。
3.2.2 退火纹理
如上所述变形纹理，LC等级轧制温度对退火纹理的影响远远的高于LF材料，在后
者，理想的ND纤维（ 1 1 1ND）是占主导地位的在所有轧制温度（见图 3 ）中。LC
纹理，另一方面，是和LF级别中的两种方式不同的在图3中，（ i ）在冷轧条件（如
70 ℃轧制）下，附加的戈斯组件（（ 0 1 1 ） 1 0 0 ）存在，（ ii ）在热轧条
件（例如700度轧制）下，ND纤维几乎完全不存在。。这就是为什么热轧钢和退火LC
钢有低r av值，因此不太适合比同样处理IF钢的深冲用途。
3.2.3 戈斯核和ND纤维组件
不同退火纹理现在联系着不同剪切带的密度和性质如上文所述。这种解释是基于以
下假设：
1.戈斯说，坚固的组成部分在LC退火材质70 ° C轧后（这是在没有其他物质在
热轧钢和退火LC钢中）出现是由这一部分核在附近的激烈运动，如严重剪切带;
2.被观察的ND纤维在LC70 ° C轧后退火纹理和IF钢中在所有条件下（这是在热
轧和退火LC钢种是不存在的），是由于核附近的剪切带温和强度;
3.热轧LC钢结构缺乏明显的剪切带结构用来解释这些材料退火后缺乏戈斯和ND纤
维。
3.3 R值的实验材料
r
值计算了所测的纹理，在参[ 4 ]中描述的更详细，一些典型的预测在图 4中提av
到。这里可以看出，冷轧和退火钢都估计r av值介于1.3至1.6;这是完全符合这些样品
存在的显示在图 3中的明确的ND纤维，相比之下，热轧和退火apr值有非常大的区别：
这些LC等级都低于0.5 ，而LF材料料仍然很高，大约1.5 。根据这里的先进观点，
低r av-值在热轧钢和退火LC钢的直接原因是轧后缺乏剪切带这些材料（并因此缺乏退火
中剪切带成核过程）。相反，可接受r av-值在热轧和退火IF钢中的直接原因是轧后存
在的剪切带和退火过程中剪切带的影响。
图4 计算rav-值的热轧和退火样品[ 4 ]
3.4 动态应变时效
SA是众所周知的发生在溶质C或N浓度时钢拉伸测试中，如在，在温
度范围200-350摄氏度[ 8 ]。这种现象存在其高峰时，间隙原子扩散匹配变位的速度。
DSA发生轧制条件下，如。温度范围必须增加到470-635 °C允许增长从10?2
到102 s?1。因此，热轧发生在温度高于DSA 峰值[ 9 ] 。流动应力的DSA影响有两个不同的应变率规则的显示在图 5中，从这些可以看出，敏感性是负面在低温峰值附近，更高度肯定比预期的在高温峰值以上。
图 5 示意图温度与数据流动应力应变率为2
高峰期的LC钢曲线是一个逻辑的DSA 。为了让此图适用于轧制条件下，必须理解的是较低的曲线适用于应变速率的大批材料，这是变形均匀。相比之下，上部（高应变率）曲线涉及到材料的一个潜在的剪切带。在m < 0温度范围内，潜在的剪切带将成为现成的剪切材料具有较低的流动应力比均匀变形的材料。这是因为移动脱位通过加速可以很容易地摆脱牵引阻力。相反，在温度范围内m是异常的高，剪切带可形成在所有条件中是非常困难的，这是因为更高的流动应力强调必须把移动有关的位错在DSA（即溶质相互作用）条件下。在温度范围内其中m有“正常”（纯金属）的价值，剪切带将会形成，如果其他一些软化机制（相当于m<0）执行。这通常被认为是质地柔软的纹理的协助通过高度局部变形加热[ 10 ] 。质地柔软纹理涉及改变应变路径从平面应变滚动（纯剪切）到简单剪切。这一机制是特别适用于颗粒的（ 1 1 1 ） 1 1 2导向，因为它们拥有最高的抗轧制（最高位错密度）和降低抗简单剪切。
3.5 率敏感性
依赖率敏感性对温度可辨别的一般道路过程在图5显示，更详细的描述在图6 。此图所取得的成果总结的调查如上所述。这里有两种截然不同的性能进行比较的：（一）“纯粹”的材料，其中率敏感性仅仅有“低温”和“高温”范围，及（ ii ）本型的DSA 材料，其中偏离是观察到的基本趋势。一流的性能所表现出钢，但不包含溶质C或氮，例如，性能稳定IF钢，在C和N从溶液中去掉，增加了钛和/或铌。在第二类材料，浓度C的解决方案，热轧制温度高，因为没有稳定合金增补和依赖于冷却速度从热轧范围或保温时间后，再加热。
图6 一致的影响温度对应变率敏感性（m）的一些不同的材料[ 5和12 ] 。m值在LC钢是相当高的，，
相比LF材料，热轧制温度（即同源温度在0.5至0.65 ）
如果没有加入合金冶炼钢铁，然后平衡C的含量，预计将在溶液中的铁在温度范围内（ 600-800 ℃）含量是100-500ppm[ 11 ]。
3.6 核的剪切带
观点认为存在的晶粒剪切带，如图1b，巴涅特获得借个的结果认为热轧钢在退火过程中促进组件的形成（ 1 1 1 ）。在这项研究中，热轧IF钢的参数[ 4 ， 5和6 ]累进的退火样品分析采用了背散射电子（BSE）成像技术。一个观察的实例在图 7提出了。可以看出，（ 1 1 1 ）定向的细胞核内已形成了晶粒剪切带结构。
图7 一个（1 1 1 ）结晶形成原子核中晶粒剪切带结构的IF钢（百万分之50碳，0.13 ％锰，0.042%铝，0.084 ％钛，30百万分之30的氮）例子[ 7 ] 。在700 ° C的样品变形和部分退火在相同温度下。图像制作使用定向反向BSE成像。
4. 结论
从上述的调查可以得出以下结论
1 .轧制温度（冷与暖）对LC钢的剪切带密度具有相当的影响力，但并非适用所有的IF钢。冷轧LC钢材比那些正在发展中的IF钢形成的剪切带更加强烈。
2 .冷轧LC钢急剧产生的剪切带是形成明显戈斯纹理组成部分的原因，这发生在这些钢退火后。冷轧或热轧IF钢中存在的中等剪切带与ND纹理组成部分的核联系在一起。热轧LC钢几乎没有缺乏ND组成部分材料的剪切带。
3.具有1 1 1ND成分的热轧和退火IF钢和没有同样的处理LC钢的是具有适于模锻特征类型的钢。这反过来又直接归因于不同的剪切带具有如上面所述的特性。
4.剪切带特性具有相当大的差别可以归因于C在LC级别中含量的影响。在低温轧制温度，碳带密集的原因是它的存在导致DSA敏感性异常和高不规则和不稳定位错密度。在相对较高的（即热轧）轧制温度，DSA条件不再适用，因此，存在的C导致相反的效果，即它具有的高敏感性防止剪切带的形成。
5.最后，完全稳定钢由于缺乏溶质C （或N ）阻止他们显示DSA特性。因此，它们不含有异常的位错密度从而影响剪切带的冷轧温度。以同样的方式，热轧制敏感性不够高，以防止可取类型的剪切带所需要的ND纤维核的产生。
鸣谢
作者感谢加拿大自然科学与工程研究理事会，加拿大钢铁工业研究协会和BHP研究所提供财政支持这一调查的部分实验。
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Effects of shear band formation on texture development in warm-rolled IF steels Jonas, J.J.1Source: Journal of Materials Processing Technology, v 117, n 3, p 293-299, November 23, 2001
ISSN: 09240136 CODEN: JMPTEF
Publisher: Elsevier Ltd
Author affiliation:Department of Metallurgical Engineering, McGill University, 3610 University Street, Montreal, Que.
H3A 2B2, Canada
Abstract: Warm, or ferritic, rolling is gaining in popularity amongst steelmakers as a means of cutting the cost of steel production and opening up the window of hot band properties. Some of the more unique, but important, metallurgical aspects of the process are reviewed. In particular, it is shown that the effect of changing the rolling temperature from the cold to the warm range on the properties of rolled and annealed sheet is far greater in low carbon (LC) than in interstitial-free (IF) steels. The former contain much lower densities of shear bands than the latter when warm rolled (WR) under the same conditions. This is attributed to the higher rate sensitivities and other physical properties of the low carbon (LC) grades, which arise in turn from the additional dynamic strain ageing (DSA) that accompanies an increase in strain rate. The IF grades have finer grain sizes when annealed after rolling above 500°C than the LC grades, apparently because of the much higher incidence of shear bands in the former materials in this temperature range. The conventional {111}⊥ND "deep drawing" textures of cold-rolled and annealed IF grades are also present after WR and annealing. By contrast, the ND texture is absent in WR and annealed LC steels. This is attributed to the absence of shear bands in WR LC steels and therefore to the absence of the {111} nuclei that appear to be formed in the vicinity of these bands. Conversely, it is the presence of shear bands in WR IF steels that makes possible the replacement of cold rolling in these materials. Published by Elsevier Science B.V. (12 refs.)
1. Introduction
Steelmakers have recently begun to take an interest in warm (ferritic) rolling, as it has the potential to broaden the product range and decrease the cost of hot-rolled strip. These advantages can affect all stages of the rolling process, beginning with reheating, followed by warm rolling, pickling, and cold rolling. Some of the benefits that can be realized during each of these stages of processing are listed in Table 1. The changes brought about to the product properties are summarized in Table 2.
Table 1. Benefits that can be realized through the implementation of warm rolling [1]
Full-size table (<1K)
Table 2. Improvements in product properties attributable to warm rolling [1]
Full-size table (<1K)
While the benefits catalogued in Table 1 are fairly self-explanatory, the factors affecting the hardness, r-value and ageing properties summarized in Table 2 are not quite as obvious. It is, therefore, the purpose of this brief review to single out the mechanisms that influence the above properties and to explain how their operation (or suppression) can lead to improvements in r-value and formability.
2. Background
It has been known for some time [2] that ferrite deformed just below the A r3 and A r1 temperatures is actually softer than austenite deformed above the A r3 temperature. Thus, the deformation of ferrite at temperatures down to about 700°C, in plain C steels, and 600°C, in IF steels, does not involve increases in rolling load above the design limit for the mill in question. While both plain C and IF steels can be readily warm rolled, only the latter materials permit the
attainment of high r-values, as indicated in Table 2. The high r-values in turn require the presence
of desirable texture components after annealing, such as the {1 1 1} rolling plane fibre and the {5 5 4}2 2 5[3].
Recent experiments [4, 5, 6 and 7] have led to some increase in the understanding of just how these desirable texture components are formed (in the IF steels) and of why they are absent (in LC steels). The experiments indicate that the important factor is the presence (in LC steels) or absence (in IF steels) of carbon in solution at warm rolling temperatures. The carbon in solution appears to cause dynamic strain ageing (DSA) in the rolling temperature range, which is then responsible for the unusually high strain rate sensitivities that characterize LC steel under warm rolling conditions. The high rate sensitivities in turn suppress the formation of shear bands in the ferrite.
The presence of these microstructural features in warm-rolled IF steels has been directly linked to the nucleation of the desirable {1 1 1} fibre on subsequent annealing. Conversely, their absence in warm-rolled LC steels has been associated with the poor textures that are developed after warm rolling [6]. As this sequence of events is a fairly complex one, the results obtained in this series of investigations will now be summarized and discussed.
2.1. Experimental materials
In order to investigate the effects described above, three steels were examined, with the compositions displayed in Table 3. The IF grade contained 50 ppm C and 0.13% Mn and was stabilized with 0.084% Ti. Two LC steels were studied, with 140 and 160 ppm C. A typical Mn concentration of 0.22% was present in the former, while the second was a very low Mn variant, with only 0.009%. The principal difference between the LC grades was that the low Mn variant was Al-killed.
Table 3. Steel compositions (wt.%)
Full-size table (<1K)
2.2. Rolling schedules
The steels were initially hot rolled down to a thickness of 11 mm and then air cooled. From these samples, tapered-end specimens were prepared for laboratory warm rolling. The two LC grades were reheated to 740°C and then cooled to the rolling temperature in thermal insulation at about 7°C/min. The IF specimens were reheated to 800°C prior to rolling. The use of the tapered specimens meant that single-pass rolling could be employed. This led to a simulation of strip
rolling (with regard to the shortness of the interpass times) that was considered to be more accurate than the alternative of reversing the pilot mill, which is more suitable for plate mill simulations. Further details of the experimental rolling procedures are provided in Refs. [4, 5 and 6].
2.3. Metallographic results
The occurrence of shear banding in the LC material at 700°C is depicted in Fig. 1a. (Similar results were obtained in the low Mn variant.) Only a few banded grains can be seen, and the bands themselves are quite thin and short, indicating that flow along them was retarded. These “stunted” bands were unique to the LC samples rolled at temperatures above 550°C.
Full-size image (15K)
Fig. 1. Examples of in-grain shear bands in material warm rolled at 700°C to a reduction of 65% [5]: (a) LC steel; (b) IF steel.
The above behaviour contrasted sharply with that of the IF material. Here the nature of the bands was unaffected by the rolling temperature, so that the example of banding illustrated in Fig. 1b for 700°C is typical of all rolling temperatures. In this micrograph, the shear taking place along individual bands is made evident by the grain boundary displacements. The fraction of grains containing shear bands was determined by a point counting technique [5]. The resulting data are presented in Fig. 2, from which it can be seen that the intensity of the banding, like its nature, was unaffected by the rolling temperature in the IF material. In the LC grades, however, the intensity of the banding was highly temperature-sensitive, dropping-off sharply when rolling was carried out above 400°C. Thus, at temperatures above 450°C, the IF steel contained more shear bands than the LC grades, while below 450°C, this relationship was reversed.
Full-size image (5K)
Fig. 2. Influence of rolling temperature on in-grain shear band frequency [5].
2.4. Texture
2.4.1. Rolling textures
The deformation textures determined in the investigation described above are illustrated in the form of orientation distribution functions (ODFs) in Ref. [5]. (This type of presentation is described and explained in more detail in the above reference.) All of the textures were typical of ferrite rolling, in that they were characterized by a partial rolling direction (RD) fibre (containing
grains with their 1 1 0-axes parallel to the RD) as well as a complete normal direction (ND) fibre
(with grains having a 1 1 1-direction parallel to the ND). Although the rolling textures were qualitatively similar, the higher intensities (or maxima) evident in the 700°C texture determined in the LC steel are significant and these will be taken up later in Section 3. By contrast, the maximum intensities were similar in the IF steel over the whole rolling temperature range.
2.4.2. Annealing textures
Some examples of the textures measured after annealing at 700°C are displayed in Fig. 3. It is clear that the influence of rolling temperature is greater here than it was directly after rolling [6].
It is of particular note that the ND fibre (1 1 1ND) is dominant after both warm and cold rolling in the IF steel, while in the LC grade, the situation is more complex. After cold rolling, the recrystallization texture is composed of the ND fibre together with a Goss ({0 1 1}1 0 0) component. By contrast, after warm rolling, the entire texture changes to a partial RD fibre running from {0 0 1}1 1 0to {1 1 2}1 1 0, with negligible Goss and ND fibre intensities. The transition away from an ND fibre texture in the lattermost case is of particular importance and will be considered in more detail below.
Full-size image (14K)
Fig. 3. φ2=45° ODF sections of the textures of the LC and IF steels rolled at 70 and 700°C and annealed at 700°C (intensity levels 2, 3, 4, 5, etc.) [6].
3. Discussion
It is clear from the results described above that the temperature dependence of the deformed state in the two LC grades differs sharply from that of the IF material. In particular, the influence of rolling temperature is far greater in the LC grades. The possible reasons for this are examined below in terms of shear band nature and density, the characteristics of the texture, and of the effect of the above parameters on r av and therefore on the formability.
3.1. Nature and density of the shear bands
It was evident from Fig. 2 that, at temperatures below 400°C, the degree of banding was far greater (about 50% as opposed to 25%) in the LC steels than in the IF material. As discussed in more detail below, this can be considered to arise from the DSA characteristics of the former materials, through the effects of this phenomenon on the work hardened state and on the rate sensitivity. By contrast, in the warm rolling range, i.e. above 500°C, the amount of banding in the two LC steels dropped almost to zero, whereas the proportion of grains containing bands remained nearly constant in the IF samples. It is of interest that the nature of the bands was also different in the two types of steel. Those in the cold-rolled LC steels were relatively intense, apparently because of the strong tendency for the flow to localize in these solute containing materials. In the IF grade, on the other hand, the bands were not only less common, but were also much less severe.
3.2. Characteristics of the texture
3.2.1. Deformation textures
The principal feature of the results summarized here was the marked sharpness of the warm-rolled (700°C) texture in the LC steels. This was shown in Ref. [5] to be attributable to the relative absence of shear bands in these samples. The absence of shear bands in turn has two practical consequences. One is that there is less grain split-up, with its attendant randomizing effect on the texture. The second is that there is more matrix grain rotation in the absence of bands because the occurrence of banding transfers flow (and therefore rotation) away from the matrix. Conversely, the presence of bands reduces the extent to which the “end texture” (i.e. the ND fibre) is developed in the matrix and therefore reduces the intensity of the overall texture [5].
The sharpness of the rolling texture has an important influence on the nucleation of new grains during annealing, and in particular on the orientations of the grains that form. In this way, it has a significant effect on the annealing texture.
3.2.2. Annealing textures
As indicated above for the deformation textures, the influence of rolling temperature on the annealing textures is far greater for the LC grades than for the IF material. In the latter, the
desirable ND fibre (1 1 1ND) is dominant for all rolling temperatures (see Fig. 3). The LC textures, on the other hand, differ in two ways from the IF ones of Fig. 3: (i) under cold rolling conditions (e.g. 70°C rolling), an additional Goss component ({0 1 1}1 0 0) is present, and (ii) under warm rolling conditions (e.g. 700°C rolling), the ND fibre is almost totally absent. This is why warm-rolled and annealed LC steels have low r av-values and are thus less suitable than similarly processed IF steels for deep-drawing purposes.
3.2.3. Nucleation of the Goss and ND fibre components
The differences in the annealing textures will now be linked to the differences in shear band density and nature described above. Such an interpretation is based on the following hypotheses:
1. that the strong Goss component observed in the LC annealing textures after rolling at 70°C (which is absent in the other material and in the warm-rolled and annealed LC steels) is caused by the nucleation of this component in the vicinity of intense, i.e. severe shear bands;
2. that the ND fibre observed in the LC annealing textures after rolling at 70°C and in the IF steel under all conditions (which is absent in the warm-rolled and annealed LC steels) is attributable to nucleation in the vicinity of shear bands of moderate intensity;
3. that the near-absence of shear bands evident in the structure of warm-rolled LC steels is responsible for the near-absence of the Goss and ND fibre in these materials after annealing. 3.3. r-Values of the experimental materials
r av-Values were calculated from the measured textures, as described in more detail in Ref.
[4], and some representative predictions are presented in Fig. 4. Here it can be seen that the cold-rolled and annealed steels all had estimated r av-values in the range 1.3–1.6; these are entirely consistent with the presence in these samples of the well-defined ND fibres evident in Fig.
3. By contrast, there are sharp differences in the warm-rolled and annealed r av-values: those of the LC grades are below 0.5, while that of the IF material remains high, at about 1.5. According to the views advanced here, the low r av-values in the warm-rolled and annealed LC steels are a direct result of the absence of shear bands in these materials after rolling (and therefore of the absence of shear band nucleation during annealing). Conversely, the acceptable r av-values in the
warm-rolled and annealed IF steel are a direct result of the presence of the shear bands after rolling and of their influence during annealing.
Full-size image (3K)
Fig. 4. Calculated r av-values for the warm-rolled and annealed samples [4].
3.4. Dynamic strain ageing
DSA is well known to occur in the presence of solute C or N when steels are tensile tested,
e.g. at , in the temperature range 200–350°C [8]. This phenomenon is at its peak when the diffusivity of the interstitial atom matches the velocity of the dislocations. For DSA to take
place under rolling conditions, e.g. at , the temperature range must be increased to
470–635°C to allow for the increase from 10?2 to 102 s?1. Thus, warm rolling takes place at temperatures above the DSA peak [9]. The influence of DSA on the flow stress at two different strain rates is shown schematically in Fig. 5, from which it can be seen that the rate sensitivity
is negative in the vicinity of the low-temperature DSA peak and more highly positive than expected immediately above the high-temperature peak.
Full-size image (4K)
Fig. 5. Schematic representation of temperature vs. flow stress data for two strain rates. The peak in the LC steel curves is a consequence of DSA.
In order for this diagram to apply to rolling conditions, it must be understood that the lower curve applies to the strain rate of the bulk material, which is deforming homogeneously. By contrast, the upper (high strain rate) curve pertains to the material in a potential shear band. In the temperature range where m<0, potential shear bands will form readily as the shearing material has a lower flow stress than the homogeneously deforming material. This is because the mobile dislocations can easily break away from their trailing atmospheres by speeding up. Conversely, in the temperature range where m is unusually high, shear bands can form only with difficulty, if at all. This is because much higher flow stresses are required to move the relevant dislocations under DSA (i.e. solute interaction) conditions.
In the temperature ranges where m has a “normal” (pure metal) value, shear bands will only form if some other softening mechanism (equivalent to m<0) is operative. This is generally considered to be texture softening assisted by highly localized deformation heating [10]. The texture softening involves a change in strain path from plane-strain rolling (pure shear) to simple shear. This mechanism is particularly applicable to grains of {1 1 1}1 1 2orientation, as they have the highest resistance to rolling (highest dislocation densities) and a reduced resistance to simple shear.
3.5. Rate sensitivity
The dependence of the rate sensitivity on temperature discernible in a general way in Fig. 5 is shown in more detail in Fig. 6. This diagram summarizes the results obtained in the investigation described above. Here two contrasti ng behaviours are compared that of: (i) a “pure” material, in which the rate sensitivity simply has a “low-temperature” and a “high-temperature” range, and (ii) the present type of DSA material, in which departures are observed from the basic trends. The first
class of behaviour is displayed by steels that do not contain solute C or N, e.g. as in fully stabilized IF steels, where the C and N are removed from solution by the addition of Ti and/or Nb. In the second class of material, the concentration of C in solution at warm rolling temperatures is higher because of the absence of stabilizing alloying additions and depends on the cooling rate from the hot rolling range or on the holding time after reheating.
Full-size image (6K)
Fig. 6. Influence of homologous temperature on strain rate sensitivity (m) for a number of different materials [5 and 12]. The value of m is considerably higher in LC steels, compared to IF materials, at warm rolling temperatures (i.e. homologous temperatures between 0.5 and 0.65).
If no alloying additions have been made to the steel, then the equilibrium amount of C that is expected to be in solution in the WR temperature range (600–800°C) is 100–500 ppm [11].
3.6. Nucleation on shear bands
The view that the presence of in-grain shear bands, such as those of Fig. 1b, stimulates the formation of {1 1 1} components during the annealing of warm-rolled steels is supported by the results obtained recently by Barnett [7]. In this study, progressively annealed samples of the warm-rolled IF steel of Refs. [4, 5 and 6] were analysed by means of back-scattered electron (BSE) imaging. An example of the observations made is reproduced here as Fig. 7. It can be seen that {1 1 1}-oriented nuclei have formed within in-grain shear band structures.
Full-size image (11K)
Fig. 7. An example of {1 1 1} recrystallization nuclei forming in in-grain shear band structures in an IF steel (50 ppm C, 0.13% Mn, 0.042% Al, 0.084% Ti, 30 ppm N) [7]. The samples were deformed at 700°C and partially annealed at the same temperature. The image was produced using orientation contrast BSE imaging.
4. Conclusions
The following conclusions can be drawn from the investigations described above.
1. The rolling temperature (cold vs. warm) has a considerable influence on the shear band density in LC steels, but not at all in IF steels. The shear bands formed in cold-rolled LC steels are also more intense than those that develop in IF steels.
2. The intense shear bands in cold-rolled LC steels appear to be responsible for the fairly sharp Goss texture component that appears in these steels after annealing. The moderate shear bands that are present in the IF steels after cold or warm rolling appear in turn to be associated with nucleation of the desirable ND texture component. The near-absence of shear bands in warm-rolled LC steels is responsible for the near-absence of the ND component in these materials.
3. The presence in warm-rolled and annealed IF steels and the absence in the similarly
processed LC steels of the 1 1 1ND component is responsible for the more formable characteristics of the former type of steel. This is in turn directly attributable to the differences in the shear banding behaviours described above.
4. The considerable differences in shear banding behaviour can be ascribed to the effects of
C in solution in LC grades. At low rolling temperatures, carbon causes intense banding because its presence is responsible for the observed negative rate sensitivities and for the abnormally high and unstable dislocation densities attributable to the occurrence of DSA. At relatively high (i.e. warm) rolling temperatures, DSA conditions no longer apply, and so the presence of C has the opposite effect, i.e. it is responsible for the high rate sensitivities that prevent shear bands from forming.
5. Finally, the absence of solute C (or N) in fully stabilized steels prevents them from displaying DSA behaviour. As a result, they do not contain the unusually high dislocation densities responsible for severe shear banding at cold rolling temperatures. In a similar manner, their warm rolling rate sensitivities are not high enough to prevent the desirable type of shear banding that is required for ND fibre nucleation from taking place.
Acknowledgements
The author is grateful to the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, the Canadian Steel Industry Research Association and BHP Research for financial support of the experimental parts of this investigation.
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市场营销策略外文文献及翻译 Marketing Strategy Market Segmentation and Target Strategy A market consists of people or organizations with wants,money to spend,and the willingness to spend it.However,within most markets the buyer' needs are not identical.Therefore,a single marketing program starts with identifying the differences that exist within a market,a process called market segmentation, and deciding which segments will be pursued ads target markets. Marketing segmentation enables a company to make more efficient use of its marketing resources.Also,it allows a small company to compete effectively by concentrating on one or two segments.The apparent drawback of market segmentation is that it will result in higher production and marketing costs than a one-product,mass-market strategy.However, if the market is correctly segmented,the better fit with customers' needs will actually result in greater efficiency. The three alternative strategies for selecting a target market are market aggregation,single segment,and multiple segment.Market-aggregation strategy involves using one marketing mix to reach a mass,undifferentiated market.With a single-segment strategy, a company still uses only one marketing mix,but it is directed at only one segment of the total market.A multiple-segment strategy entails
工业设计原著选读 优秀的产品设计 第一个拨号电话1897年由卡罗耳Gantz 第一个拨号电话在1897年被自动电器公司引入，成立于1891年布朗强，一名勘萨斯州承担者。在1889年，相信铃声“中央交换”将转移来电给竞争对手，强发明了被拨号系统控制的自动交换机系统。这个系统在1892年第一次在拉波特完成史端乔系统中被安装。1897年，强的模型电话，然而模型扶轮拨条的位置没有类似于轮齿约170度,以及边缘拨阀瓣。电话，当然是被亚历山大格雷厄姆贝尔（1847—1922）在1876年发明的。第一个商业交换始建于1878（12个使用者），在1879年，多交换机系统由工程师勒罗伊B 菲尔曼发明,使电话取得商业成功,用户在1890年达到250000。 直到1894年，贝尔原批专利过期，贝尔电话公司在市场上有一个虚拟的垄断。他们已经成功侵权投诉反对至少600竞争者。该公司曾在1896年，刚刚在中央交易所推出了电源的“普通电池”制度。在那之前，一个人有手摇电话以提供足够的电力呼叫。一个连接可能仍然只能在给予该人的名义下提出要求达到一个电话接线员。这是强改变的原因。 强很快成为贝尔的强大竞争者。他在1901年引进了一个桌面拨号模型，这个模型在设计方面比贝尔的模型更加清晰。在1902年，他引进了一个带有磁盘拨号的墙面电话，这次与实际指孔，仍然只有170度左右在磁盘周围。到1905年，一个“长距离”手指孔已经被增加了。最后一个强的知名模型是在1907年。强的专利大概过期于1914年，之后他或他的公司再也没有听到过。直到1919年贝尔引进了拨号系统。当他们这样做，在拨号盘的周围手指孔被充分扩展了。 强发明的拨号系统直到1922年进入像纽约一样的大城市才成为主流。但是一旦作为规规范被确立，直到70年代它仍然是主要的电话技术。后按键式拨号在1963年被推出之后，强发明的最初的手指拨号系统作为“旋转的拨号系统”而知名。这是强怎样“让你的手指拨号”的。 埃姆斯椅LCW和DCW 1947 这些带有复合曲线座位，靠背和橡胶防震装置的成型胶合板椅是由查尔斯埃姆斯设计，在赫曼米勒家具公司生产的。 这个原始的概念是被查尔斯埃姆斯（1907—1978）和埃罗沙里宁（1910—1961）在1940年合作构想出来的。在1937年，埃姆斯成为克兰布鲁克学院实验设计部门的领头人，和沙里宁一起工作调查材料和家具。在这些努力下，埃姆斯发明了分成薄片和成型胶合板夹板，被称作埃姆斯夹板，在1941年收到了来自美国海军5000人的订单。查尔斯和他的妻子雷在他们威尼斯，钙的工作室及工厂和埃文斯产品公司的生产厂家一起生产了这批订单。 在1941年现代艺术博物馆，艾略特诺伊斯组织了一场比赛用以发现对现代生活富有想象力的设计师。奖项颁发给了埃姆斯和沙里宁他们的椅子和存储碎片，由包括埃德加考夫曼，大都会艺术博物馆的阿尔弗雷德，艾略特诺伊斯，马尔塞布鲁尔，弗兰克帕里什和建筑师爱德华达雷尔斯通的陪审团裁决。 这些椅子在1946年的现代艺术展览博物馆被展出，查尔斯埃姆斯设计的新的家具。当时，椅子只有三条腿，稳定性问题气馁了大规模生产。 早期的LCW（低木椅）和DWC（就餐木椅）设计有四条木腿在1946年第一次被埃文斯产品公司（埃姆斯的战时雇主）生产出来，被赫曼米勒家具公司分配。这些工具1946年被乔治纳尔逊为赫曼米勒购买，在1949年接手制造权。后来金属脚的愿景在1951年制作，包括LCW（低金属椅）和DWC（就餐金属椅）模型。配套的餐饮和咖啡桌也产生。这条线一直
Load and Ultimate Moment of Prestressed Concrete Action Under Overload-Cracking Load It has been shown that a variation in the external load acting on a prestressed beam results in a change in the location of the pressure line for beams in the elastic range.This is a fundamental principle of prestressed construction.In a normal prestressed beam,this shift in the location of the pressure line continues at a relatively uniform rate,as the external load is increased,to the point where cracks develop in the tension fiber.After the cracking load has been exceeded,the rate of movement in the pressure line decreases as additional load is applied,and a significant increase in the stress in the prestressing tendon and the resultant concrete force begins to take place.This change in the action of the internal moment continues until all movement of the pressure line ceases.The moment caused by loads that are applied thereafter is offset entirely by a corresponding and proportional change in the internal forces,just as in reinforced-concrete construction.This fact,that the load in the elastic range and the plastic range is carried by actions that are fundamentally different,is very significant and renders strength computations essential for all designs in order to ensure that adequate safety factors exist.This is true even though the stresses in the elastic range may conform to a recognized elastic design criterion. It should be noted that the load deflection curve is close to a straight line up to the cracking load and that the curve becomes progressively more curved as the load is increased above the cracking load.The curvature of the load-deflection curve for loads over the cracking load is due to the change in the basic internal resisting moment action that counteracts the applied loads,as described above,as well as to plastic strains that begin to take place in the steel and the concrete when stressed to high levels. In some structures it may be essential that the flexural members remain crack free even under significant overloads.This may be due to the structures’being exposed to exceptionally corrosive atmospheres during their useful life.In designing prestressed members to be used in special structures of this type,it may be necessary to compute the load that causes cracking of the tensile flange,in order to ensure that adequate safety against cracking is provided by the design.The computation of the moment that will cause cracking is also necessary to ensure compliance with some design criteria. Many tests have demonstrated that the load-deflection curves of prestressed beams are approximately linear up to and slightly in excess of the load that causes the first cracks in the tensile flange.(The linearity is a function of the rate at which the load is applied.)For this reason,normal elastic-design relationships can be used in computing the cracking load by simply determining the load that results in a net tensile stress in the tensile flange(prestress minus the effects of the applied loads)that is equal to the tensile strength of the concrete.It is customary to assume that the flexural tensile strength of the concrete is equal to the modulus of rupture of the
外文翻译 原文 World Trade and International Trade Material Source:https://www.doczj.com/doc/c58696640.html, Author: Ted Alax In today’s complex economic world, neither individuals nor nations are self-sufficient. Nations have utilized different economic resources; people have developed different skills. This is the foundation of world trade and economic activity. As a result of this trade and activity, international finance and banking have evolved. For example, the United States is a major consumer of coffee, yet it does not have the climate to grow any or its own. Consequently, the United States must import coffee from countries (such as Brazil, Colombia and Guatemala) that grow coffee efficiently. On the other hand, the United States has large industrial plants capable of producing a variety of goods, such as chemicals and airplanes, which can be sold to nations that need them. If nations traded item for item, such as one automobile for 10,000 bags of coffee, foreign trade would be extremely cumbersome and restrictive. So instead of batter, which is trade of goods without an exchange of money, the United State receives money in payment for what it sells. It pays for Brazilian coffee with dollars, which Brazil can then use to buy wool from Australia, which in turn can buy textiles Great Britain, which can then buy tobacco from the United State. Foreign trade, the exchange of goods between nations, takes place for many reasons. The first, as mentioned above is that no nation has all of the commodities that it needs. Raw materials are scattered around the world. Large deposits of copper are mined in Peru and Zaire, diamonds are mined in South Africa and petroleum is recovered in the Middle East. Countries that do not have these resources within their own boundaries must buy from countries that export them. Foreign trade also occurs because a country often does not have enough of a particular item to meet its needs. Although the United States is a major producer of sugar, it consumes more than it can produce internally and thus must import sugar.
Interaction design Moggridge Bill Interaction design，Page 1-15 USA Art Press, 2008 Interaction design (IxD) is the study of devices with which a user can interact, in particular computer users. The practice typically centers on "embedding information technology into the ambient social complexities of the physical world."[1] It can also apply to other types of non-electronic products and services, and even organizations. Interaction design defines the behavior (the "interaction") of an artifact or system in response to its users. Malcolm McCullough has written, "As a consequence of pervasive computing, interaction design is poised to become one of the main liberal arts of the twenty-first century." Certain basic principles of cognitive psychology provide grounding for interaction design. These include mental models, mapping, interface metaphors, and affordances. Many of these are laid out in Donald Norman's influential book The Psychology of Everyday Things. As technologies are often overly complex for their intended target audience, interaction design aims to minimize the learning curve and to increase accuracy and efficiency of a task without diminishing usefulness. The objective is to reduce frustration and increase user productivity and satisfaction. Interaction design attempts to improve the usability and experience of the product, by first researching and understanding certain users' needs and then designing to meet and exceed them. (Figuring out who needs to use it, and how those people would like to use it.) Only by involving users who will use a product or system on a regular basis will designers be able to properly tailor and maximize usability. Involving real users, designers gain the ability to better understand user goals and experiences. (see also: User-centered design) There are also positive side effects which include enhanced system capability awareness and user ownership. It is important that the user be aware of system capabilities from an early stage so that expectations regarding functionality are both realistic and properly understood. Also, users who have been active participants in a product's development are more likely to feel a sense of ownership, thus increasing overall satisfa. Instructional design is a goal-oriented, user-centric approach to creating training and education software or written materials. Interaction design and instructional design both rely on cognitive psychology theories to focus on how users will interact with software. They both take an in-depth approach to analyzing the user's needs and goals. A needs analysis is often performed in both disciplines. Both, approach the design from the user's perspective. Both, involve gathering feedback from users, and making revisions until the product or service has been found to be effective. (Summative / formative evaluations) In many ways, instructional
Journal of Industrial Textiles https://www.doczj.com/doc/c58696640.html,/ Optimization of Parameters for the Production of Needlepunched Nonwoven Geotextiles Amit Rawal, Subhash Anand and Tahir Shah 2008 37: 341Journal of Industrial Textiles DOI: 10.1177/1528083707081594 The online version of this article can be found at: https://www.doczj.com/doc/c58696640.html,/content/37/4/341 Published by: https://www.doczj.com/doc/c58696640.html, can be found at:Journal of Industrial TextilesAdditional services and information for https://www.doczj.com/doc/c58696640.html,/cgi/alertsEmail Alerts: https://www.doczj.com/doc/c58696640.html,/subscriptionsSubscriptions: https://www.doczj.com/doc/c58696640.html,/journalsReprints.navReprints: https://www.doczj.com/doc/c58696640.html,/journalsPermissions.navPermissions: https://www.doczj.com/doc/c58696640.html,/content/37/4/341.refs.htmlCitations: - Mar 28, 2008Version of Record >>
Strategic transformations in Danish and Swedish big business in an era of globalisation, 1973-2008 The Danish and Swedish context In the difficult inter-war period, a state-supported, protected home market orientation had helped stabilise both Denmark’s and Sweden’s economies, but after WorldWar II priorities changed. Gradually and in accordance with the international economic development, restrictions on foreign trade were removed, and Danish and Swedish industry was exposed to international competition. As a consequence, several home market oriented industries –such as the textile and the shoe industry –were more or less outperformed, while in Sweden the engineering industry soon became the dominant leader of Swedish industry, with companies such as V olvo, Ericsson, Electrolux, ASEA and SKF. In the Danish case, the SMEs continued to be dominant but in combination with expanding export oriented industrial manufacturers such as Lego, Danfoss, Carlsberg and the shipping conglomerates ok and A.P. moller-Marsk. In Sweden and Denmark stable economic growth continued into the 1970s, but due to the problems during the oil crises, the economies came into fundamental structural troubles for the first time since World War II. In the beginning this was counteracted by traditional Keynesian policy measures. However, because of large budget deficits, inflation and increasing wages, both the Danish economy from 1974 and the Swedish economy from 1976 encountered severe problems. Towards the late 1970s Denmark’s and Sweden’s economic policies were thus increasingly questioned. It was clear that Keynesian policy could not solve all economic problems. Expansive fiscal policies in terms of continued deficits on the state budget could not compensate for the loss of both national and international markets and step by step the Keynesian economic policy was abandoned. The increased budget deficit also made it difficult for the state to support employment and regional development. These kinds of heavy governmental activities were also hardly acceptable under the more market oriented policy that developed first in Great Britain and the USA, but in the 1980s also in Denmark and Sweden (Iversen & Andersen, 2008, pp. 313–315; Sjo¨ gren, 2008, pp. 46–54). These changes in political priorities were especially noticeable in the financial market. After being the most state regulated and coordinated sector of the economy since the 1950s, then between 1980 and 1985 the Danish and Swedish financial markets underwent an extensive deregulation resulting in increased competition. Lending from banks and other credit institutes was no longer regulated, and neither were interest rates. The bond market was also opened as the issuance of new bond loans was deregulated in Sweden in 1983. When the control of foreign capital flows was liberalised in the late 1980s the last extraordinary restriction was now gone. Together with the establishment of the new money market with options and derivates, this opened up to a much larger credit market and the possibility for companies to finance investments and increase business domestically as well as abroad (Larsson, 1998, pp. 205–207). Another important part of the regulatory changes in the early 1980s were new rules for the Copenhagen and Stockholm stock exchanges. Introduction on the stock exchange was made much
原文来源：李海宏《Marketing Customer Satisfaction》[A].2012中国旅游分销高峰论坛.[C].上海 Marketing Customer Satisfaction 顾客满意策略与顾客满意营销 Since the 20th century, since the late eighties, the customer satisfaction strategy is increasingly becoming business has more customers share the overall business competitive advantage means. 自20世纪八十年代末以来,顾客满意战略已日益成为各国企业占有更多的顾客份额,获得竞争优势的整体经营手段。 First, customer satisfaction strategy is to get a modern enterprise customers, "money votes" magic weapon 一、顾客满意策略是现代企业获得顾客“货币选票”的法宝 With the changing times, the great abundance of material wealth of society, customers in the main --- consumer demand across the material has a lack of time, the number of times the pursuit, the pursuit of quality time to the eighties of the 20th century entered the era of the end consumer sentiment. In China, with rapid economic development, we have rapidly beyond the physical absence of the times, the pursuit of the number of times and even the pursuit of quality and age of emotions today gradually into the consumer era. Spending time in the emotion, the company's similar products have already reached the same time, homogeneous, with the energy, the same price, consumers are no longer pursue the quality, functionality and price, but the comfort, convenience, safety, comfort, speed, jump action, environmental protection, clean, happy,
(文档含英文原文和中文翻译) 中英文翻译原文：
DESIGN and ENVIRONMENT Product design is the principal part and kernel of industrial design. Product design gives uses pleasure. A good design can bring hope and create new lifestyle to human. In spscificity,products are only outcomes of factory such as mechanical and electrical products,costume and so on.In generality,anything,whatever it is tangibile or intangible,that can be provided for a market,can be weighed with value by customers, and can satisfy a need or desire,can be entiled as products. Innovative design has come into human life. It makes product looking brand-new and brings new aesthetic feeling and attraction that are different from traditional products. Enterprose tend to renovate idea of product design because of change of consumer's lifestyle , emphasis on individuation and self-expression,market competition and requirement of individuation of product. Product design includes factors of society ,economy, techology and leterae humaniores. Tasks of product design includes styling, color, face processing and selection of material and optimization of human-machine interface. Design is a kind of thinking of lifestyle.Product and design conception can guide human lifestyle . In reverse , lifestyle also manipulates orientation and development of product from thinking layer.
毕业论文外文文献翻译 毕业设计（论文）题目关于企业内部环境绩效审计的研究翻译题目最高审计机关的环境审计活动 学院会计学院 专业会计学 姓名张军芳 班级09020615 学号09027927 指导教师何瑞雄
最高审计机关的环境审计活动 1最高审计机关越来越多的活跃在环境审计领域。特别是1993-1996年期间，工作组已检测到环境审计活动坚定的数量增长。首先，越来越多的最高审计机关已经活跃在这个领域。其次是积极的最高审计机关，甚至变得更加活跃：他们分配较大部分的审计资源给这类工作，同时出版更多环保审计报告。表1显示了平均数字。然而，这里是机构间差异较大。例如，环境报告的数量变化，每个审计机关从1到36份报告不等。 1996-1999年期间，结果是不那么容易诠释。第一，活跃在环境审计领域的最高审计机关数量并没有太大变化。“活性基团”的组成没有保持相同的：一些最高审计机关进入，而其他最高审计机关离开了团队。环境审计花费的时间量略有增加。二，但是，审计报告数量略有下降，1996年和1999年之间。这些数字可能反映了从量到质的转变。这个信号解释了在过去三年从规律性审计到绩效审计的转变（1994-1996年，20％的规律性审计和44％绩效审计;1997-1999：16％规律性审计和绩效审计54％）。在一般情况下，绩效审计需要更多的资源。我们必须认识到审计的范围可能急剧变化。在将来，再将来开发一些其他方式去测算人们工作量而不是计算通过花费的时间和发表的报告会是很有趣的。 在2000年，有62个响应了最高审计机关并向工作组提供了更详细的关于他们自1997年以来公布的工作信息。在1997-1999年，这62个最高审计机关公布的560个环境审计报告。当然，这些报告反映了一个庞大的身躯，可用于其他机构的经验。环境审计报告的参考书目可在网站上的最高审计机关国际组织的工作组看到。这里这个信息是用来给最高审计机关的审计工作的内容更多一些洞察。 自1997年以来，少数环境审计是规律性审计（560篇报告中有87篇，占16％）。大多数审计绩效审计（560篇报告中有304篇，占54％），或组合的规律性和绩效审计（560篇报告中有169篇，占30％）。如前文所述，绩效审计是一个广泛的概念。在实践中，绩效审计往往集中于环保计划的实施（560篇报告中有264篇，占47％），符合国家环保法律，法规的，由政府部门，部委和/或其他机构的任务给访问（560篇报告中有212篇，占38％）。此外，审计经常被列入政府的环境管理系统（560篇报告中有156篇，占28％）。下面的元素得到了关注审计报告：影响或影响现有的国家环境计划非环保项目对环境的影响;环境政策;由政府遵守国际义务和承诺的10％至20％。许多绩效审计包括以上提到的要素之一。 1本文译自：S. Van Leeuwen.(2004).’’Developments in Environmental Auditing by Supreme Audit Institutions’’ Environmental Management Vol. 33, No. 2, pp. 163–1721