文献信息
标题: Revealed Comparative Advantage of Carpets and Textile Floor Covering Industry in Pakistan, India and China
作者: Altaf, Saba
期刊名称: Journal of Economic Cooperation & Development；卷: 35；期: 4；页: 113-133；年份: 2014 Revealed Comparative Advantage of Carpets and Textile Floor Covering Industry in Pakistan, India
and China
1. Introduction
The global trade pattern has been changed in the pursuance of trade liberalization policies in the form of removal of tariff and non-tariff barriers, reduction in quotas and technological advancement on the part of world economies. South Asian economies such as China and India are seeking a favorable position from the trade composition perspective in the international markets. These countries possess comparative advantage in textile sector and show a noteworthy growth in changing trade patterns across the world. Pakistan has a great potential to stand out in this sector in the region as a prospective and overwhelming proportion of labor force is engaged in this sector. It is expected that export-led growth strategy cause a significant boost in production, employment and the productivity of labor along with the improvements in overall economic status but the political and socio-economic conditions in addition to primitive types of technology use may hinder the way to rapid progress.
Pakistan's current export structure requires structural transformation and changes in its export diversification and prototype specialization. The industrial sector in Pakistan has been playing a pivotal role in the national economy in terms of its share in GDP, exports, employment, foreign exchange earnings, investment and its contribution to the value added industry. China is one of the world's largest textiles exporters, accounting for one third of the global textile trade volume. Although the prolonged anti-dumping investigations hit the country's textile export, still textile industry in China has remained a key pillar of development in the country. It has played a vital role in proliferation of various sectors of the economy. Due to its large contribution in the economic growth, Chinese government has remained very much focused to upgrade this sector. India, another major exporter of textile goods is self-reliant and independent with lots of versatility and diversification in textile sector. Apart from providing one of the basic necessities of life i.e. cloth, the textile industry contributes about 14 % to the country's industrial output and about 17 % to export earnings. This sector stands at second in the provision of jobs to people after agricultural sector.
There is continuing debate and emerging concern about the position of these countries in the world market and the resulting edge of China for intensified competition in the labor-intensive manufactured goods. This signifies the importance of the structure of comparative advantage in selected countries; China, India and Pakistan and to find out the extent of competition among these countries in the market of selected subsector i.e., textile.
This study focuses on one of the important sub-sector of textile industry i.e. Carpets and other textile floor Coverings (under the category of code 57 as per Harmonized System of classification, HS). The carpet industry plays a fundamental role in determining the export bearing of Pakistan. There has been an ever increasing demand for carpets and floor coverings both in Pakistan and around the globe. Carpets have always been a valuable asset since ages and therefore remained in vogue. This was
gradually commercialized in Pakistan because of the development of export market. Commercialization gave new dimensions to this industry and it started expanding in rural areas due to the availability of cheap labor. This is one of the sectors that grew tremendously during 1970s and 80s. Among the value added goods it remained on the top of the list (Awan and Khan, 1992).
This sector started getting a set back after the issue of child labor raised by international organizations. As majority of the carpet weavers in Pakistan were estimated to be children less than 15 years of age. Although, data on the Pakistan labor force and child labor is vulnerable. Nevertheless, there is little doubt that child labor has assumed massive proportions in Pakistan. The actual total number of working children in Pakistan is probably somewhere between 2 and 19 million.2
Primarily, the promotion of carpet industry depends upon availability of raw material, presence of skilled weavers and the tradition of weaving art, etc. The skill and productivity of workers in carpet industry along with the availability of socio-economic infrastructure affects the competitiveness of this sector. Despite the presence of weaknesses in few areas, the carpet industry serves as a backbone for the economy of Pakistan. It has been a major source of foreign exchange earnings and contributes a lot in relief of poverty, especially in rural areas. Presently this industry is not revealing a significant export growth and there is a dire need to focus on the provision of infrastructure to support the growth of this industry.
A UNICEF-Punjab report (1992) asserted that "according to conservative estimates, one million out of
1.5 million workers in the carpet industry in Pakistan were children. A separate 1992 UNICEF/Govemment of Pakistan study reported that 90 percent of the one million workers in the carpet industry are children, many of whom began working in the industry before 10 years of age. The Human Rights Commission of Pakistan found that weaving thrives in self-contained homesteads, where labor is cheap and readily available".
Different techniques have been used in literature to determine country's competitiveness in selected industry. One of the most widely used methods involves the concept of Revealed Comparative Advantage (RCA) developed by Balassa (1965). Revealed comparative advantage (RCA), a measure of international competitiveness specifies that a country is defined as being specialized in exports of a certain product if its market share in that product is higher than the average.
A number of studies are available on measuring competitiveness in various sectors of Pakistan, but there is no empirical work done on RCA of Pakistan in carpet and other textile floor coverings industry till the year of this study conducted. For small as well as growing economies, competitiveness is essential for promoting economic development and to survive in the globalized world where carpet industry holds its own worth.
From the above given perspective, the objective of this study is to analyze the comparative advantage of the carpet industry in Pakistan and compare it with selected South Asian countries .i.e. China and India. These countries were selected for measuring and comparing RCA with Pakistan's because they are similar in size and factor endowments and core competitor of Pakistan in the world market. The study enables us to find out the competitiveness of this sector in the world market and can probe at the future potential of growth in the carpet industry of Pakistan. The Balassa Index (1965) is used to find out the comparative advantage at 2-digit and 4-digit level of Harmonized System of Classification. The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Next section provides the literature survey followed by the methodology and data description. The empirical results of the study are reported and discussed in section 4. Last section concludes the study with some policy recommendations.
2. Review of Literature
A number of studies have been conducted to find out Revealed Comparative Advantage (RCA) using Balassa Index (1965). This section provides a brief literature review that can give a better knowledge and understanding of the pattern of RCA in different countries for different sectors.
Balassa (1977) has undertaken an analysis of the pattern of comparative advantage of industrial countries for the period 1953 to 1971. The empirical findings of this study suggest a renewal of the product cycle for US that possess an ever increasing technical lead. Based on the standard deviation of the RCA indices for different countries an association is also seen to hold between size and diversification of exports. Furthermore, Balassa's results show that the extent of export diversification tends to increase with the degree of technological development and a reversal takes place at higher levels in the trade patterns.
Leishman et al. (1999) empirically analyzed the international competitiveness for agricultural commodities by applying Revealed Comparative Advantage (RCA) for wool- exporting countries. A number of six wool producing countries are selected for measuring RCA over the time period of 37 years. RCA index for Australia, Argentina, Newzeland, South Africa, United Kingdom and Uruguay indicates that GATT Uruguay Round has changed the RCA's of countries significantly.
Mehmood (2005) analyzed the export specialization and comparative advantage/disadvantage of Pakistan's non agriculture production sectors in the context of on-going multilateral trade negotiations. The study uses RCA approach at HS-4 digit level for the period 1990-2000. The data set has been drawn from International Trade Statistics compiled by the Australian National University (AND). The data set comprises 16 product categories made up of 978 product lines. Findings show that Pakistan's top-ranking exports belong to textiles and clothing sector, consistent with the natural and human factor endowments however Pakistan has failed to move from low value added to technically intensive high value added manufacturing. Pakistan's economic well-being depends on the extent to which the non-agricultural sector remains competitive and contributes to economic growth, exports, investment and employment.
Batra and Khan (2005) examined the structure of comparative advantage enjoyed by India and China in the global market keeping in view their similar resource endowment and size. The study estimates Balassa index of RCA for India and China at sector and product level of the Harmonized Classification System (HS-1996) both at 2 and 6-digit level for the year 2000 and 2003 using data on exports from UN Comtrade.3 The year 2000 is taken as reference, as this is the year immediately preceding China's accession to WTO. The main objective of the study is to figure out the leading manufacturing industries in India and China in terms of their revealed comparative advantage. The study reveals that the maximum number of commodities with comparative advantage in the world market is concentrated in sectors like organic chemicals. There are also some sectors where India is comparatively disadvantageous positioned at the aggregate level but reveal significant comparative advantage at the constituent commodity level (HS-six digit).
In addition, China enjoys comparative advantage in the world market in 47 sectors and 1828 commodities out of 97 sectors and 4923 exported commodities, respectively by China to the world. The sectors of comparative advantage in China belong to the electrical and electronic equipment, manufacture of leather, toys, organic chemicals, articles of apparel and cotton. The number of sectors for which India and China enjoy comparative advantage remains roughly the same between 2000 and 2003. An important finding of the study is that some sectors are at disadvantageous at the aggregate level but may enjoy comparative advantage at the constituent commodity level.
Hanif and Sabina (2006) constructed Balassa's Revealed Comparative Advantage (RCA) index for the textile sector of Pakistan to analyze the relationship between the financial development and international trade competitiveness. Pakistan's focus of trade policy shifted from import substitution to export promotion in the seventies and turned its resources to the products showing comparative advantage. The results show that greater access to external finance has a strong positive impact on the country's textile sector competitiveness over the time period 1974 to 2004. The study concluded that if the economies of scale, technology and endowments are identical between countries, still a country with relatively developed financial institutions will have comparative advantage in the production of processed goods requiring more external finance.
Welch and Conrad (2007) evaluated the US competitive position in the cotton yam segment using RCA index based on Balassa (1965) among the set of countries including China, India, Pakistan, and Turkey. The results disclose that United States fails to make the competitive grade in several categories and if it happens to make it, that is by narrowing margins. While the Revealed Comparative Advantage index indicates that the United States is lagging behind China, India, Turkey, and Pakistan in terms of market share in exports of yam, fabric, etc.
Akhtar et al. (2008) analyzed the competitiveness of footwear industry of Pakistan in the global perspective using revealed comparative advantage at 2-digit and 4-digit level of HS classification for the period of 1996 to 2006. RCA indices have been calculated for Pakistan and other Asian countries i.e. China and India, since both countries are similar in size and factor endowments and greatest competitor of Pakistan. Calculations show that Pakistan's footwear industry has shifted from a situation of comparative disadvantage to competitive advantage especially since after 2003 due to increase in volume as well as in the value of footwear exports and thus there is an upward movement in comparative advantage.
At disaggregate level, Pakistan has been enjoying comparative advantage since after 2005. This study also highlights the problems faced by footwear industry and explains the role of entrepreneurs in this regard. The rising trend of RCA reveals that there is a potential for higher growth of this industry which requires strengthening of competitiveness of the footwear industry.
According to Jayawickrama and Shandre (2010), given the abundant resources, China and India have comparative advantage in a broad range of manufactured goods as compared to Singapore. From the disaggregated analysis at 2-digit level, the paper finds that the Singapore and China exports are complements, although the degree of complementarity has being declining over time. Meanwhile, Singapore and India exports are found to be stronger complements and stable over time. The results also show that China and India exports are strong substitutes. This makes the comparative advantage position of both countries more competitive. The study reported that the exports diversifications have broadened the exports net by China and India, as well.
Wei and Zhao (2012) found that the comparative advantage of Chinese manufactured products in both world and US markets are gradually increasing. This is pertinent to mention that most of the products with comparative advantage are low-technology products. While, the comparative advantage of Chinese medium-technology products in the world market has largely improved, but their RCA indexes are low and their kinds of products with very high comparative advantage are small. Finally, they concluded that the Chinese manufactured exports are of greater comparative advantage in the world market than in the US market.
Focusing on the clothing export sector, Kathuria (2013) demonstrated that the comparative advantage of India has increased from 23 products to 25 products between 1995 and 2003 and for Bangladesh,
this number increased from 21 products to 29 products between 1995 and 2003. Moreover, the comparative position on the basis of a measure of structural change in exports of India and Bangladesh also pointed out towards a better standings of these countries.
This completes the review of relevant literature. Now we turn to the trends of carpet and weaving sector in selected countries.
3. Trend and Pattern of Carpet and Floor Coverings Industry: Pakistan, India and China's Perspective
A brief picture of the trends in exports of carpet and floor covering industry is provided in this section. Overall, exports of the carpet industry in Pakistan mounted and reached up to Rs. 109 million earnings in 1971-72. By 1975-76, the income from carpet export gone up to Rs. 719 million and it further increased to Rs. 1,180 million in 1977-78 and then to Rs. 2,198 million in 1979-80. In 1980-81 carpet exports touched the highest ever figure of Rs. 2,243 million. There was a slight decline after that because of recession in the world market. With the export income coming down to Rs. 1,676 million and Rs. 1,913 million in 1981-82 and 1982-83, respectively. In 1985-86 the income rose to Rs. 2,693 million. The income from carpet exports further increased to Rs. 3,419 million in 1986-87. Table 1 depicts the trend of export value for three countries over the years 1996 to 2009 at 2-digit level of HS classification.
China and India exhibit an increasing trend in exports while the figures for Pakistan showed first declining trend up to year 2002 and then a sharp rise that followed by a gradual rise in the export value. Pakistan's export values remained high than China and India from 2004 to 2007. The reason for lower export values afterward are less competitiveness, high interest rates and cost of inputs, non-conducive government policies and non-guaranteed energy supplies that hinders the competitiveness of Pakistani exports over other countries. Moreover, the bans on child labor, in the backdrop of ILO recommendations also hampered the growth of this sector in Pakistan, as an overwhelming proportion of labor force working in this sector is child labor. Furthermore, the enactment of Employment of Children Act of 1991 that banned the child labor put the sector's status in more vulnerable condition than ever before. China presented the highest export value among three countries with few exceptional years.
4. Methodology and Data
Measuring comparative advantages may create certain difficulties since relative prices under autarky are not directly observable. Thus comparative advantage is calculated by calculating Revealed Comparative Advantage (RCA) for specific sector. There are different indices applied for this purpose, most common of which is Balassa Index (1965) of RCA. The concept of revealed comparative advantage (Balassa, 1965) pertains to the relative trade performance of individual countries in particular commodities. The advantage of using comparative advantage index is that it considers the intrinsic advantage of a particular export commodity and is consistent with changes in an economy's relative factor endowment and productivity. Demerit of using comparative advantage index is that it is a partial equilibrium framework and provides general direction of movement and do not predict the potential future comparative advantage in particular sector of the country.4
This study used Balassa Index to calculate the RCA for Pakistan in rapidly growing Carpets and other textile floor coverings industry and is based on export data as per the (HS 2007) classification and is given the code 57. RCA is calculated at 2-digit and 4-digit level at aggregated and disaggregated classification.5 Data has been sourced from UNCOMTRADE and World Development Indicators (WDI) covering a period of 14 years i.e. froml996 to 2009. RCA at 4 digit disaggregated level has been estimated for the years 2004-2009. （完整内容请到百度文库）The study calculates RCA indices
外文翻译 原文 World Trade and International Trade Material Source:https://www.doczj.com/doc/c09867764.html, Author: Ted Alax In today’s complex economic world, neither individuals nor nations are self-sufficient. Nations have utilized different economic resources; people have developed different skills. This is the foundation of world trade and economic activity. As a result of this trade and activity, international finance and banking have evolved. For example, the United States is a major consumer of coffee, yet it does not have the climate to grow any or its own. Consequently, the United States must import coffee from countries (such as Brazil, Colombia and Guatemala) that grow coffee efficiently. On the other hand, the United States has large industrial plants capable of producing a variety of goods, such as chemicals and airplanes, which can be sold to nations that need them. If nations traded item for item, such as one automobile for 10,000 bags of coffee, foreign trade would be extremely cumbersome and restrictive. So instead of batter, which is trade of goods without an exchange of money, the United State receives money in payment for what it sells. It pays for Brazilian coffee with dollars, which Brazil can then use to buy wool from Australia, which in turn can buy textiles Great Britain, which can then buy tobacco from the United State. Foreign trade, the exchange of goods between nations, takes place for many reasons. The first, as mentioned above is that no nation has all of the commodities that it needs. Raw materials are scattered around the world. Large deposits of copper are mined in Peru and Zaire, diamonds are mined in South Africa and petroleum is recovered in the Middle East. Countries that do not have these resources within their own boundaries must buy from countries that export them. Foreign trade also occurs because a country often does not have enough of a particular item to meet its needs. Although the United States is a major producer of sugar, it consumes more than it can produce internally and thus must import sugar.
旅游服务贸易外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)
旅游服务贸易的国际竞争力：罗马尼亚的案例 引言 旅游业是唯一的可以为任何发展水平的国家提供贸易机会的服务活动。然而，它也是一个很大程度因为国家的能力和在全球经济中的表现而又有明确的利益分配不均行业，而这又需要提高自己的竞争力。 自20世纪90年代初，罗马尼亚旅游业经历了出口量，生长速率和结构的重大变化。这些不同的波动都影响了罗马尼亚在国际旅游市场上相对的竞争地位并引起了其旅游贸易平衡的变化。同时，新的和更多的错杂的欧式建筑，引起了罗马尼亚的区域旅游竞争力的显著变化。 在此背景下，本文试图提出一个框架，以竞争力和旅游贸易表现之间的关系为重点，来评估罗马尼亚的旅游服务贸易的国际竞争力。 一、国际竞争力视角：国际竞争力之与国际旅游业的相关性 国际竞争力的概念，尽管有争议，难以捉摸，但现在已经得到认可，并继续吸引世界各地的学者和决策者的关注。 到目前为止，为提高国际竞争力已采取措施，都被认为是在经济层面进行的(加瑞利，2003)通常是指一个国家生产的商品和服务，以满足国际市场的考验，并同时保持和增加公民的收入的能力(欧洲委员会，2007)。 由于竞争力最终取决于一国企业在国内和国际的市场成功，所以对竞争力的注意力都集中在企业层面的竞争力上(波特，1990)，对于此的普遍理解是指“……该公司保持，并更好的是，扩大其全球市场份额，增加和扩大利润的能力” (克拉克和盖，1998, 经济合作与发展组织，1993)。 因此，虽然广泛流传但是国际竞争力作为与国家经济和其国际贸易相关
的理论基础已经不太在学术文献进行分析。因此，一个国家国际竞争力的性质，效益和局限性仍然含糊不清(科尔德威尔，2000,克鲁格曼，1994, 1996)。 国际竞争力，是指一个国家在货物和服务贸易方面巩固和保持贸易优势相对于世界其他地区的贸易优势。 每当一个国家的经济福利通过贸易流量的增加，或通过从初始平衡状态的贸易条件的改变而增加，他的国际竞争力都会得到提高(科尔德威尔，2000)。 贸易理论表示，经济福利依赖于一个国家有比较优势的货物和服务的生产。这实际上意味着当生产符合一国的比较优势的情况时国际竞争力能得到保障。如果一国能在国际上表现良好并在出口市场竞争成功，这可能就是他们健全的国际竞争力的标志。 因此，在国际上，竞争力定义为一个经济体能够吸引其出口需求和投资供给需求的能力和在所有社会规范内提升公民生活水平的能力。这反过来又取决于宏观和微观经济政策，影响生产的经济生产率要素和经营成本的法规和制度。 一个可用的文献回顾和实证证据支持国际竞争力可以解释为在一定程度上，一个国家的出口能力这一观点(道乐和沃尔夫，1993, 格博格等. 2004)。还有就是，事实上，是出口表现和国际竞争力之间的循环关系。出口是国际竞争力的第一衡量指标。出口情况的改善会导致了一个国家的竞争力提升。这种效果是一个企业的技能，知识，创新和运用新技术并能够在一个成功的商业方式中利用技术机会等的结果。 另一方面，为了在竞争激烈的全球市场努力成功实现出口，一个国家被迫提高竞争力。更具竞争力的国家，它的经济更强大。因此，它更有能力在全球市场竞争，以吸引具有较高的知识，技能，水平人们去购买新技术等，
外文翻译 原文 Firms in International Trade Material Source: https://www.doczj.com/doc/c09867764.html, Author: Andrew B. Bernard For most of its lengthy history the field of international trade largely ignored the role of the firm in mediating the flow of goods and services. Traditional trade theory explained the flow of goods between countries in terms of comparative advantage, that is, variation in the opportunity costs of production across countries and industries. Even the research focusing on differentiated varieties and increasing returns to scale that followed Helpman and Krugman continued to retain the characterization of the representative firm.?However, the assumption of a representative firm, while greatly enhancing the tractability of general equilibrium analysis, is emphatically rejected in the data. My research over the past decade has been an attempt to explore international trade from below: to understand the decisions of heterogeneous firms in shaping international trade and their effects on productivity growth and welfare. Firm Heterogeneity and Trade My early work with J. Bradford Jensen was motivated by a simple question: what do we know about firms that trade? The answer at the time was "very little" and our initial efforts focused on locating firm-level data and describing the world of exporting firms. Our first study compared exporters and non-exporters for the entire U.S. manufacturing sector and established a set of facts about exporting plants and firms.?Two major results stand out. First, only a small fraction of firms are exporters at any given time. Even in sectors where the United States is thought to have comparative advantage, such as Instruments, a majority of firms produce only for the domestic market. Similarly, some firms are exporting even in net import sectors such as Textiles and Apparel. Second, exporters are substantially and significantly different than non-exporters, even in the same industry and region. Exporters are dramatically larger, more productive, pay higher wages, use more skilled workers, and are more technology- and capital-intensive than their non-exporting counterparts. In related
Positioning in Practice Strategic Role of Marketing For large firms that have two or more strategic business units (SBUs), there are generally three levels of strategy: corporate-level strategy, strategic-business-unit-level (or business-level) strategy, and marketing strategy. A corporate strategy provides direction on the company's mission, the kinds of businesses it should be in, and its growth policies. A business-level strategy addresses the way a strategic business unit will compete within its industry. Finally, a marketing strategy provides a plan for pursuing the company's objectives within a specific market segment. Note that the higher level of strategy provides both the objectives and guidelines for the lower level of strategy. At corporate level, management must coordinate the activities of multiple strategic business units. Thus the decisions about the organization's scope and appropriate resource deployments/allocation across its various divisions or businesses are the primary focus of corporate strategy.Attempts to develop and maintain distinctive competencies tend to focus on generating superior financial, capital, and human resources; designing effective organizational structures and processes; and seeking synergy among the firm's various businesses. At business-level strategy, managers focus on how the SBU will compete within its industry. A major issue addressed in business strategy is how to achieve and sustain a competitive advantage. Synergy for the unit is sought across product-markets and across functional department within the unit. The primary purpose of a marketing strategy is to effectively allocate and coordinate marketing resources and activities to accomplish the firm's objectives within a specific product-market. The decisions about the scope of a marketing strategy involve specifying the target market segment(s) to pursue and the breadth of the product line to offered. At this level of strategy, firms seek competitive advantage and synergy through a well-integrated program of marketing mix elements tailored to the needs and wants of customers in the target segment(s). Strategic Role of Positioning Based on the above discussion, it is clear that marketing strategy consists of two parts: target market strategy and marketing mix strategy. Target market strategy consists of three processes: market segmentation, targeting (or target market selection), and positioning. Marketing mix strategy refers to the process of creating a unique
文献出处：Barattieri A. The mechanism of service trade liberalization[J]. Journal of International Economics, 2014, 92(1): 1-13. （声明：本译文归百度文库所有，完整译文请到百度文库。） 原文 The mechanism of service trade liberalization Barattieri A Abstract In this paper, Service trade liberalization is the key areas of the United States to promote the TPP negotiations, the United States in the negotiations are pushing mechanism of a high standard of service trade liberalization. In this paper the progress of the TPP negotiations and services trade issues important position, on the basis of the acceptance, architecture design, focus on services, regulatory consistency four aspects in the TPP uncovers the "high standards" service trade liberalization mechanism establishment. American "high standards" service trade liberalization mechanism is tailored to the interests of the United States, actually services in the service of the United States. These mechanisms are through to strengthen and promote the TPP platform, forming reversed transmission to other countries. Key words: the TPP; The United States; Service trade liberalization; High standards; Mechanism design America is the first largest exporter global trade in services, and for many years, continues to service trade surplus. Competitive advantage based on service industry and service industry The importance of promoting American exports, jobs and economic growth, the United States in the multilateral, bilateral and regional multiple layers jointly promoting service trade liberalization. In the Uruguay round negotiations, the United States has overcome many obstacles, for the first time to include the Service Trade in multilateral negotiations, contributed to the general Agreement on Trade in services (the Genre - al Agreement on Trade and Service,
附录 F.1英文参考资料及中文翻译 F. 1 .1international trade documents role General international trade documents (international trade documents) is the international trade of use all the documents, documents and certificates collectively. Usually with international trade documents to deal with in and out of delivery of the goods El, transportation, insurance, inspection and quarantine, customs declaration, the settlement of exchange, etc. Special international trade documents usually refers to the settlement documents, especially the l/c under the way of settlement of documents. International trade documents and the use of import and export trade program closely related, the documents in the import and export enterprise work throughout the export, purchase, transportation, the whole process of the proceeds, the effort is big, timeliness strong, is broad, in addition to import and export enterprise internal between various departments the cooperation with the outside, still must and bank, customs, transportation department, insurance companies, the inspection and quarantine agencies and the relevant administrative authorities happen various contact, linked together, mutual influence, also are conditions. International trade documents for the performance of a contract is necessary means International trade is the transnational goods business, due to the particularity of the multinational business, which is the purchase and sale of the different departments are located in different countries, are remote, in most cases, the goods and payment can't perform simple direct exchange, but only as the medium of exchange with documents means. The international trade of the documents that sales of goods through the documents realization sale, the seller should not only will the actual delivery of goods export shipment, and should submit to the buyer include the title to the goods vouchers, complete documents to show real assignment. The seller/p means that the delivery of the goods, and the buyer payment is get to buy goods on behalf of property rights certificate, the deal is no longer with the goods as the core, but with documents as the core. Documents and payment of the convection principle has become the international trade of general principles of the commodity business. As international trade experts "; m Cardiff in the export trade in his book mentioned: "from a business perspective, can say CIF the purpose of the contract is not the buying and selling of goods itself, but the documents relating to the goods business." What say here "documents" is the international trade of documents. International trade documents many kinds, every kind of documents has its
中国服务贸易的国际竞争力探析 ——文献综述 随着世界经济进入服务经济时代，以产品为基础的竞争向以服务为基础的竞争转变，服务业在维护一国经济和政治利益方面处于重要的战略地位。据WTO发布的数据显示，全球服务贸易总体发展的趋势在不断加强，1980年到2007年间，世界服务贸易出口额从3650亿美元扩大到33000亿美元，27年间增长了8倍，占世界贸易出口的比重从1/7增长到近1/3。在2010年，世界服务贸易达到了36595亿美元，占当年世界贸易总额的1/3。由此可见，服务贸易势必成为全球经济发展的重要组成部分。 服务贸易在全球贸易比重不断增加，世界各国都从国际服务贸易中受益颇丰，此时，对我国服务贸易的竞争力进行研究，分析我国服务贸易发展不足的原因，发掘我国服务贸易的潜在优势以及探究提升我国服务贸易竞争力的策略便具有非常重要的意义。 1.服务贸易及其国际竞争力的定义 《服务贸易总协定》(General Agreements on Trade in Service，GATS，1994年4月15日)，其中对服务贸易做出了明确的定义:第一，跨境提供(cross-border supply)，即从缔约方境内向任何其他缔约方境内提供服务，这种服务无需人员、物资和资金流动，而是通过现代通讯、邮电、计算机网络实现的视听、金融、信息等服务;第二，境外消费(consumption abroad)，即缔约方境内任何向其他缔约方消费者提供服务，如接待外国游客、提供旅游服务，为国外病人提供医疗服务，接受外国留学生等;第三，商业存在(commercial
Presence)，即一缔约方在其他任何缔约方境内通过提供服务的商业存在而提供服务，如外国公司在中国开办银行、商店，设立会计、律师事务所等;第四，自然人流动(movement of natural persons)，即一缔约方的自然人在其他任何缔约方境内提供服务，如一国的医生、教授、艺术家到另一国从事个体服务。 服务贸易国际竞争力是指一个国家或地区在经济全球化趋势下，以提高国民收入和生活水平为目的，服务业参与国际市场竞争，创造增加值并保持良好的国际收支平衡的能力。在此，不仅强调出口能力，更重要的是保持国际收支的平衡。 2.国外学者相关研究 2.1对于国际服务贸易竞争力理论方面的研究 迈克尔·波特（Michael E·Porter),1990年提出了国家竞争优势理论，将竞争力与产业结合起来进行研究。在《国家竞争优势》一书中，他提出了著名的“产业国际竞争力国家钻石模型”，用一个形似钻石的菱形图表示出国家竞争力的四大要素（生产要素；需求条件；相关与支持性产业企业战略、结构、同业竞争)和两个辅助因素(机会和政府)。后来,有人将这一理论引入国际服务贸易领域,发现该理论不仅能较为全面和系统地对服务贸易格局进行解释与总结,而且对一国服务贸易的未来发展有一定的前瞻性和预见性,因此能更好地适应国际服务贸易的发展要求。 对于国际贸易比较优势方面，联合国贸发会国际贸易高级专家Murry Gibbs和Michiko Hayashi作了一个较为全面的总结，认为自然资源要素禀赋固然是决定一国服务贸易比较优势的一个方面，但一国服务贸易的比较优势还要取决于该国的经济发展水平和发展类型，以
跨境电商外文文献综述 (文档含英文原文和中文翻译) 译文: 本地化跨境电子商务的模型 摘要 通过对国际供应链的B2B电子商务交易量的快速增长和伊朗快速增加的跨境交易业务，跨境电商过程的有效管理对B2B电子商务系统十分重要。本文对局部模型的结构是基于B2B电子商务的基础设施三大层，消息层、业务流程层和内容层。由于伊朗的电子商务的要求，每一层的需要适当的标准和合适的方案的选择。当电子文件需要移动顺利向伊朗，建议文件的标准为文件内容支持纸质和电子文件阅读。验证提出的模型是通过案例研究方法呈现一到四阶段的情景。本文试图通过交换商业文件在贸易过程中这一局部模型，实现在全球电子贸易供应链更接近区域单一窗口建设的关键目标。 关键词：电子商务;跨境贸易;电子文档管理;国际供应链
1.简介 电子商务是关于在互联网或其他网络电子系统购买和销售产品或服务。术语B2B（企业对企业），描述了企业间的电子商务交易，如制造商和批发商，或批发商和零售商之间。本文的研究目标是上两个不同国家贸易商之间的通信。今天的世界贸易组织的主要目标之一是建立区域单一窗口，可以提高世界各地的贸易便利化。建立区域单一窗口需要跨境海关，可以有效地交换贸易文件。因此，首先，简化跨境贸易文件的关键在于朝着国家单一窗口移动。然后，区域单一窗口可以授权国家之间的通信。电子商务模型是基于三个主要逻辑层的研究。这三个层消息传输层，业务处理层和内容层。本文的局部模型是一种能够自动交换读取文件的过程。通过与东亚和中东国家的建立区域单一窗口可以在将来得到改善的更多的互操作性，从而建立伊朗国家单一窗口 在本文的第二部分讨论引进国际供应链中的跨境B2B模式所需的基本概念和标准。第三部分介绍在大的模型中引入的组件功能和范围。第四部分讨论了B2B交易层模型的定位，最后结束本文。 2.背景 在本节中，除了了解B2B电子商务在伊朗的情况，还有参考模型的背景等概念以及讨论B2B电子商务跨境模式的本土化。 2.1 B2B电子商务在伊朗 如今伊朗在贸易进程的变现是一个关键的贸易成功点。伊朗和许多其他国家接壤，它的进口和出口过程可以通过公路，铁路，海上和空中的方式来完成。因此，这个国家的中部和战略作用，使得它在亚洲和中东地区货物运输的主要贸易点。今天，在伊朗海关几乎所有的贸易过程通过纸质表格完成，由商务部提供的电子服务仅限于谁该国境内交易的商人。今天，伊朗海关几乎所有的贸易流程都是通过纸质表格来完成的，商务部给出的电子服务只限于该国的商人。介绍了模型试图简化在伊朗交易的跨境电子商务供应链交换电子文件的过程。这里提到的一些系统，由商务部在伊朗的电子服务被提及：进口订单管理系统。贸易统计制度。伊朗法典伊朗。这些电子系统的主要使用，以促进在伊朗贸易过程。这里提到的系统作为独立的贸易者可与建议本文模型在未来的作用。在亚洲的区域性单
毕业论文文献综述 国际经济与贸易 中英金融服务贸易国际竞争力比较研究 金融服务贸易国际竞争力相关理论综述 服务贸易是以服务作为交易标的的一种贸易行为。《服务贸易总协定》(GATS)所界定的国际服务贸易是指以过境交付、境外消费、商业存在和自然人流动这四种形式进行的各国间的服务交易。该定义已成为有一定权威性和指导性的定义为各国接受。 根据《服务贸易总协定》中的服务部门清单，可以将服务贸易分为12类：商业性服务，销售服务，金融服务，娱乐服务，通讯服务，教育服务，卫生服务，运输服务，建筑服务，环境服务，旅游服务和其他服务。而对于金融服务贸易，国内外并没有确切的定义。本文将对金融服务贸易国外及国内有代表性的研究进行综述。 一、GATS与OECD对金融服务贸易的定义 根据GATS的定义，金融服务贸易是指由一成员国的金融服务提供者所提供的任何金融性质的服务。它包括两个部分：所有保险和保险相关的服务、银行和其他金融服务（保险除外），其中其他金融服务指证券和金融信息服务。 经济合作和发展组织（OECD）对金融服务贸易的定义为由金融机构提供服务的收入，或者接受付出的支持，包括得到的和付出的直接投资收益（未分配收益和利息）；从其他金融投资得到的和付出的收益（得到的和付出的利息和红利）；得到的、付出的手续费和佣金。 可见，经济合作和发展组织对金融服务贸易的界定强调了金融服务贸易交易的提供方，而忽略了金融服务贸易的消费方。金融服务贸易的发展主要是以此换取其他贸易领域的发展，而且金融服务贸易可以促进本国金融业与国际金融业的接轨，从而在国际竞争中促进本国金融业的发展。 二、国外对金融服务贸易相关研究 对于金融服务贸易研究，国外学者从不同角度出发，有不同的看法。 列为恩（1996）认为，各种金融服务可以实现五种基本功能：方便商品和劳务的交易；易于风险管理；加速资源流动；获取信息，评估企业和配置资本；提供公司法人治理。同时，更多的相关文献表示，金融中介可以降低由于信息不对称产生的管理成本（戴蒙德1984；威廉森1987）也可以对规模经济产生积极的效应。 莫施里安（Moshirian 1994）认为，金融服务贸易和制造业类似，一些基本要素赋予了
“我国际服务贸易存在的问题及对策”的文献综述 一、文献资料目录 【1】邓士燕浅谈当前中国服务贸易的现状与问题（期刊论文）-广东财经职业学院院报2007（06） 【2】孔祥荣加快发展我国服务贸易对策及研究2008（04） 【3】胡景岩中国发展服务贸易的战略思考（期刊论文）-国际贸易 【4】余道先中国服务贸易结构域贸易竞争的实证分析2008（10） 【5】肖雨洁我国服务贸易发展的现状与思路研究（期刊论文）-商场现代化2009（06）【6】陈娟服务贸易在我国的发展及存在的问题（期刊论文）-科学时代（上半月）2010（5） 【7】胡琴.HU Kin我国服务贸易发展的现状分析与对策研究（期刊论文）-武汉理工大学学报（信息与管理工程版）2010，32（5） 【8】徐婧.Xu Jing 我国服务贸易发展存在的问题与对策研究（期刊论文）-价值工程2008,27（1） 【9】辛娜我国服务贸易发展中存在的问题及对策研究（期刊论文）-教育教学论坛2010（9） 【10】王美伦浅谈我国服务贸易发展现状与对策（期刊论文）-才智2011（3） 【11】陈文玲.CHENG Wen-ling 推动服务贸易发展的政策选择（期刊论文）-商业研究2009（4） 【12】贾光宇我国服务贸易的现状及竞争力分析（期刊论文）-中国商贸2010（16）【13】孟建国我国服务贸易的现状及发展策略探讨（期刊论文）-商业时代2010（22）【14】杨慧华我国服务贸易发展存在的问题及对策（人文社会科学学刊）-南北桥2010（9）【15】季彬张欣我国服务贸易存在的问题及对策研究（期刊论文）-吉林农业科技学院2010（09） 二，文献综述 由于世界经济全球化和一体化带动了全球服务贸易的迅猛发展和改革开放以来特别是我国加入世贸组织后，服务业在整个国民产业中不断发挥着举足轻重的作用，党和政府高度重视以及服务贸易行业的不懈努力使得我国的服务贸易一直保持着高速增长的趋势。虽然我国的服务贸易现已取得了一些成绩，但是对其产业结构、分配发展方面、管理方面、法律法规方面等还存在着欠缺和不足。 毕业论文确定《我国国际服务贸易存在的问题及对策》这一选题，是希望通过整理和归纳各家所言，对我国国际服务贸易存在的问题进行全面性总结，并针对其存在的问题提出对策。 通过对相关文献资料的学习和分析，我发现绝大多数的学者所持的观点有： ﹙一﹚我国国际服务贸易存在的问题 ⑴我国服务贸易总体结构不合理：我国服务贸易出口仍然主要集中在传统的劳动密集
外文翻译 原文 Foreign T rade o f China Material Source:W anfang Database Author:Hitomi Iizaka 1.Introduction On December11,2001,China officially joined the World T rade Organization(WTO)and be c a me its143rd member.China’s presence in the worl d economy will continue to grow and deepen.The foreign trade sector plays an important andmultifaceted role in China’s economic development.At the same time, China’s expanded role in the world economy is beneficial t o all its trading partners. Regions that trade with China benefit from cheaper and mor e varieties of imported consumer goods,raw materials and intermediate products.China is also a large and growing export market.While the entry of any major trading nation in the global trading system can create a process of adjustment,the o u t c o me is fundamentally a win-win situation.In this p aper we would like t o provide a survey of the various institutions,laws and characteristics of China’s trade.Among some of the findings, we can highlight thefollowing: ?In2001,total trade to gross domestic pr oduct(GDP)ratio in China is44% ?In2001,47%of Chinese trade is processed trade1 ?In2001,51%of Chinese trade is conduct ed by foreign firms in China2 ?In2001,36%of Chinese exports originate from Gu an gdon g province ?In2001,39%of China’s exports go through Hong Kong to be re-exported elsewhere 2.Evolution of China’s Trade Regime Equally remarkable are the changes in the commodity composition of China’s exports and imports.Table2a shows China’s annu al export volumes of primary goods and manufactured goods over time.In1980,primary goods accounted for 50.3%of China’s exports and manufactured goods accounted for49.7%.Although the share of primary good declines slightly during the first half of1980’s,it remains at50.6%in1985.Since then,exports of manufactured goods have grown at a much